INVESTIGATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL PASSAMAQUODDY TIDAL POWER PROJECT

BROCHURE I

REPORT TO THE INTERNATiONAL JOINT COMMISSION BY THE INTERNATIONAL PASSAMAQUODDY ENGINEERING BOARD

October 1959 INVESTIGATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL PASSAMAQUODDY TIDAL POWER PROJECT -.. . a:~ High tide Eastport,,, . Maine - - -, ' I .--

REPORT TO THE ENTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION BY THE INTERNATIONAL PASSAMAQUODDY ENGINEERING BOARD

October 1959 BROCHURE

In accordance with United States Public Law 401,84th Congress, 2nd Session, and the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909, the Governments of Canada and the United States in August 1956 directed the International Joint Commission to investigate the engineering and economic feasibility of harnessing the tides of Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays in the Province of New Brunswick and the State of Maine for production of hydroelectric power. The investigation, completed in October 1959 well within the appropriations authorized by both countries, established the type and cost of the most economical project to generate electricity from the tides, and determined whether tidal power could be generated at a price competitive with the most economical alternative source of power. To carry out the investigation of the tidal power project and its effect on the economies of the United States and Canada, including the fisheries of the area, the Commission established two separate boards, the International Passamaquoddy Engineering Board and the International Passa- maquoddy Fisheries Board. Composed of two representatives each from Canada and the United States, the boards were directed to coordinate their studies and to submit separate reports to the Commission. The Engineering Board in turn established an Engineering Committee to supervise the detailed investigations. These investigations were carried out primarily by the U.S. Army Engineer Division, New England, Corps of Engineers, and the Regional Office of the United States Federal Power Commission, New York. Canadian aspects of the survey were conducted by the Department of Public Works, the Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, and other agencies of the Federal and Provincial Governments of Canada . This syllabus presents a brief summary of the report of the International Passamaquoddy Engineering Board, including the Board's conclusions on engineering and economic feasibility.

HARNESSING THE TIDES

Man has for centuries devised methods of Tidal hydroelectric power, similar to putting the ocean tides to work. As early as river hydro power, can be produced by a flow the eleventh century tides were harnessed in of water from a higher to a lower level a small way in England and other Western through hydraulic turbines. A single pool European countries when small tide mills equipped with gates may be built to trap were used to grind corn. In Chelsea, water at high tide and discharge through Massachusetts, in 1734 "Slade's Mill" was turbines to the ocean at low tide, or the pool built to grind spices. This mill developed may be emptied at low tide to receive turbine about 50 horsepower from four water wheels discharge from the ocean at high tide. Two driven by the head created by damming a separate pools equipped with emptying and small estuary to trap water at high tide. filling gates may be used, one pool filled at Since the advent of hydroelectric power, high tide and the other emptied at low tide, numerous tidal power sites throughout the with the high pool discharging through the , world have been investigated. In addition to turbines into the low pool. the Pas samaquoddy Bay area, a few of the locations recently studied for large tidal A single high pool has the serious dis- power plants include the tidal estuary of the advantage of producing discontinuous power, River Severn in England, the Bay of LIAber because no power can be generated without a Vrach on the northwest coast of Brittany, sufficient difference between the level of the Mont St. Michel in northwest France near pool and the level of the ocean. Thus no St. Malo, and the Gulf of San Jose' in generation is possible until the ocean has Argentina. Components of what may be the receded sufficiently to obtain this difference world's fir st large- scale tidal power plant in water levels, or power head; nor is are now being tested to harness the La Rance generation possible on the rising tide after River estuary on the Brittany coast. the level of the ocean becomes too high to provide this minimum necessary head. For simplified illustration, the sun and, moon similar reasons, a single low pool also appear on the same side of the earth approxi- produces interrupted power. This dis- mately every four weeks, at the time of new advantage is avoided in the two-pool plan, moon. Two weeks later, at the time of full the plan adopted for the project described in moon, the sun and moon appear on opposite this report, which generates varying but sides of the earth. When either of these continuous amounts of power. This con- conditions occurs, gravitational attraction of tinuous power is achieved in the two-pool the sun and moon reinforce each other and plan by operating emptying and filling gates cause maximum or spring tides. When the so that the level of one pool is always moon is at either quarter phase, the gravi- sufficiently higher than the other. tational attraction of the sun and moon are approximately at right angles with respect to The advantages of a tidal power plant are the earth, causing minimum or neap tides. that the tides, which can be predicted with When the moon is new or full and simul- accuracy for many years in the future, can taneously in perigee -- the point in the moon's produce power unaffected by droughts, floods, orbit closest to earth - - the spring tide is ice jams, or silting -- adverse factors which particularly great. decrease the output and limit the life of river hydroelectric plants. An inherent disad- The height the tide will reach is also vantage of the tides as a source of power is affected, sometimes to a high degree, by the that the tides, following the gravitational coastline. On open, exposed headlands tides pull of the moon as it passes overhead every may range from 4 to 5 feet, while in nearly 24 hours and 50 minutes, are out of phase landlocked embayments, like the Mediter- with the 24-hour solar day. This 50 minute ranean, tides are negligible. In the Gulf of daily lag is fundamental to the economics of Maine, however, which opens toward the deep tidal power for, since power output varies areas of the Atlantic Ocean as the continental with the tides, tidal power is completely out shelf drops off beyond Georges and Browns of step with the normal patterns of daily use banks, the tides are greatly amplified by the of electricity. Therefore, unless the tidal size and configuration of the shore and plant is supplemented by an auxiliary power bottom. As shown on plate 1, the mean tidal plant, such varying power would be of little ranges become progressively greater as the value. tides move into the Gulf of Maine toward the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. The funnel- Tidal ranges, the height between high and shaped Bay of Fundy again amplifies the tidal low tides, determines the available head and range, producing the highest tides in the thus governs the amount of power generated. world at the head of the bay. To devise a 1 Tides are caused by the changing relation- workable and feasible scheme to harness ship of the sun, earth and moon with respect these tides for the economical production of to each other, and tidal range, which is uninterrupted power constitutes the essence affected primarily by the phases of the moon, of tidal power engineering. also varies from day to day. As shown in the

