Appendix: Biographical Notes on Women Rulers

A PPENDIX: BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON WOMEN RULERS rief biographical notes on the principal, lesser-known biblical, classical, and medieval female rulers who feature frequently in B the seventeenth-century sources examined. Amalasuntha (498–535): Ostrogothic regent (526–534) for her son Athalaric, and later queen (534). Highly educated and politically astute, in the early years of her regency Amalasuntha stabilized the volatile Italy her father Theodoric had left her. Her pro-Roman stance, however, and classical education of her son created opposi- tion in the Ostrogothic military aristocracy. Following her brief reign alone after her son’s death, she opted to marry her cousin Theodahad, who, as a male heir of the royal line, also had designs on the throne. Her attempt to stay in power by sharing the throne with Theodahad failed and she was murdered in 535, probably by Theodahad, encour- aged by the Byzantine emperor Justinian. Further reading: A. Daniel Frankforter, “Amalasuntha, Procopius, and a Woman’s Place,” Journal of Women’s History , 8.2 (1996), 41–57. Artemisia I: Early fifth-century BC queen of Caria (a region of Asia Minor that corresponds to present-day western Anatolia in Turkey) who ruled over Halicarnassus, Cos, Nisyrus, and Calymnos. Her per- sonal participation in the Battle of Salamis (480 BC ), in addition to the prudence and perspicacity of her advice, evinced much admira- tion from the Persian king Xerxes ( The Histories of Herodotus , Books 7 and 8). Further reading: Joyce Salisbury, Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World (Santa-Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001); Oxford Classical Dictionatry , 4th edition (2012). Artemisia II : Fourth-century BC queen of Caria who shared rule with her husband and brother Mausolus, before reigning alone for about three years following his death in 353 BC . Often remembered for the construction of the tomb known as the Mausoleum, which she erected at Halicarnassus in the memory of her husband, and 120 Appendix which became known as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, Artemisia was clearly more than a devoted widow-sister, and was in fact a strong and able ruler in her own right, as her military interven- tion in Rhodes indicates. She was an avid patron of the arts, and the rhetorical competition she organized to commemorate her husband was patronized by the most famous rhetoricians of the period. She was also known as a botanist, healer, physician, and surgeon: her con- tribution to early botany is reflected in the fact that the plant genus Artemisia may be named after her. Further reading: E. D. Carney, “Women and Dunasteia in Caria,” The American Journal of Philology , 126. 1 (2005), 65–91; Oxford Classical Dictionary , 4th edition (2012). Blanche of Castile (1188–1252): Queen regent of France during the minority of her son Louis XI (later Saint Louis) from 1226 to 1234, and during his absence on the Crusades from 1248 to 1252. On her husband’s death, she quickly brought forward the date of her son’s coronation, in order to consolidate his power immediately. Rebellion by a coalition of nobles, keen to exploit the perceived weakness of a regency period, was the initial thorn in Blanche’s regency, but by politically astute decisions and diplomatic negotiations, she suc- ceeded in gradually quelling the rebellions of the grandees and secur- ing her position. The signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1229 marked the pacification of the state and heralded a period of political stability for France. Blanche continued to assist her son after his majority. A highly intelligent and skillful ruler, her role in strengthening the French monarchy is widely accepted. She is also remembered for her piety and patronage of the arts. Further reading: Margaret Schaus, ed., Women and Gender in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia (London: Routledge, 2006); R é gine Pernoud, La Reine Blanche (Paris: Albin Michel, 1972). Brunehilde (or Brunehaut) (534–613): Visigoth princess, later Merovingian queen of Austrasia (now northeastern France) from 566 to 613. A de facto ruler during her marriage to Sigebert I, she was later also regent of both Austrasia and Burgundy for her grandsons from 595 onwards, and once again in 613. An intelligent states- woman, Brunehilde was anxious to consolidate royal authority by limiting the powers of the Austrasian aristocracy and the Church. Her resulting lack of support from the aristocracy ultimately led to her downfall since, resentful of her authority and anxious to be unified with the neighboring rival kingdom of Neustria (now northwestern France), the leaders of the aristocracy sought the support Appendix 121 of the king of Neustria, Clotaire II. Brunehilde’s efforts to raise an army in Burgundy were in vain, and she and her four great-grandsons were seized. Given the rivalries between the neighboring kingdoms, this period was