LIQUEFACTION

1 Carrying solid bulk cargoes involves serious risks, which must be managed carefully to safeguard the crew and the . These risks include reduced , and even , due to cargo liquefaction. Liquefaction is now seen as a major hazard for bulk carriers. The topic is receiving increasing attention from all industry stakeholders and from the media, because apart from the too high cost of lives, the loss of a ship and its cargoes is very expensive and raises the amount of the insurance policy.

The main legislation governing safe carriage of solid bulk cargoes is the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMS- BC) Code, which became mandatory on January 1, 2011

SNF has specially designed FLODRI IOS polymers to capture the water within the ore particles, preventing the rise of pore water pressure, which can lead to liquefaction.

The chemical or metallurgical properties of the ores are not changed, only the physical state is changed.

2 LIQUEFACTION is a phenomenon wherein a mass of soil loses a large percentage of its shear resistance, when subjected to transient or periodic loading, and flows in a manner resembling a liquid. Since the holds of bulk carriers are not designed to carry liquid, the following points merit scrutiny:

- The loading conditions: an accident on one vessel is often followed by a new accident, or near-accident, on other vessels that have loaded a similar cargo at terminals in the same area and under the same weather conditions.

- The difficulty to comprehend or to carry out the sampling procedures at loading ports when the ores nature changes (size distribution, clay gangue)

- The effectiveness of the test methods used to determine the Transport Moisture Limit of solid bulk cargoes as dictated by the IMSBC CODE

- The accidents happen very fast: the liquefaction of the cargo affects the stability of the vessel, resulting in the vessel capsizing very quickly, sometimes within a few minutes. There is no time for remedial measures or for safe evacuation of the ship. Such accidents are often associated with tragic losses of crew members.

GLOSSARY IMO: International Maritime Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is responsible for measures to improve the safety and security of international shipping and to prevent marine pollution from .

IMSBC Code: Code issued by the IMO to facilitate the safe stowage and shipment of solid bulk cargoes. Concerning safety, solid bulk cargoes are divided into three groups, A B and C.

- Group A: consists of cargoes which may liquefy if shipped at moisture content above their transportable moisture limit - Group B: consists of cargoes which possess a chemical hazard which could give rise to a dangerous situation on a ship. - Group C: consists of cargoes which are neither liable to liquefy (Group A) nor to possess chemical hazards (Group B)

FMP: Flow Moisture Point measure the water content, expressed as a percentage, at which a sample of cargo will begin to lose shear strength. To meet required moisture levels for loading and maritime insurance criteria, the ores must be tested through several analytical trials issued by the IMO, and presented in the 2012 IMSBC Code.

TML: Transport Moisture Limit, maximum moisture content of a cargo that is considered safe for transportation in ships. It is calculated as 90 per cent of the Flow Moisture Point (FMP).

DWT: Deadweight - Max mass a vessel can carry without risks (cargo + crew + fuel + ballast).

Bulk Carrier Subclass DWT (tonnes) General Bulker < 10 000 Handysize 10 000 – 40 000 Handymax / Supramax 40 000 – 60 000 > 100 000

3 danger of cargo liquefaction

© Courtesy of the Hong kong Government Flying Service

4 LIQUEFACTION ACCIDENTS

Date of Vessel name DWT ‘000 T Lives lost Lost of Vessel Cargo type Route Ship type accident

16/12/1988 Mega Taurus 30 20 Yes Nickel Ore Philippines - Japan

24/08/1991 Melete 72 25 Yes Iron Ore Australia - England

26/08/1998 Sea prospect 21 10 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - Japan Handysize

20/05/2005 Hui Long 15 0 Yes Fluorspar Indonesia - China Handysize

27/09/2007 Heng Tai 16 2 Yes Iron Ore India - Bangladesh Handysize

27/11/2007 Mezzenine 19 26 Yes Iron Ore Indonesia - China Handysize

17/07/2009 Asia Forest 14 0 Yes Iron Ore India - China Handysize

30/08/2009 Hodasco 15 6 0 Yes Iron Ore India - China General Bulker

09/09/2009 Black Rose 38 1 Yes Iron Ore India - China Handymax

27/10/2010 Jian Fu Star 45 13 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

10/11/2010 Nasco Diamond 57 22 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

03/12/2010 Hong Wei 50 10 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

21/11/2011 Bright Ruby 26 6 Yes Iron Ore Malaysia - China Handymax

25/12/2011 Vinalines Queen 56 22 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

22/01/2012 Sun Spirits 11 0 Yes Iron Ore Philippines - China Handysize

16/02/2013 Harita Bauxite 50 15 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

14/08/2013 Trans Summer 57 0 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

12/10/2013 Bingo 9 0 yes Iron Ore India - China General Bulker

04/04/2014 Grand Fortune 22 13 Yes Iron Ore North Korea - China Handysize

02/01/2015 Bulk Jupiter 47 18 Yes Bauxite Malaysia - China Handymax

13/10/2017 Emerald Star 57 11 Yes Nickel Ore Indonesia - China Handymax

The accidents listed resulted in the loss of 214 lives and 21 vessels. The list doesn’t include incidents where vessels have safely reached port.