PHASES OF THE MOON 7*

Midnisht * ' Noon Mldnipht EL_. 8- -- - ' I TIDAL CYCLE liCOSTi SLAND

1 OF PSAZNT LAWRENCE '- 1

BRETON PRJNCE EDWARD , lSCkND

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AUGUST 1959 4- " --'-" Generation of hydroelectric power from The major differences between the 1935-37 the tides within the Bay of Fundy has intrigued project and the project which is the subject of engineers in Canada and the United States for this report are that (1) the project proposed over forty years. At Burntcoat Head in the in this report is an international two-pool Minas Basin at the head of the Bay of Fundy project which permits production of continuous in Canada, the spring tides reach an extreme power; and (2) that a river hydroelectric range of over 50 feet. The range of the tides auxiliary plant is used to firm the tidal plant in Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays near output. Compared to the single-pool project the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, the site of the planned in 1935-37, these differences are tidal project described in this report, varies highly advantageous. from a minimum of 11.3 feet at neap tide to a maximum of 25.7 feet at spring tide, As the result of continued interest in the averaging 18.1 feet. During each tidal cycle, Passamaquoddy tidal power project on the an average volume of approximately 70 billion part of the people of Maine and New cubic feet of water regularly enters and Brunswick, supported by an increasing leaves Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays. awareness of the need to exploit all possible sources of energy, the International Joint As early as 1919, W. R. Turnbull of Commission was requested in 1948 by both Saint John, New Brunswick, suggested pro- governments to review all previous r-eports duction of hydroelectric power from the great and to estimate the cost of carrying out a tides at the head of the Bay of Fundy in the complete study in order to decide conclusively Petitcodiac and Memramcook estuaries . In the engineering and economic feasibility of a 1945 this site was again investigated by large-scale international tidal power project Canadian engineers but the proposed tidal in Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays. This project proved uneconomical. report, completed in 1950, led directly to the present 1956-59 survey. The present study Dexter P. Cooper made the first large- is the first investigation sufficiently compre- scale study of potential power production in hensive to permit the Governments of Canada Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays in the and the United States to determine the early 1920's. The most extensive of the economic justification and advisability of many plans Cooper studied was an inter- developing an international tidal power project national project using both Passamaquoddy in Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays . and Cobscook Bays. Each bay was to be closed by a series of dams, together with regulating gates and navigation locks, to form a two-pool tidal project. Power was to be FIELD INVESTIGATIONS generated by discharging water from the high pool in Passamaquoddy Bay to the low pool in In order to determine the best layout of Cobscook Bay through turbines in a power- an international tidal power project, it was house located between the two pools. Cooper first necessary to conduct a series of field also planned an auxiliary pumped-storage investigations and studies of site conditions plant to supplement the fluctuating tidal in the Passamaquoddy-Cobscook area. Full power. Cooper, however, lost support during use was made of all data gathered in previous the financial crisis of 1929 and -5is:plans were studies., particularly those made by the U..S. never realized. Army Corps of Engineers in 1935-37. A field office and soils laboratory were established In 1935 the Government of the United States in Eastport, Maine, to gather and analyze undertook development of a single-pool new basic data. Aerial topographic surveys, project using only the waters of Cobscook Bay tidal observations, hydrographic surveys, on the United States side of the international and subsurface explorations by deep-water boundary. Although this work was suspended core drilling and sonic methods were made in in 1937 when no further funds were made areas not investigated during any of the available, the surveys, investigations, and several earlier studies of the project area. construction of three small dams completed Underwater mapping and exploration using by the Corps of Engineers proved of great recently developed sonic equipment furnished value to the present investigation. bottom contours and valuable foundation data. THE PROJECT SELECTED FOR DESIGN

From comparative analyses of a number of single-pool and double-pool schemes, it became evident that conditions at Passama- quoddy are particularly well suited to a two- pool tidal power project.

The topography of the Passamaquoddy- Cobscook areas permits many different arrangements of the components of a large- scale, two-pool project. Before the best arrangement could be selected, preliminary estimates were made to determine the power output and cost of numerous different project arrangements. Five of the most promising arrangements were then studied in greater detail. To avoid time-consuming and costly computations of energy output, this work was done by an electronic computer. In this way annual energy-- generation- could be determined rapidly for any project a'rrangement once its pool areas and the optimum number of its generating units were established. The Deep-wter core dri L Ling zn Frzar Roads project arrangement that revealed the be st relationship of installed capacity and energy output to construction cost was then selected for design.

The project arrangement thus selected for Core drilling in great water depths and specific design and cost estimates includes high tidal velocities to determine the design the 10 1 square miles of Passamaquoddy Bay and location of deep rock-filled dams and as the high pool and the 41 square miles of emptying and filling gates was the largest and Cobscook Bay as the low pool, with a 30-unit most costly phase of the field investigations. powerhouse located at Carryingplace Cove, To accomplish the difficult task of core as shown on plate 2. With 30 generating units drilling in waters up to 300 feet deep swept rated at 10,000 kilowatts each, operated at 15 by reversing tidal currents reaching velocitie s percent above rated capacity for short periods of 6 to 10 feet per second, a 240-foot barge during spring tides, the output of the tidal equipped with a special drilling assembly was power plant would range from 95,000 to brought from the Gulf of Mexico specifically 345,000 kilowatts. Average energy gener- for this task. With this equipment, samples ation would be 1,843 million kilowatt-hours of undisturbed overburden and bedrock were a year. successfully taken for analysis from 15 carefully selected borings. Properties of With the major aspects of the best project these samples were analyzed in the laboratory layout determined, specific design studies of the Eastport field office. As the field were undertaken of each component of the investigations progressed, all new information selected plan -- tidal dams and cofferdams, was used to determine the best project filling and emptying gates , navigation locks, arrangement -- the location of dams, gates, the powerhouse, turbines and generators -- locks, powerhouse, and other components of to a point that would permit reliable cost the tidal project. estimates .