marked by an ongoing and bloody battle between Brunehilde and Fredegonde. It would seem, however, that it was the latter who was responsible for the majority of crimes. Further reading: Ian Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450–751 (London: Longman, 1994). Deborah : Biblical judge, prophetess, and leader, accounts of whom are found in the Book of Judges IV–V. Angered by reports of Canaanite violence against Israelites, she organized a military attack against the Canaanites with Barak, and routed them successfully near the river Kishon. Deborah is perceived as a wise political leader of great influence and sound judgment, whose undertakings helped establish peace and stability in Israel for forty years in the twelfth century BC. Further reading: Susan Ackerman, Warrior, Dancer, Seductress, Queen: Women in Judges and Biblical Israel (New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2009). Fredegonde (ca. 545–597): Queen of Neustria (now northwestern France) from 567 to 597, third wife of Chilperic I. Under the protec- tion of her brother-in-law Gontran, king of Burgundy, she governed Neustria for her son Clotaire II, after her husband’s death. Intelligent but entirely unscrupulous, Fredegonde is traditionally seen as responsible for the assassination of a number of political rivals. It is difficult to ascertain what political skill she may have had since her reign is so markedly characterized by violence and murder, which ultimately led to the weakening of the Merovingian dynasty. Further reading: Ian Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450–751 (London: Longman, 1994). Pulcheria (399–453): De facto ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, and saint in the Greek Orthodox Church. As sister of the weak emperor Theodosius II, she assumed power in 414, at the age of fifteen, when the title Augusta was bestowed on her. A skillful leader, Pulcheria’s influence was felt in both political and church matters. A public vow of virginity at an early age proved a useful political tool in main- taining ongoing support from both people and Church. Pulcheria’s influence diminished ca. 431, following Theodosius’s marriage to Ath é na ï s-Eudocia in 421, but she regained importance on the death of Theodosius in 450. Historians are in no doubt that her subse- quent marriage, at the age of fifty-one, to the elderly Roman senator 122 Appendix Marcian was entirely nominal. With his help and that of Rome, she was highly influential in the restoration of Orthodoxy at the Church Council of Chalcedon (451), which she helped to organize. Further reading: Kenneth G. Holum , Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity (Berkeley, CA; London: University of California Press, 1982). Semiramis : A quasi-legendary Assyrian figure based on the historical figure of Sammuramat, who reigned as regent for her son Adadnirari III from 811 BC to 806 BC . According to the legend constructed around her, however, she was the daughter of the goddess Derceto, whose second marriages was to Ninus, king of Nineveh. Later declared sole empress of Assyria, she conquered Bactria, and is celebrated for her political aware- ness and military skill, although other versions of the legend highlight an alleged incestuous love for her son Ninyas. She is also associated with the embellishment of the cities of Nineveh and Babylon. Further reading: Oxford Classical Dictionary , 4th edition (2012). Tomyris : Sixth-century BC queen of the nomadic Massagetae (in the east of Persia, now eastern Iran). The principal account of her activ- ities comes from Herodotus, according to whom she was responsible for the death of Cyrus the Great, king of the Medes and Persians. Following her refusal of his proposal of marriage, Cyrus decided to attempt to take her states by force. As preparations to attack began, Tomyris suggested a meeting to negotiate with the Persian king. This was refused and the Persians attacked the Massagetae, killing almost a third. Tomyris’s counterattack resulted in the slaughter of the Persians and the death of Cyrus. Further reading: The Histories of Herodotus , Book 1. Zenobia : So-called by the Romans (her real name was Septimia, or Bat Zabbai in Aramaic), queen of Palmyra (part of modern-day Syria) from 266 to 272. Highly educated and intelligent, she claimed descent from the Ptolomies, possibly as a political strategy. She ruled both with her husband Odenathus and alone after his death, becom- ing in effect the most powerful ruler in the Eastern Roman Empire. Renowned for her military prowess and the gradual expansion of her empire, her power eventually drew the attention of the Roman emperor Aurelian, who ultimately secured her defeat in 271. She was subsequently brought to Rome to participate in Aurelian’s triumph and lived in Rome on a state subsidy for the rest of her life. Further reading: Pat Southern, Zenobia: Palmyra’s Rebel Queen (London: H a m b l e d o n C o n t i n u u m , 2 0 0 8 ) .

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