sign in sign up
<<
Home , Sadness

Parents’ Views of Early Social and Emotional Development More and Less Than Meets the Eye

EMILY K. NEWTON ROSS A. THOMPSON University of California, Davis

ll parents have concerns about their children’s and emotional development is less consistent. development. Is my child always going to bite people Parents seem to be underestimating the when she gets mad? Will he always have these tantrums? emotional and psychological abilities of their Is she learning the skills necessary to do well in school? All young infants yet overestimating the self- of these concerns relate to how children typically develop. regulatory abilities of their toddlers. On one When parents are equipped with information about hand, many parents reported that they did child development and the age ranges in which we expect not think young infants could feel sadness or or that they could sense sadness or certain developments to occur, much of this can be alleviated. In in their caregivers. However, research has addition,A when parents know what they can do to help their child learn or shown that infants are capable of expressing develop social and emotional skills, they have some appropriate influence over their child’s development.

All parents have concerns about their that social experiences, such as playing with children’s development. Is my child always other children, are important for social and Abstract going to bite people when she gets mad? Will emotional growth and that warm parenting— Parents responding to the ZERO he always have these tantrums? Is she learning characterized by comforting children and TO THREE Parenting Infants the skills necessary to do well in school? All setting clear rules and limits—can help foster and Toddler Today poll showed of these concerns relate to how children social and emotional development. Parents excellent understanding of early typically develop. When parents are equipped were also exceptionally good at answering childhood development, but with information about child development questions phrased as hypothetical stories, they also underestimated young and the age ranges in which we expect certain where their knowledge of child development infants’ emotional sensitivity and developments to occur, much of this worry was applied to specific situations. They overestimated toddlers’ capacities for can be alleviated. In addition, when parents recognized, for example, that a toddler might self-regulation. This article reviews know what they can do to help their child venture into forbidden areas out of , these results along with research learn or develop social and emotional skills, not willful disobedience, and that a shy child findings on the complex emotional lives they have some appropriate influence over should be coaxed, not forced, to socialize of infants, the ways that caregivers’ their child’s development. with peers. Thus, parents understand some development in the One of the take-home messages from wonderful strategies for helping their first months of life, the development the ZERO TO THREE Parenting Infants and children grow socially and emotionally, and of self-awareness, and the extended Toddlers Today poll is that parents have an they are adept at applying these strategies in period of time necessary for developing excellent understanding of some specific hypothetical stories that mimicked typical self-regulation in the preschool years. strategies to support their children’s real-life situations. The importance of attuning to infants’ development. Parents understand that Although the majority of parents internal experiences and of facilitating reading to their children and having a understand some important ways to promote the development of self-regulatory language-rich environment promotes development, their understanding of the skills with warm and consistent cognitive development. They also know developmental milestones related to social caregiving is also discussed.

10 Zero to Three March 2010 and responding to these emotions in the first months of life. In addition, infants’ emotional well-being seems to be linked to the sadness and anger expressed by their parents. On the other hand, many parents expected that children could control their emotions and share and take turns with other children by age 3. However, research on regulation and studies of brain development indicate that these are, at best, very early emerging abilities at this age. By sharing information with parents about social and emotional milestones, and the developmentally appropriate ways of dealing with common social and emotional issues in the first 3 years of life, we can support and empower their parenting efforts. The Emotional and Psychological Life of the Infant he majority of parents responding to the parent poll reported that children Tunder the age of 6 months do not experience sadness and fear and that children Photo: ©iStockphoto.com/Yu Liang Wong under the age of 6 months do not sense when parents are angry or sad and, thus, are not Young infants experience and , as well as sadness and anger, early in the first affected by their parents’ negative emotions. year of life. Nearly 55% of parents believe that children do not feel good or bad about themselves until after the age of 2, some of them thinking that they may actually begin to feel fearful earlier this is so of their younger infants. this occurs much later. These findings reflect (Sullivan & Lewis, 1998). In the early months, Parents responding to the parenting poll a general underestimation of the depth of the infants express their fear in a variety of ways, reported that they did not think very young psychological and emotional life of the infant. including disengaging from a fearful situation infants could detect sadness and anger Infants are capable of and sensing a by redirecting their or by showing in their parents. Although it may not be wide range of emotions in the first few months general distress. For example, a young infant apparent to parents in their daily interactions of life, and the impact of parents’ emotions on may respond with a look away or become with infants, infants are very sensitive to young infants is incredibly powerful. In fact, if generally distressed when a large dog quickly parents’ emotional expressions. In fact, parents express fear or sadness at high levels approaches rather than showing a typical infants are most sensitive to the emotional because of marital conflict or , the “fear” . Young infants may expressions of the adults with whom they parent–child relationship can be disrupted cling on to a parent or hide their face in a are in contact the most (Kahana-Kahlman & and children can develop affective difficulties parent’s shoulder when startled by a loud Walker-Andrews, 2001). Infants can detect of their own. A substantial amount of research noise. Later in the first year, infants are more differences in their mothers’ facial and vocal has been conducted on social and emotional likely to show facial expressions of fear in expressions of sadness, anger, and joy as development in infancy, showing that young these expected situations (Bennet, Bendersky, early as 10 weeks of age. Infants respond to infants have remarkably rich emotional lives & Lewis, 2005). their parents’ expressions of joy with joyful and that parents’ awareness of their infants’ It is possible that parents of very young expressions of their own, they respond to emotions and perceptions is important for infants do not think they experience sadness parents’ anger expression with distress or their social and emotional well-being. or fear because infants do not show a typical with similar looks of anger, and they respond “fear face.” It is clear, however, from research to their parents’ expressions of sadness by Emotional Experiences in Infancy on children’s behavioral responses (e.g., moving their mouths or sucking their thumbs, A young infant’s world is filled with loud turning away from frightening noises and perhaps showing that they are trying to noises, unexpected events, and new faces. situations) that they are experiencing fear and comfort themselves (Haviland & Lelwica, The infant is constantly experiencing new sadness before 6 months of age. 1987). As they get older, infants continue to and interesting sensations and emotions. show different responses to the facial and Although we think of young infants as Infants Detect Others’ Emotions vocal expressions of emotion in their parents buffered from stress by their psychological When a newly crawling 8-month-old and in unfamiliar adults (Montague & Walker- immaturity, research shows us that this is reaches a downward slope in the grass, he Andrews, 2001; Termine & Izard, 1988). In far from true. Young infants experience looks back to his caregiver with a look of everyday situations, of course, young infants joy and interest but also sadness and anger apprehension. The caregiver expresses a are responding to the combination of facial early in the first year of life, and their facial warm smile and cheerful words, and the infant and vocal expressions of emotion in an adult, expressions reflect these distinct emotions by smiles and cautiously crawls down the slope. such as an adult’s angry tone of voice and mad 2 2 months of age (Izard et al., 1995). Infants’ When infants reach this age, parents seem to facial expression. By 5 months, infants can tell facial expressions of fear seem to appear be aware that their infants perceive others’ the difference between joyful and angry vocal later, between 4 and 6 months, although emotions, yet parents are less likely to think expressions alone (Fernald, 1993).