DAMS AND COFFERDAMS dams, or 8 percent of the total leng,th of tidal dams in the project, would be located in water The selected project would require con- depths varying from 125 feet to about 300 feet struction of nearly seven miles of rock-filled below mean sea level. At these greater dams. With tidal velocities as high as 10 feet depths a granular core would be placed by per second during the 26-foot high tide, the special bottom-dump buckets. With the difficulties of constructing sufficiently water- exception of these deep, granular core tight tidal dams, small portions of them in sections, the tidal dams can all be built with depths ranging from 125 to 300 feet, and conventional land and marine equipment. closing these dams in the face of restricted and greatly increased tidal velocities up to Construction of the dams would be 20 feet per second, posed engineering and scheduled to permit direct placement of design problems without precedent. In view material excavated for the powerhouse, of these problems, several outstanding gates, and navigation locks without costly specialists in the fields of hydraulic engi- stockpiling and rehandling . To overcome neering and soils mechanics were consulted, the problem of greatly increased tidal and model studies were made of the hydraulic currents during closure of the dams, the 160 characteristics of deep tidal dams to emptying and filling gates would be construct- determine the best and most economical ed first and operated to handle part of the design and methods of construction. tidal ebb and flood, thus reducing the quantity of water passing through the closure sections. Bottom conditions in Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays vary widely from areas of Cofferdams of several different types, exposed bedrock to clay overburden more than depending upon the depths to be unwatered, 100 feet thick. The 35.700 linear feet of tidal would be used to excavate for the foundations dams are located as far as practicable on of the powerhouse, filling and emptying gates, foundations of bedrock or granular material and navigation locks. Cofferdam designs to avoid clay overburden. The tidal dams, include embankments, log cribs with timber composed of a clay core supported by sheathing, and steel sheet piling of both flanking dumped-rock fills, are designed to circular and cloverleaf design. Construction permit-greatest possible use of materials of the emptying gates in Head Harbour excavated for the gate structures, navigation Passage would entail an embankment coffer- locks and the powerhouse. dam 120 feet below mean sea level under a head of 75 feet when pumped out. Construc- Of some 17 million cubic yards of clay tion of cofferdams of this magnitude, built to which must be excavated from Carryingplace withstand water pressures far greater than Cove for the powerhouse, the greater portion those on the tidal dams themselves, consti- would be used in the clay cores of the dams to tutes one of the major engineering and depths of 125 feet. About 2,900 linear feet of construction tasks of the Passamaquoddy tidal project.

CREST EL +25 +SO MAX. POOL EL.tl2.2W RIPRAP MAX POOL EL 0 0% MIN. POOL EL. t3.0d MSL MIN POOL EL - 12 9d VI I HIGH POOL LOW POOL -100 L = -100 YLL