5 List Of Accidents

LIQUEFACTION ACCIDENTS (1988 – 2017) BY CARGOES AND SHIPPING COUNTRIES

Bauxite 5% North Korea 5% Australia Fluorspar 5% 5% Malaysia 9%

Iron Ore 47% Philippines 9% Nickel Ore Indonesia 43% 48%

India 24%

Cargoes Shipping Countries

Nickel Ores and Iron Ores are the main ores involved in the liquefaction accidents. The main contributing factors are:

The cargoes in question are either unprocessed ores or concentrates, which have common characteristics: the fines and the clay contents. The moisture is difficult to control. Thereby, the traditional «can-test» can give misleading results, that is why IMO has issued the IMSBC Code.

Tropical climate of the regions where the respective bulk carriers load.

The locations of the ports where cargoes are loaded are often remote and underequipped to perform an efficient Sampling Method and TML measurement.

Southeast Asian countries were involved in most liquefaction accidents, and casualties, due to:

The exportation of Nickel ores, with high clay content.

The expanding Chinese markets mainly due to the increasing demand for these minerals from China, Japan and South Korea which have amplified Southeast Asian maritime traffic: iron ore fines, mainly exported from India, and nickel ore, mainly exported from Indonesia, the Philippines and New Caledonia.

6 LIQUEFACTION ACCIDENTS (1988 – 2017) BY SHIP CLASS AND LOSS TONNAGE

General Bulker 9% General Bulker 2%

Handysize 24%25%

Handysize Handymax 43% 48% Handymax 74% LIQUEFACTION ACCIDENTS (1988 – 2017) BY CARGOES AND SHIPPING COUNTRIES

Ship Class Loss Tonnage

The Handy subclass bulk carriers (Handysize and Handymax) are frequently used in this area. The total loss tonnage is over 700 000 tonnes.

CUMULATIVE LIQUEFACTION ACCIDENTS (1988 – 2017) 25

21

20 20 19 18 accidents

15 15 14

12 Cumulative 10 9

6 5

4 4 3 2

1 #2011: Mandatory Implementation ofCode IMSBC 0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

The suspected liquefaction incidents on bulk carriers continued to occur at a rate of nearly two per year even after the mandatory implementation of the IMSBC Code (red line). So mandatory TML didn’t stop ships from sinking.

The effectiveness of the test methods used to determine the TML of solid bulk cargoes have come under question just like the follow-up of the rules dictated by the IMSBC code (FMP measurement procedures). The FMP nume- rical value can vary widely even for cargoes with the same description. It is not possible to predict the FMP of a given cargo from its description, particle size distribution or chemical composition.

The FMP therefore needs to be determined by laboratory testing separately for each cargo provided by each ship- per. In cargoes loaded with a moisture content above the FMP, liquefaction may occur unpredictably at any time during the voyage.

7 LIQUEFACTION Principle

Interstitial air

Shaken

COMPACTION LIQUEFACTION

Cargoes that are at risk of liquefaction are those containing at least some fine particles and some moisture, although they are not visibly wet in appearance.

The most widely known cargoes are mineral concentrates (Nickel and Iron), but also coal, pyrites, mill scale, sinter/pellet feed, etc.

Even if they look dry in appearance at the time of loading, these cargoes contain moisture in between the particles. During loading, the cargoes are usually in their solid state.

During ocean transport, the heave and pitch as well as the other 4 motions of the ship agitate cargoes resulting in their compaction. This leads to the removal of interstitial air and a reduction of the spaces between particles. If compaction is such that there is more water inside the cargo than there are spaces between the particles, the water pressure inside the cargo can rise sharply and press the particles apart.

This suddenly reduces the friction between particles. The effect of this process is a transition from a solid state to a viscous fluid state in which all or part of the cargo can flatten out to the removed of interstitial air and form a fluid surface. In this condition, cargo may flow to one side of the ship with a roll one way but not completely return with a roll the other way, progressively leading to a dangerous accident like sudden capsizing of the vessel.

The lowest moisture content at which liquefaction can occur is called the Flow Moisture Point (commonly abbreviated FMP).

8 THE RISKS FOR THE VESSEL

STABLE STABLE UNSTABLE

B: Center of of , – G : Center of Gravity – M: Metacenter (Point of application of the resultant of the forces exerted on a floating solid body.) – MO: Overturning Moment – MR: Restoring Moment.

