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Translation, cultural diplomacy and China’s “going out” strategy: official storytelling through the translation of contemporary Chinese literature in Pathlight Ran Xu Thesis submitted to the University of Ottawa in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor in Philosophy degree in Translation Studies School of Translation and Interpretation Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Ran Xu, Ottawa, Canada, 2021 ii Abstract This thesis focusses on contemporary China. It examines the role the dominant ideology plays in determining the kinds of texts and narratives that are translated for export as part of government- sponsored translation projects. The literary magazine Pathlight, launched as an instrument of Chinese cultural diplomacy, is at the centre of this research project. At the turn of the 21st century, the Chinese government stepped up its funding of cultural diplomacy activities in efforts to disseminate Chinese traditional culture and Chinese discourse internationally. This move was fuelled by mounting criticism and negative reporting from the Western mainstream media on China, and China’s declining image worldwide. As part of this, the Chinese government initiated a number of projects to enhance the country’s image and discursive power through cross-cultural exchanges and cultural diplomacy, and thus forge its own narrative on China in the international community (K. Zhao, 2016). Drawing upon notions of patronage and ideology from Lefevere’s rewriting theory and anchoring on previous research on similar translation projects, this study applies qualitative content analysis methods to pinpoint the recurring themes and narratives in the English translations exported in Pathlight from 2011 to 2019. It searches for links between these recurring themes and narratives and current Chinese mainstream ideology as expressed by “the Chinese dream.” The findings of this dissertation reveal that, although the dominant ideology in China does put certain limitations on what kinds of stories and narratives are selected for translation and export in government-sponsored translation projects, compared to years prior to the economic reforms of the 1980s, the variety of stories and narratives translated and exported has greatly increased. Arguably, this could be explained by the changes in the country’s iii dominant ideology over the past 30 years, and by how the Chinese government is turning to “softer” methods of control. Résumé Cette thèse vise la Chine contemporaine. Elle examine le rôle de l’idéologie dominante dans la détermination des types de textes et discours traduits dans le cadre des projets de traductions parrainés par le gouvernement afin d’être exportés. Le journal littéraire Pathlight, qui a été lancé comme un instrument de diplomatie culturelle chinoise, est au cœur du projet de recherche. Au début du 21e siècle, le gouvernement chinois a augmenté son financement des activités de diplomatie culturelle dans le but de diffuser la culture traditionnelle chinoise et le discours chinois à l’étranger. Cette initiative fut provoquée par des critiques croissantes et des reportages négatifs sur la Chine dans les médias populaires occidentaux ainsi que l’image réduite de la Chine sur la scène internationale. Le gouvernement chinois a lancé plusieurs projets afin d’améliorer son image et puissance discursive à travers des échanges interculturels et la diplomatie culturelle et ensuite créer son propre discours sur la Chine au sein de la communauté internationale (K. Zhao, 2016). Cette étude fait usage des concepts de patronage et d’idéologie tirés de la théorie de ré-écriture de Lefevere et est soutenue par des recherches précédentes qui visaient des projets de traduction semblables. Elle met en œuvre des méthodes d’analyse de contenu qualitatives afin d’identifier les thèmes et discours récurrents dans les traductions en anglais exportées dans le journal Pathlight entre 2011 et 2019 et cherche aussi des liens entre ces thèmes et discours récurrents et l’idéologie populaire chinoise actuelle exprimée par le concept du « rêve chinois ». Les conclusions de cette thèse démontrent que, même que l’idéologie dominante en Chine limite à un iv certain point les types d’histoires et de discours qui sont choisis pour être traduits et exportés par le biais des projets de traduction parrainés par le gouvernement, comparée aux années avant les réformes économiques des 1980, les histoires et discours traduits ont beaucoup plus de variété. Sans doute, cette tendance peut être expliquée par les changements dans l’idéologie dominante du pays pendant les dernières trente années, et la manière dont le gouvernement chinois se penche plus vers des méthodes de contrôle plus « doux ». v Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the following people without whom this thesis would have not been possible. First and foremost I am deeply indebted to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Luise von Flotow, who made my PhD journey an incredibly stimulating and enriching experience. Thank you for your unparalleled guidance, unwavering support and encouragement, invaluable comments and feedback, thank you for always making the time to be there when I needed advice. I have learnt so much from you as a student and as a friend. I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my thesis examiners, Dr. Marc Charron, Dr. Ryan Fraser, Dr. André Laliberté, and Dr. Carlos Rojas, for taking the time to examine my thesis, for your illuminating comments and constructive feedback. I also wish to thank my editors, Renée Masson and Kayla Kavanagh, for their hard work and valuable comments. I have learned a lot about the use of the English language from both of you. A special thanks also goes to Dr. Miao Ju, who gave me confidence and courage to pursue this area of research in the first place, who believed in my abilities and who has become a great family friend over the years. I am extremely grateful to my family and friends for your unconditional love and continuous support. I thank my parents for always pushing me to take on new challenges and to be a better version of myself. 爸爸、妈妈, 感谢你们在背后的支持和默默的付出! 我爱你们！ Thanks also goes to my very close friends (you know who you are) for cheering me on when writing got tough, and for reminding me to stop, take a deep breath and continue on. Finally, I cannot begin to express my thanks to my husband, Mark, who has been patient and understanding through the years of the making of this thesis, who provided tremendous moral support and took care of our kids while I stayed late in the office. Thank you for sharing the ups and downs with me; we made it, honey. Last, but not least, I thank my children, Tristan and Olivia, who brighten my day and who made my PhD journey much more meaningful. vi Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Résumé .......................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................. ix Tables .............................................................................................................................................. x 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 China is Reaching Out to the World: Chinese “Going-Out” Policy and Cultural Diplomacy . 6 1.1.1 What Is Cultural Diplomacy? ............................................................................................. 9 1.1.2 The Chinese Approach to Cultural Diplomacy ................................................................ 13 1.2 Translation and Cultural Diplomacy ....................................................................................... 21 1.2.1 Use of Translation in the Chinese Cultural Diplomacy ................................................... 22 2 Translation of Chinese Literature as a Tool of Cultural Diplomacy – Literature Review 29 2.1 Literature Written in Chinese by Chinese Scholarship ........................................................... 29 2.2 Literature Written in English by Western Scholarship ........................................................... 36 3 Theoretical Framework, Research Questions and Methodology ........................................ 40 3.1 Notions of Patronage and Ideology......................................................................................... 41 3.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 46 3.3 Research Methodology and Thesis Structure ......................................................................... 47 4 Historical Overview of Main Ideological Concepts in China Since 1949 and the Link Between Dominant Chinese Ideology and Government-Sponsored Translation Projects: Chinese Literature Magazine and the Panda Books Series ..................................................... 51 4.1 Socialist Ideology During Mao Zedong (1949–1976) ...........................................................
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