-z -200 z 0 t- > -300 y w

APPROX. TOP OF ROCK - 400

WESTERN PASSAGE DAM

SCALE IN FEET, 100 0 100 200 *="*s ., I GANTRY CRANE 1\-7 -1 FILLING GATE. SCALE iN FEET

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FILLING AND EMPTYING GATES NAVIGATION LOCKS

The project plan includes 90 filling gates, The project would have four navigation 40 in Letite Passage and 50 between Western locks. The dimensions and locations of the Passage and Indian River, as shown on plate navigation locks were selected to accommo- 2. In the reach between Pope and Green date present traffic in Passamaquoddy and Islets 70 emptying gates, similar to the filling Cobscook Bays, with an allowance for a gates but set at a lower elevation, would modest increase in the size of ships using the empty the lower pool. Comprehensive study area. Two locks, one at Little Letite Passage of all types of gates, and detailed examination and one at Quoddy Roads, would have clear of nine of the most feasible, led to the dimensions of 95' x 25' x 12' to pass fishing selection of a 30' x 30' vertical-lift steel vessels. Two locks, one at Head Harbour gate set in a venturi throat. Early in the Passage immediately east of the emptying study a crest gate with a vertical-lift leaf gates and one at Western Passage north of appeared to promise economy because of Eastport, would have clear dimensions of high flow capacity, but the costs of auxiliary 415' x 60' x 21' to pass vessels somewhat structures and maintenance to prevent icing larger than the present traffic. The reversing more than offset its lower construction cost head on the locks ruled out the use of miter and superior hydraulic capacity. The venturi gates in favor of sector gates, which have throat was selected because, among other proved successful under similar conditions at important advantages, it permits maximum numerous locks on the Intracoastal Waterway discharge for a given gate area. in the Gulf of Mexico and on the Sacramento River. POWERHOUSE A comparison of the performance of fixed-blade and Kaplan turbines , based on Located northwest of Eastport in data furnished by United States and Canadian Carryingplace Cove, the powerhouse would manufacturers, indicated that the greater contain 30 turbine-generator units, each efficiency of the Kaplan turbine over a wide placed in a concrete monolith 78 feet wide and range of heads was offset by its greater cost. 176 feet long in the direction of flow, with the A new type of horizontal-axis turbine- bottom of the draft tube 110 feet below the generator unit recently developed in Europe powerhouse deck. The outdoor powerhouse and adopted for use in the single-pool project shown in the architect's rendering proved at La Rance on the northwest coast of France more economical than partially or fully- was also studied for possible use in the housed types. The generators would be Passamaquoddy project. The European protected by weatherproof housings on the manufacturer recommended this unit, which powerhouse deck and serviced by two large can be used as a turbine, pump, or sluice- travelling gantry cranes equipped with way, with flow in either direction, as more moveable doors to enclose and protect the efficient than conventional units. Power generators while being serviced. All control studies showed that the European bulb-type equipment would be located on the turbine turbine generator develops approximately as room floor under the top deck of the power- much power as the Kaplan, and structural house. All metal parts of the powerhouse and studies indicated a possible saving of of all other components of the tidal project $300,000 per powerhouse unit. This saving, exposed to salt water would be protected from however, was offset by the greater cost of the corrosion by use of corrosion-resistant bulb-type turbine-generator set and the need alloys , protective coatings , and cathodic to compensate for low rotative inertia. For protection. these reasons, and because of unresolved maintenance problems, the bulb-type unit was Design of an economical 30-unit power- abandoned in favor of fie conventional fixed- house of minimum length to fit the available blade type for the purpose of evaluating the site, and capable of handling a tremendous Passamaquoddy project. volume of discharge, indicated use of turbines as large as possible. The turbines selected The 30 generators would be connected in for the project are the fixed-blade propeller banks of 7 and 8 to four 90,000 kilovolt- type with a throat diameter of 320 inches and ampere transformers located on the upstream a speed of 40 r.p. m. Due to the low average side of the powerhouse and connected to the power head of 11 feet, the large turbines switchyard by oil-filled high-voltage cables. would be directly connected to generators Two transformers would operate at 230 with a relatively low rating of 10,000 kilovolts for supply to the United States and kilowatts. two at 138 kilovolts for Canada. Operation of the powerhouse would be As illustrated in the typical cycle of tidal fully automatic. The wicket gate setting of plant operation, the output of the selected each turbine would be automatically con- two-pool project would vary with the ebb and trolled at a pre-determined opening, depending flood of the tides. Coupled with the additional on the gross head on the plant. Synchro- variations in tidal range from spring tide to nizing, loading, and the stopping and starting neap tide and the 50-minute difference be- sequences of each power unit would be con- tween the lunar and solar days , this variable trolled automatically by computer punch output contrasts sharply with the normal cards or tapes based on tide predictions. A pattern of power demand. Hourly, weekly and central control board permitting fully auto- seasonal variations in the demand for matic or manual control of all units, as well electricity reflect the pattern of activity and as the auxiliary power plant, would be located life habits of people. Therefore, daily at the center of the powerhouse. variations in demand, or load patterns, follow the solar cycle which, as previously de- AUXILIARY POWER SOURCES scribed, is out of step with the lunar cycle of the tides. At times, therefore, the peak Each tide would fill the high pool of the demand for power may coincide with minimum tidal power project regardless of the amount output from the tidal power plant.. of water used to generate energy in the previous cycle. Water left unused would be For load-carrying purposes, power from wasted. Somewhat similar in this respect to the tidal project is limited to the capacity it a "run-of -the-river" hydroelectric plant can furnish under the most adverse con- where no storage is available, energy gener- ditions. All output in excess of this capacity ated by a two-pool tidal plant must take full is not dependable for serving loads. All advantage of the ebb and flood of the tides. excess generation would have value only as Because tidal energy must be generated as the non-firm or secondary energy. ,Therefore, tides occur, rather than when the power to make the maximum output of the tidal market requires it, modifying this fluctu- power plant dependable, this output must be ating output to meet the demand is essential firmed by an auxiliary source of power. to the operation of a tidal power plant.. Several different types of auxiliary power Tidal power can also be supplemented by sources were studied to determine the type means of a pumped-storage plant, Using best suited for making the combined output of power from the tidal plant at times when it is the tidal project and its auxiliary match the not required to meet load demands, water can characteristic load pattern. These studies be pumped to a higher storage basin and re- included river hydroelectric plants, purnped- leased through turbines as required to meet storage plants, and steam-electric auxilia- the load. Since the output of the tidal plant ries. alone would vary from 95,000 to 345,000 kilowatts, a pumped- storage plant with Among a number of river hydroelectric 228,000 kilowatts of installed capacity would sites examined, Rankin Rapids on the upper provide a dependable capacity of 323,000 Saint John River in Maine, about 175 air kilowatts from the combined project. miles from the tidal project, was selected to provide the best river hydro and tidal The three most favorable pumped-storage power project combination. The Rankin sites were investigated, and a site on the Rapids project, with an embankment 7,400 Digdeguash River near its outlet to Passama- feet long and 333 feet high, would impound quoddy Bay east of St. Andrews, New Bruns- 8.23 million acre-feet, of which 2.80 million wick, was adopted for design. Useable stor- acre-feet would be useable storage. With a age would amount to 204,000 acre-feet, equiva- powerhouse of 8 units, the dependable capa- lent to an output of 28 million kilowatt-hours. city would be 460,000 kilowatts, and the plant A 10s s of about 114 million kilowatthour s of would generate 1,220 million kilowatt-hours tidal energy a year in the pumping and gener- annually. Operated in conjunction with the ating cycles would be partially offset by 30 tidal plant, the combined project would have million kilowatt-hours a ye*r of fresh-water a total dependable capacity of 555,000 kilo- inflow from the Digdeguash River drainage watts and would generate 3,063 million kilo- area. Using 400 million kilowatt-hours of watt-hours of energy annually. energy from the tidal plant for the pumping cycle, the annual energy generation of the As a possible alternative method of oper- Passamaquoddy tidal plant-Digdeguash ation, Rankin Rapids could be built to carry combination would be 1 ,759 million kilowatt- part of the load in Maine, and to include addi- hour s. tional capacity which could be used as needed to supplement the varying tidal project capa- Supplementing tidal power with a steam- city. Energy thus borrowed from Rankin electric plant was studied and found to be the Rapids when using incremental capacity would least favorable type of auxiliary. Although be repaid when tidal output is greater than the construction of a steam-electric plant would load. cost approximately the same as the Digde- guash pumped- storage plant, the added cost The Rankin Rapids project, with 2.8 of fuel and operation at a low load factor million acre-feet of useable storage, would greatly increased the annual cost and pre- regulate the flow of the Saint John River and cluded further consideration of a steam- would benefit existing and potential hydro- electric plant as an auxiliary to the tidal electric plants downstream in New Bruns- power project. wick. Although regulation by Rankin Rapids would assist in justifying installation of a In summary, four project combinations great amount of additional capacity on the were selected for evaluation of costs and bene- Saint John River, the work of designing and fits: estimating the cost of these potential projects was beyond the scope of the ~assama~uodd~ (1) The Passamaquoddy tidal project tidal power survey. For this reason, only operated without an auxiliary: Operating alone, those-benefits accruing to the existing in- the tidal project output would vary from a de- stallations at Beechwood and Grand Falls, pendable capacity of 95,000 to a peak of 345,000 consisting of an additional 180 million kilo- kilowatts. Average annual energy generation watt-hours a year and a small increase in would be 1,843 million kilowatt-hours . dependable capacity, were credited to the Rankin Rapids - tidal project combination. (2) The tidal project operated in combi- energy are influenced directly by population nation with all the power of the Rankin Rapids growth, greater use of energy per customer, hydroelectric project: Using the 460,000 kilo- expansion of industrial, trade and service watts of dependable capacity and the annual activities-, and introduction of new uses of generation of 1,220 million kilowatt-hours from electric energy. The aggregate effect is a Rankin Rapids, this combination would have a sustained growth in demand for electric total dependable capacity of 555,000 kilowatts power and a continuing need for adding to the and generate annually 3,063 million kilowatt- power supply of the utility systems. Thus hour s. consumers who could use power from the tidal power project in a definite and predict- (3) The tidal project supplemented by able way are those now served by public and capacity alone at Rankin Rapids: Assuming private utility systems. that Rankin Rapids were built primarily to serve the utility load in Maine, 260,000 kilo- In 1957 Maine utilities supplied 2,682 watts of additional capacity could be installed million kilowatt-hours to their customers, at Rankin Rapids to firm the varying tidal with a combined peak demand of 493,000 project output. This combination would have kilowatts. Power market studies show that a dependable capacity of 355,000 kilowatts, energy requirements will reach an estimated with an annual generation of 1,843 million total of 4,020 million kilowatt-hours by 1965 kilowatt-hours. and will grow to 7,630 million kilowatt-hours with a peak demand of 1,390,000 kilowatt0 by (4) The tidal project supplemented by 1980. the Digdeguash pumped-storage auxiliary: Using the dependable capacity of 228,000 kilo- In 1957 New Brunswick utility require- watts of the pumped-storage auxiliary, this ments amounted to 630 million kilowatt-hour s, combination would have a total dependable with an annual peak demand of 152,000 kilo- capacity of 323,000 kilowatts with a net watts. The record of past energy require- annual generation of 1,759 million kilowatt- ments in the Province, however, is one of hour s. spectacular growth, particularly in the years following World War II. Between 1940 and The second of these project combinations, 1957 the utility market increased some 450 the tidal plant operated in combination with percent. Further growth can be expected as all the power of the Rankin Rapids hydro- uses of electricity find wider application with electric auxiliary, proved to be the most greater industrialization in the Province and economical. Engineering and economic data exploitation of its mineral resources. Ac- on each of the four project combinations cording to estimates prepared by The New analyzed are presented at the end of this Brunswick Electric Power Commission, re - syllabus. quirements will continue to increase to 1 ,220 million kilowatt-hours in 1965 and to 3,040 POWER MARKETS million kilowatt-hours in 1980.