For a to list, the vessels overturning moment, MO, must exceed the vessels restoring moment, MR. This unstable condition is depicted in Figure. 1 – Right, where it is shown that the centre of buoyancy of the hull, B, stays inwards of the centre of gravity of the vessel, G. The resulting metacentre, M, under these conditions is below the centre of gravity, and causes the overturning moment, MO, which exceeds the restoring moment, MR. This causes the vessel to develop a permanent list and may possibly capsize if measures are not taken to right the vessel.

There are two occurrences resulting from the liquefaction of cargo that can cause a bulk carrier to list: - If the cargo mass as whole begins to behave as a liquid the resulting free surface effect will reduce the , and M will be below G. - If partial liquefaction takes place at a point within the cargo mass resulting in the cargo shifting to one side. In that case the centre of gravity will move and the vessel will have a permanent heel angle.

6 DEGREES OF LIBERTY

HEAVE

YAW

PITCH

ROLL

SWAY

SURGE

9 FLodri ios

As the ores physical/chemical characteristics can be different in the same shipping, and as the sampling me- thods are difficult to manage in many locations, you’d need to secure the cargoes.

FLODRI IOS absorbs moisture and keeps it for the required time to transport the cargo safely. FLODRI IOS has been developed by SNF to resist under the chemically hostile environment of metal oxides and to keep moisture absorption capacities at a high level, avoiding any moisture loss, strength loss and thus preventing liquefaction. It is not necessary to mix the whole ore cargo with FLODRI IOS, but only with the lower part of the ore cargo, to absorb the expected volume of water separation.

Tests show that on different ores, FLODRI IOS raises the liquefaction point by 4% to 8%, which is a sufficient safety margin in most cases. Ores treated with FLODRI IOS can be safely shipped over long distances even under heavy weather conditions.

MECHANISM WITH POLYMER

Less Pore Water Pore Water Superabsorbant polymer FLODRI IOS

Polymer Swelling

Addition

Less Free Water

The objective of using FLODRI IOS is to secure a ship’s trip. Since FLODRI IOS removes moisture, regardless of the ore, and remains efficient during a long trip, it is now possible to consider escaping from the sampling requirements by following these steps:

• Optimal dosage of FLODRI IOS at different moisture content to always control the TML (regardless of the ore and the trip) • Automatic measurement of the ore moisture. • Automatic and continuous dosage of FLODRI IOS in accordance with the moisture measurement during the ship’s holds loading.

POLYMER ABSORBS WATER, SWELLS AND REMAINS BETWEEN PARTICLES

ORE IS LESS COMPACTED, THERE’S STILL INTERSTITIAL AIR BETWEEN PARTICLES

NO RISK OF LOSS OF SHEAR STRENGTH - NO LIQUEFACTION

10 SuperAbsorbant

LAB EQUIPMENT USED TO MEASURE THE FMP

TESTING CAPABILITIES

Thanks to our equipment laboratories, we can assist the customers to conduct the following studies: • Measure the impact of the dosage of the FLODRI IOS on the FMP for each nature of ores. • Simulate trips under representative conditions (hexapod) • Recommend an optimal solution based on the nature of ores (Iron, Nickel, etc.) and the characteristics of the transport (itinerary, type of ships)

Flow Table (FT) Penetration Table (PT) Proctor-Fagerberg (PF) & Modified PF NOTE:

Flow Table test relies a lot on the operator. The operator must visually determine if the sample is above or below the FMP.

The Penetration test and Proctor/Fagerberg test use measurements to determine whether the FMP has been reached and does not need the operator to interpret visually. These tests are repeatable between operators and laboratories if the same procedure is used.

Nevertheless, the procedure Tests, as written in the IMSBC Code, are not a direct measure of liquefaction.

These tests measure the material’s loss of strength, one of the key precursors to liquefaction, but it is not the only one.

11 Hexapod

The hexapod can replicate ship movements under any weather conditions. It can be loaded up to 1000 kg.

With 2 containers representing 1/90th of a Capesize’s hold, we put between 200 to 300 kg of iron ore. The containers are closed, put on the hexapod, and shaken.

HEAVE

YAW

PITCH ROLL

SURGE SWAY

SNF has developed its own program to run the hexapod in partnership with the French oceanographic institute IFREMER. We have written 3 different realistic scenarios: calm, choppy and stormy seas as the hexapod can simulate these different weather conditions. The calculated points are based on real sea conditions. The hexapod can run several voyage scenarios, from Canada to China or from Liberia to China for 2 types of ships, Capesize and Supramax.

12 VOYAGE PARAMETERS

All the files can be combined to form a scenario involving different ores, ship size and weather conditions, which can be discussed and validated with customers.