March 2010 Zero to Three 11 circumstances and use the adult’s facial experiences of interacting with a depressed expression to guide their subsequent behavior parent. It appears that infants of depressed (Moses, Baldwin, Rosicky, & Tidball, 2001). mothers are, in fact, showing behavioral Social referencing shows that infants detect and brain patterns that are similar to those emotions in adults and that their behavior is characteristic of depression. affected by the adults’ emotions. Infants’ early experiences of disrupted interactions with a depressed mother can lead Infants Are Affected by Others’ to potential mental health concerns (NSCDC, Emotions 2010). Infants of depressed mothers are more In reporting that young children do not likely to be depressed or anxious later in life perceive parents’ sad and angry emotions, than infants of mentally well mothers. The parents were also indicating that young best intervention for a depressed mother and children would not be affected by their her child is one that targets their relationship parents’ negative emotions. Researchers by enabling mothers to tune in and interact have shown that infants are sensitive to these more positively with her infant. Although emotions in circumstances when they are treatment for the mother alone can alleviate typically expressed by parents and also when some of her symptoms of depression, these they are symptoms of an adult mental health treatments do not seem to affect the child concern. As noted earlier, very young infants in the same way that relationship-based respond to parents’ expressions of sadness treatments do (Nylen, Moran, Franklin, & and anger emotionally: They turn away or self- O’Hara, 2006). comfort when they see their parents behaving Infants are also sensitive to parents’ sadly, and they express distress when their expressions of anger. Infants exposed to parents are angry (Haviland & Lelwica, parents’ frightening behaviors (e.g., angry Photo: ©iStockphoto.com/Jaren Wicklund 1987; Montague & Walker-Andrews, 2001). outbursts, high levels of physical or emotional Therefore, even in typical daily interactions, parental conflict, or child-directed abuse) Even in typical daily interactions, children are emotionally affected by their can develop disorganized attachments children detect, and are emotionally parents’ emotional expressions. These with those parents. The that infants affected by, their parents’ emotional occasional experiences of parental negative typically develop in their parents does not expressions. emotion may not be detrimental to infants’ develop, and infants in these situations both well-being (although parents should be aware fear and need their parents, leading them When infants are not yet mobile, they that their emotions can have an effect on their to respond to parents fearfully (Bernier & spend a good deal of time in face-to-face young children), but persistent expressions Meins, 2008). Children who develop these interaction with their parents and primary of anger or sadness could lead to relational types of disorganized relationships with their caregivers. These experiences of give-and- and affective problems in very young children, parents early in life are more likely to develop take are important ones for emotional and in some cases, these could lead to more behavior problems later in childhood (Lyons- development. Infants begin to see that their serious problems that persist throughout Ruth, Easterbrooks, & Cibelli, 1997; Madigan, own expressions of or distress childhood and into adulthood without Moran, Schuengel, Pederson, & Otten, 2007). are met with similar, contingent responses appropriate intervention. It is difficult to know exactly how children’s from others. These experiences validate the Maternal depression has been widely disorganized relationships lead to behavior infant’s own emotional experiences as well as studied in relation to infants’ emotional problems, but it is likely due to the lack of teach her about other people’s emotions. For development. Maternal depression affects typical emotional and social experiences example, an infant’s expressions of sadness or between 10% and 20% of mothers every year. early in the first years of life. When parents distress may be met by the adult’s initial looks Researchers have found that children raised do not engage in the positive emotional give- of concern, followed by looks of happiness as by a depressed mother have differences in and-take characteristic of early interactions the adult attempts to bring the child back to a brain development, physical development, and help children to understand and manage happy . Through these experiences, the and emotional development when compared their emotions through these exchanges, it infant may learn some rudimentary aspects of with children raised by a mentally well is more likely that children will lack healthy, emotion regulation as the adult manages the mother (National Scientific Council on the constructive self-regulatory skills in the child’s . They also develop Developing Child [NSCDC], 2010). These following years. Researchers are continuing in the emotional responsiveness of their differences begin very early in life. Parents to investigate the pathways from frightening caregivers. and caregivers experiencing depression may parenting to disorganized attachments to By the time infants are mobile, they are express high levels of sadness, and they may behavioral outcomes (Bernier & Meins, 2008; able to use their parents’ and caregivers’ withdraw from interaction with their infants, Thompson & Raikes, 2003). It is important emotional expressions to help them navigate leading their infants to be more withdrawn to note, however, that excessive amounts of their environments. As described in the than typical infants during face-to-face anger in the infant’s early life can have long- aforementioned example, an infant may look interactions with the parent and with other lasting detrimental effects on how they relate to a parent or caregiver when he approaches nondepressed adults (Field et al., 1988). to other people. new physical obstacles, but he might also do In addition, infants of depressed parents so when encountering novel social situations show different brain activity patterns that Young Children Feel Good and Bad or when he wants something that is off limits are characteristic of emotional sadness and About the Self (e.g., pulling on the living room curtains). In social withdrawal (Field & Diego, 2008). In a classic experimental task of self- what researchers call social referencing, infants Thus, infants seem to be developing a way recognition, the child’s mother places a spot look to the parent or caregiver in uncertain of interacting with others based on their of rouge on a child’s nose. If the child is older