Detailed studies were made to determine From 1940 to 1957 the energy require- whether present and potential power markets ments of the combined markets increased in Maine and New Brunswick could absorb the from 1,228 to 3,362 million kilowatt-hours, project power. Since a power project will for an over-all increase of 174 percent. In have value only to the extent that a demand the same period of time the peak demand in- for power exists, power market surveys creased from 238,000 to 645,000 kilowatts, were conducted in the Maine-New Brunswick for a gain of 171 percent. Energy require- area. The. New Brunswick markets were ments of the combined market will increase surveyed by The New Brunswick Electric to an estimated 8,450 million kilowatt-hours Power Commission, which serves over 90 in 1975, and to 10,670 million in 1980, an percent of the people in the Province, and the average annual growth during this five-year power markets of Maine were studied by the period of 440 million kilowatt-hours. Peak United States Federal Power Commission. demand is expected to increase to 1,590,000 kilowatts in 1975 and to 1,990,000 kilowatts Power markets consist of rural, urban, in 1980, an average annual increment of residential, commercial, industrial and other 80,000 kilowatts during this five-year electric energy consumers served by utility interval. systems. Requirements for utility -furnished Total kilowatts of capacity required in With 86 percent of the land area of the addition to that scheduled for installation in state in forest, the forest products industry the near future to meet the growing utility is the most important single element in the loads in Maine and New Brunswick, consider- ,tatetS economy, and the long-tirne prospects ing reserves and retirements, is shown in of forest-based industries are favorable, the following table. particularly the pulp and paper industry. kgriculture has long been dbminated by the Year Maine New Brunswick potato crop of Aroostook County. Despite rising output in other parts of the country. Maine has maintained its position as the lead- ing potato-producing state by attaining greatly increased yields on-a reduced acreage. An important recent development in Maine agri- culture is that the growth of poultry produc- Thus, the power market surveys revealed tion has surpassed the potato crop as the that the need for additional capacity to meet leading source of farm income. future demands in both Maine and New Bruns- The long- established fishing and fish processing indus- wick could readily absorb by 1980 the 555,000 try has produced higher personal income in kilowatts of dependable capacity from the recent years due to the growth in demand for Passamaquoddy tidal plant and the Rankin Rapids hydroelectric plant on the Saint John more expensive fish, particularly the valuable River, the largest project combination lobster catch. studied. Important future growth is also expected ECONOMIC EFFECTS in the recreation industry of Maine, which in 1959 ranks as the second largest income- In consonance with the objectives of the producing activity in New England as a whole. comprehensive survey, and for purposes of The value of the recreation industry in Maine economic analysis of the project, an evalua- rose from $135 million in 1950 to $272 tion was made of all possible beneficial and million in 1957. The Passamaquoddy tidal power project, which would be the first large- damaging effects that construction of the tidal project, with and without an auxiliary power scale tidal power plant in the western hemis- phere, and perhaps the first in the world, plant, may have on the regional and national would attract a great number of visitors. economies. These studies encompassed all Had aspects of the general economies, including the tidal project been in existence in 1957, an estimated 800,000 visitors from the United power markets, manufacturing and industrial States and Canada would have been attracted growth, the lumber, pulp and paper indus- to the area. tries, agriculture, fisheries, recreation, transportation systems and consideration of national defense.

In the State of Maine, the largest income- producing and power-consuming segment of the economy is manufacturing, which includes lumber, pulp and paper production, fish processing, textiles and apparel, leather and leather goods, and food processing. The next largest employed group is engaged in whole- sale and retail trade, followed by agriculture, fisheries, recreation, and professional and related services. With the exception of the textile industry, almost all segments of the Maine economy have shown continuous growth. Extensive efforts are being made to attract new and diversified industries into the state.