13 Results The voyage from CANADA to CHINA lasts 60 days COSTS and the one from LIBERIA to CHINA lasts 45 days. To prevent liquefaction one alternative solution is to The parameters were set for stormy seas during the dry the wet ore before loading. The usual method whole voyage. The boat speed was fast (75% of max). involves a drum mixer and a burner. The ship tested was a Supramax (190m / 32.26m), a small bulk carrier. OPEX In order to be safe, 3% to 4% water per tonne of ore These parameters were chosen to test the worst case needs to be removed. scenario. Just for the fuel, the cost will be from $3.6 to $4.8 per tonne of ore. RESULTS With FLODRI IOS, the dosage range is between At the start of all voyage, a certificate of assay is 0.050% and 0.1%, the cost per tonne of ore treatedwill issued by AHK or Inspectorate and a TML is be between $ 1.4 and $ 2.8. measured. The graphs below show that with FLODRI IOS, the ENVIRONMENT TML increases by 10%. One litre of fuel removes 10 kg of water and will dry

At the end of the voyage, new certificate of assay one tonne of ore. This will emit 26 kg of CO2 per tonne is issued by AHK or Inspectorate and a new TML of ore treated. In comparison, to treat a Capesize TML with FLODRI IOS on canadian DSO is measured. The TML has not changed during the vessel, drying the ore will emit 5200 tonnes of CO . Bauxite 2 4% Fluorspar voyages. 4% 20 FLODRI IOS: no burning – no CO2 emissions. CONCLUSIONS The TML measured at the start of the voyage3% and the15.4 15 + one measured at the end (after 45 days and 60 days

Nickel Ore respectively) are in the same range.% 12.6 M +5 38% 10 G 7.4 G G FLODRI IOS remained efficient during all the voyages Iron Ore M 54% that were simulated. Capesize B B B 5 18% No liquefaction will occur in the cargo holds.

M R M O 0 Handysize Treated Iron Ore showsNatural Stateno loss of FLODRIshear IOS strength, FLODRI no IOS (0.05%) (0.1%) 30% liquefaction can occur. Bauxite 7% Handysize 179 000T TML with FLODRI IOS on African DSO TML with FLODRI IOS on Canadian DSO 16% TML with FLODRI IOS on african DSO TML with FLODRI IOS on canadian DSO Capesize Bauxite 398 000T 4% Fluorspar 36% 20 4% 18.3 20

% +5 % 15.4 15 +3 13.6 15

% Handymax +4 12.6 Iron Ore Nickel Ore North Korea Nickel Ore % 529 000T M9.3 +5 3% Brazil 38% General Bulker 47% 10 10 46% 47% 7% Australia 15 000T G 7.4 4% Iron Ore 1% G G Handymax M 54% Capesize B 5 B Malaysia 52% B 5 7% 18% FMP Results African Ore

Indonesia M M 0 R O 41% 18 0 Philippines Natural State FLODRI IOS FLODRI IOS 10% Natural State FLODRI IOS FLODRI IOS 16 Handysize (0.05%) (0.1%) (0.05%) (0.1%) 14 30% Bauxite North Korea 5% 12 India7% Handysize 28% Brazil 10 179 000T Capesize 16% TML with FLODRI IOS on african DSO 8% 18% General Bulker Capesize 8% 8 398 000T 36% 6 20 Indonesia 18.3 49% 4 45 Days Australia 14 % Handysize 9% 2 +5 42% 15 13.6 0 FMP start FMP end % Handymax +4 Iron Ore Nickel Ore North Korea 529 000T 9.3 Malaysia 3% Brazil General Bulker 47% 10 46% Handymax 47% 9% 7% 42% Australia 15 000T 4% 1% Philippines 8% India Handymax 2% 5 Malaysia 52% 7% FMP Results African Ore

Indonesia 0 41% 18 Philippines Natural State FLODRI IOS FLODRI IOS 10% 16 (0.05%) (0.1%) 14 North Korea 5% 12 India 28% Capesize Brazil 10 8% 18% General Bulker 8% 8 6 Indonesia 49% 4 45 Days Australia Handysize 9% 2 42% 0 FMP start FMP end

Malaysia Handymax 9% 42% Philippines 8% India 2% CONCLUSION

The impact of the suspected liquefaction of solid bulk cargoes on human life and industry assets has been significant. It was determined that liquefaction was the suspected cause for 21 incidents reported from 1988 to 2017 which resulted in 214 casualties.

Sadly, the incidents continued to occur after the mandatory implementation of the IMSBC Code in 2011.

SNF offers a solution using superabsorbant polymers.

FLODRI IOS stabilizes wet cargoes for up to 60 days at least, without any loss of properties. FLODRI IOS is used at very low dosages, 0.050% to 0.1%. FLODRI IOS has no other effect on the ores than a physical removal of water from the pores, the treated ores keep the same chemical and metallurgical properties.

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