S$raying a potato fie Ld In addition to the fact that the growing power markets of Maine can readily absorb all project power by 1980, other important advantages in Maine should encourage more rapid economic growth. The State has a large labor force of high quality. In 1956 non-agricultural employment amounted to 281,700, of which nearly 39 percent were engaged in manufacturing -- a considerably higher percentage than the United States average. Native ingenuity, versatility, sense of responsibility, and productivity, as well as a higher than average educational level, make this labor force readily adaptable to new employment opportunities .

At present, rail and commercial air transport are adequate and stimulating to economic communication among all parts of Pulpwood chute the State. The highway system is not only adequate and modern, but is keeping well As reflected in the power market and ahead of requirements. In the field of coastal economic surveys, considerable growth is and overseas transport, Maine has many expected in the economy of New Brunswick. superb harbors which were the basis of her Manufacturing, the leading economic activity prosperous economy during the nineteenth of the Province, is based on pulp and paper, the lumber and wood-using industries, century and which, today, because of relative proximity to Europe, the St. Lawrence Sea- minerals, and fishing and fish processing. Other major segments of the economy are way, and leading eastern ports, constitute a great economic potential. agriculture , construction, secondary manu- facturing, food processing, the recreation Other advantages in Maine attractive to industry and professional and other services. new enterprises are the availability of suitable industrial sites; abundant supplies of fresh Rapid growth is expected in almost all seg- water; access to overseas raw materials; fav- ments of the Provincial economy. Long-term orable and cooperative local governments and economic growth, however, is expected to be business organizations; and proximity to lead- most pronounced in resource-based industries ing academic, professional, and research that manufacture for export. Pulpwood and centers throughout New England. paper production, based on the vast timber resources of the Province, is economically the Construction of the tidal power project most important industry and is expected to and its auxiliary power plant would have a double by 1980. Canada's domestic market favorable impact on all segments of the for pulp and paper products is growing rapidly, economy of Maine. As well as assisting to and market prospects in the United Kingdom supply the needs of the growing power and Western Europe appear equally favorable. markets in the state, construction and oper- ation of the tidal project and its auxiliary Exploitation of the recently discovered would serve to regenerate the economy of deposits of base metals in the Bathurst-New- Maine, particularly in Washington County. castle area is also expected to stimulate the In addition to long-term beneficial effects, economy. The discovery of lead, zinc, construction of the tidal power project alone copper, and silver is of major economic would also produce an important short-term importance, and by 1980 mineral production impact on the economy of Maine resulting is expected to be second only to the pulp and from an investment of $100 million or more. paper industry as an employer and in value of The economy of Washington County would be product. Large deposits of high-grade ores, transformed during the six-year construction suitably located near tidewater, have already period of the project by the influx of several brought about a sizeable investment of ex- thousand workers and the generation of sub- ternal capital, and one 1,500-ton per day con- stantial new income from wage s alone. centrating mill has been put into operation. Important growth is also expected in the The economic effect of the tidal project in fishing and fish processing industries. New Brunswick resulting from the addition of Shellfish, particularly lobster s , constitute a large block of power from the tidal project a substantial part of the total .market value. and its auxiliary would be similar to that of Sharply increased ouput through mechaniza- any other block of power of equal size and tion and the growth of by-product use is ex- cost developed to satisfy the growing load pected to stimulate the future growth of the demand. The short- term economic benefits fishing industry. to the economy of Charlotte County would be substantial. Construction of the project, Because manufacturing in areas other than with attendant expenditures of $100 million or mineral, forest, and fish processing is not more to purchase materials and equipment, highly developed in New Brunswick, the would have a stimulating effect on the pro- efforts of the Maritime Provincial Govern- vincial economy. Substantial new income ments and the Maritime Boards of Trade to could be expected to stimulate retail trade, attract new industries to New Brunswick have and construction of the project would improve led to the formation of the Atlantic Provinces the lumber industry in the county. Economic Council. With well-developed transportation systems, port facilities, a Inherent in the name "Pas samaquoddy , " growing and dependable labor force and other derived from the Indian word "Peskutuma- assets, the future development of secondary quahdik, " meaning "place where the fish industries in the Province can be expected. are," or "place of the pollock,'' is the importance of the fisheries in the waters The tourist industry is recognized as a within the tidal project area. On the recom- growing segment of New Brunswick's econo- mendations of the International Passama- my, income from which is estimated to be quoddy Fisheries Board, two fishways to from 30 to 40 million dollars annually. A pass anadromous fish from the ocean into total of 1,370,000 people visited the Province Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays , and in 1958. Construction of the Pas samaquoddy the relocation, if necessary, of two lobster tidal power plant, by attracting an estimated pounds inthe upper pool, were included in the 800,000 or more visitors each year from the tidal project. By including these remedial United States and Canada, would further in- measures, the tidal project would have only crease the recreation industry. a minor residual effect on the fisheries of the region.

Since the tidal project would raise the level of the passamaquoddy Bay high pool and decrease the tidal range, navigation conditions would be improved in the St. Croix River estuary and at St. Andrews and other ports on Passamaquoddy Bay. In the low pool in Cobscook Bay, on the other hand, the beneficial effects of decreasing the tidal range would be partially offset by lowering the maximum level of the low pool to a point below the level of normal high tide. Naviga- tion in the lower pool in the Falls Island and Lubec area, where rapid tidal currents occur, would be improved during a considerable por- tion of the tide cycle. While the lower pool is being emptied, however, tidal velocities would occur equal to those under present conditions. In general, tidal velocities in the project area would be reduced, except in areas immediately adjacent to the gates when open.

Construction of the tidal power project would require relocation of part of State Lobster f ishzng Highway 190, one track of the Maine Central Railroad, and water lines and other utilities project. On this basis, the first cost of each coming from the north to Eastport, Maine. of the four project combinations, not including These utilities would be cut by the power- interest during construction, is as follows: house forebay channel excavated through the narrow neck of Moose Island. The cost of ( 1) Pas samaquoddy tidal these relocations, which would require con- project alone $484,000,000 struction of a highway and railroad bridge (2) Tidal project with all of across the powerhouse forebay, would be Rankin Rapids as auxiliary charged to the power project. $630,000,000 (3) Tidal project with auxiliary Construction of the dams, locks and gates capacity only at Rankin would provide foundations on which a system Rapids $515,500,000 of public highways could be built to serve both the United States and Canada. (4) Tidal project with Digde- guash pumped- storage The defense agencies of both United auxiliary $518,500,000 States and Canada concluded that construc- tion of the tidal power project would have no It is assumed that the financing of each effect on defense planning. It is estimated, project would be an undertaking of the two however, that the annual energy of 3,063 governments, and that the first cost of the million kilowatt hours generated by the project would be shared equally between the Passamaquoddy tidal plant in combination United States and Canada, just as the power with the Rankin Rapids hydroelectric plant is equally shared. The degree of economic would save 1,280,000 tons of coal, or ap- justification is measured by the ratio of proximately 5,700,000 barrels of oil, during annual benefits to annual costs. Annual each year of operation. This would preserve costs of the tidal project and its auxiliary 64 million tons of coal, or 585 million barrels include interest and amortization of the of oil, over a 50-year period. initial investment and the annual cost of operation and maintenance. PROJECT EVALUATION In accordance with the current Federal The benefits of the tidal power project practice in evaluating water resource pro- must exceed the cost to the taxpayer if it is to jects, the interest rate used for economic be economically sound. Accordingly, the analysis in the United States is 2 112 per- economic justification of the project depends cent. In Canada the interest rate is 4 118 upon whether its power can be produced more percent, which was the rate used in January economically than the least costly alternative 1958 by the Federal Government of Canada. method of developing an equivalent amount of Therefore, differences in interest rates and power. power values between the two countries led to computation of separate benefit- cost ratios Estimates of the cost of the tidal project for each country. The investment is amor- and its auxiliaries are based on United States tized over two periods, 50 years and 75 years, currency at price levels of January 1958. with allowances made for periodic major re- Estimated project costs were derived from placement and self insurance. the basic costs of labor, equipment, material and supplies as applied to the pre-determined Power benefits, the value of power pro- construction method planned for each major duced by the tidal project and its auxiliary, feature of the project. Equipment costs, are taken as equal to the cost of power gener- based on manufacturers' quotations in both ated by a steam-electric plant, with al- countries, are taken to be duty free, although lowaiice s for transmission lines and annual appropriate import duties were used for corn- transmission costs. Alternative steam- parison with equipment costs from foreign electric plants were assumed privately sources. The first cost, or construction financed in the United States, and financed by cost, includes an allowance for 10 percent The New Brunswick Electric Power Com- profit, 15 percent for contingencies, and 9 mission in Canada. percent for engineering, supervision and overhead. The cost of transmission lines Thus the ratio of benefit to cost for each were not included in the first costs, but have of the four project combinations was computed been accounted for in the evaluation of the by dividing the total annual benefits by the annual costs . C ONC LUSIONS

(1) A tidal power project using the waters (8) Because of differences in interest . of Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays can be rates prevailing in the two countries, and built and operated. The two-pool type of pro- because of different values of alternative ject is best suited for the site conditions in power, it was necessary to compute separate the area and the power markets it would benefit-cost ratios for United States and serve. The tidal project arrangement Canada. Economic evaluations, assurning selected makes best use of the site condi- 50-year and 75-year amortization periods, tions. and assuming that power output and project (2) The first cost (construction cosi) of the first cost would be equally divided between tidal power project by itself would be $484 the United States and Canada, are tabulated millio~~.With interest during construction, below: the investment would be $532.1 million. The tidal power project would have an installed 50-year amortization 75-year amortization capacity of 300,000 kilowatts and a dependa- Cost per Cost per ble capacity of 95,000 kilowatts. Average Benefit kw.-hr., Benefit kw. -hr., annual energy would be 1,843 million cost ratio (mills) cost ratio (mills) kilowatt-hours . However, for maximum Tidal project alone power benefits, the tidal power project would United States 0.60 10.8 0.70 9.3 have to be combined with an auxiliary power Canada 0.34 14.9 0.37 13.7 source. Tidal project and all (3) The most favorable project combin- of Rankin Rapids United States 1.31 8.4 1.53 7.2 ation is the tidal power project operated in Canada 0.58 11.5 0.63 10.6 conjunction with a river hydroelectric Tidal project and auxiliary built at the Rankin Rapids site on incremental capacity the upper Saint John River in Maine. The only at Rankin ~a~rds United States 0.93 11.5 1.08 9.9 combined cost of the tidal project and the Canada 0.42 15.8 0.45 14.5 Rankin Rapids auxiliary is $630 million. Tidal project and With interest during construction, the Digdeguash pumped- investment would be $687.7 million. The storage auxiliary dependable capacity of this combination would United States 0.91 12.2 1.06 10.5 be 555,000 kilowatts, and average annual Canada 0.42 16.8 0.46 15.4 generation would be 3,063 million kilowatt- hour s. (9) The inclusion of taxes foregone with project costs is not the practice in the (4) Construction of the tidal project - economic justification of public projects in Rankin Rapids combination would increase low Canada, and due to the international nature flows in the lower Saint John River by a of the project, such taxes have not been considerable amount, thus increasing applied to United States' costs. However, if substantially the usefulness of the river for they were included in United States1 costs, downstream generation of power. Down- the benefit to cost ratio of the most favorable stream benefits accruing to existing power project combination would be reduced to plants were included in the economic 1.10 for the 50-year amortization period and evaluation. to 1.25 for the 75-year period. (5) The combination of the tidal power (10) By including appropriate remedial project and the installation and use of 260,000 measures in the design of the tidal power kilowatts of capacity only at Rankin Rapids structura s , the construction, maintenance for firming up the output of the tidal power and operation of the tidal power project would project would cost $515.5 million. With have only a minor residual effect on the interest during construction, the investment fisheries of the region. would be $565.7 million. This combination (11) Considerable annual recreation would provide a total dependable capacity of benefits would grow out of the construction 355,000 kilowatts and an average annual and operation of the tidal power project. generation of 1,843 million kilowatt-hours. However, the monetary value of these benefits was not included in the economic (6) The tidal power project and the Digdeguash pumped- storage auxiliary would evaluation. cost$518.5 million. With interestduring (12) Assuming an equal division of power construction, the investment would be output and of first costs between United States $568.9 million. The dependable capacity and Canada, construction of the tidal power would be 323,000 kilowatts, and average project with all of Rankin Rapids as auxiliary annual generation would be 1 ,759 million is not an economically justified project for kilowatt-hours. Canada. (7) The total output from the tidal power (13) The Passamaquoddy tidal project and project and Rankin Rapids hydroelectric plant Rankin Rapids combination, if built entirely can be absorbed readily by the. growing utility by the United States at an interest rate of markets of Maine and New Brunswick. 2 112 percent, is economically justified. PERTINENT DATA PASSAMAQUODDY TIDAL POWER PROJECT Location Dams

Passamaquoddy Bay and Cobscook Bay, in Earth and rockfill type Maine and New Brunswick. Total length, ft. Max. height, ft. High Po01 Crest elevation, ft., m. s. 1.

Passamaquoddy Bay, Maine, and New Brunswick. Filling and Emptying Gates Area, sq. mi. 101 Ninety 30- x 30-foot vertical-lift, Max. operating level, ft. , m. s .l. 12.2 submerged venturi filling gates. Min. operating level, ft. , m. s .l. 3.0 Seventy 30- x 30-foot vertical-lift submerged venturi emptying gates. Low Pool Navigation Locks Cobscook Bay, Maine, and Friar Head Harbour Passage, ft. 415 x 60 x 21 Roads, New Brunswick. Western Passage, ft. 415 x 60 x 21 Area, sq. mi. 4 1 Little Letite, ft. 95 x 25 x 12 Max. operating level, ft. m. s .l. 0.0 , Quoddy Roads, ft. 95 x 25 x 12 Min. operating level, ft. , m. s .l. --12.9 Principal Quantities Powerhouse Rock and earthwork Outdoor type; two 220-ton gantry cranes; Dams, cu. yd. thirty 320-inch diameter fixed-blade, Cofferdams, cu. yd. propeller type, vertical-axis turbines Misc. fill, cu. yd. direct connected to 10,000-kw., 13,800- Waste, cu. yd. volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle generators turning Concrete, cu. yd. at 40 r.p.m.; average power head 11 feet. Steel, tons RANKIN RAPIDS HYDRO AUXILIARY

Location Spillway Six 30- x 40-foot taintor gates Saint John River, Maine, 291 miles Crest elevation, ft., m. s.1. 830 above mouth. Design discharge, c.f. s. 167,000 Streamflow Low Level Outlets

Ave. annual runoff, ac.-ft. 4,950,000 Two 24-foot diameter tunnels controlled Max. discharge, c. f. s. 90,400 by four 90-inch fixed-cone dispersion Min. discharge, c.f. s. 3 73 valves . Ave. discharge, c,f. s. 6,780 Powerhouse Reservoir Indoor type, concrete. Eight Francis- type, vertical-axis turbines, ave . head Drainage area, sq. mi. 4,060 284 ft. , direct connected to 50,000-kw. , Max. operating level, ft., m. s.1. 860 13,800-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle Limit of drawdown, ft., m.s.1. 82 3 generators turning at 164 r. p.m. Useable storage, ac. -ft. 2,800,000 Total storage, ac. -ft. 8,230,000 Principal Quantities Area, max. operating level, ac. 93,300 Rock and earthwork 1 Main Embankment Dams, cu. yd. 33,000,000 Miscellaneous, cu. yd. 1,500,000 Crest length, ft. 7,400 Concrete, cu. yd. 400,000 Max. height, ft. 333 Structural steel, tons 19,000 Crest elevation, ft., m. s.1. 87 5 Reinforcing steel, tons 12,000 DIGDEGUASH PUMPED -STORAGE AUXILIARY

Location Powerhouse

Mouth of Digdeguash River, New Indoor type, concrete. Four adjustable Brunswick. feathering-blade pump-turbine s; mean pumping head 158ft. ;- mean generating head 154 ft. Four motor-generator s, Streamflow 100 r.p.m., rated at 84,300 h.p., 13.8 kv., as motors; 68,300 kv. -ao, Ave . annual runoff, ac. -ft. 265,000 13.8 kv. , 0.95 P.F. , as generators.

Reservoir Spillway

Drainage area, sq. mi. 176 Three 25- x 40-foot taintor gates Max. operating level, ft. , m. s.1. 180 Crest elevation, ft. , m. s.1. 155 Min. o~eratinglevel, ft. , m. s .l. 140 Design discharge, c.f. s. 75,000 .2 Useable storage, ac. -ft. 204,000 Total storage, ac. -ft. 30 8,500 Principal Quantities Rock and earthwork Embankments Dams, cu. yd. 1,881,000 Miscellaneous, cu. yd. 269,000 Impervious core, rock- shell. Concrete, cu. yd. 130,000 Total length, ft. 5,500 Structural steel, tons 3,000 Max. height, ft. 190 Reinforcing steel, tons 2,400

POWER OUTPUT AND CONSTRUCTION COST

In this table it is assumed that power output and project first cost would be shared equally by the United States and Canada. The initial investment includes 2 112 percent interest during construction on the United States' share of the first cost and 4 1I8 ~ercentinterest on Canada's share of the first cost. Costs are based on price levels of January 1958.

Average Total annual project Dependable generation first cost Initial investment Project capacity (millions of (millions of (millions of dollars) Combination (kw kw. -hr.) dollars) United States Canada

Tidal project alone 95,000 1,843 484.0 260.2 271.9

Tidal project and all of Rankin Rapids 555,000 3,063 630.0 336.8 350.9

Tidal project and incremental capacity only at Rankin Rapids 355,000 1,843 515.5 276.8 288.9

Tidal project and Digdeguash pumped- storage capacity 323,000 1,759