12 Zero to Three March 2010 than 15 or 16 months of age, she will touch responded to the child’s approved and plane, wearing matching pilot hats. These her nose when she sees her reflection in a disapproved behaviors. Indeed, parents’ two different responses reflect both a matu- mirror. This shows that she recognizes that gentle reinforcement of their standards is ration of skills and the importance of context the reflection in the mirror is herself and not associated with children’s expression of self- for self-regulation. When young children are some other child. She might also run to the conscious emotions, attempts to master stressed or tired—just like when adults are mother and put her face in her mother’s lap. difficult tasks, and appeals to the parent stressed or tired—they will be less able to reg- She might cover her face and turn away from for feedback (Barrett, 2005). As children ulate their emotions. When young children other people in the room. She might bite her approach the end of the second year, they are very young, they will also be less able to lip and giggle. These are all signs that she have internalized some of their caregivers’ regulate their emotions. is feeling embarrassed about how the spot standards for behavior, and their experience Parents were most concerned about changed her appearance. Although we often of self-conscious emotions reflects this. their children’s temper tantrums and think of young children as lacking the ability children’s abilities to control their emotions, to self-reflect, they are actually quite capable The Self-Regulatory Skills of the according to the ZERO TO THREE parent of feeling embarrassed when they encounter Toddler poll. These behaviors, along with children’s unexpected attention from other people. They magine a 3-year-old at preschool. She biting, fighting, and hitting, were among the are also capable of feeling guilty when they do is new to preschool, and initially her greatest child-rearing challenges that parents something that is socially unacceptable and Itears freely when her father leaves identified, and each relates to developing self- proud when they accomplish a difficult task. her there for the day. She sees a favorite toy regulation of young children. It is interesting, Self-representation—the idea of “me”— across the room and picks it up. Another child however, that parents also seemed to have develops late in the second year of life (Lewis, snatches it out of her hand. She dissolves into higher expectations than appropriate for 2003). As certain areas of the brain mature again. Imagine the same child 1 year children’s self-regulatory abilities. Many (most notably, the temporo-parital junction), later as a 4-year-old. She has adjusted to the parents reported that children under the children begin to recognize that they are preschool environment, and she gives her age of 3 can control their emotions when individuals distinct from other people (Lewis father a small wave and kiss at the door as she frustrated, and most parents thought that & Carmody, 2008). As self-representation runs over to the dramatic play area. When children under the age of 3 could share develops, children begin to make rough another child snatches the pilot’s hat from and take turns with other children. In fact, comparisons between their own behaviors her hands, she tells the child, “I wasn’t done experts agree that children cannot do either and the standards and behaviors of others, with that!” and they begin a hunt for more of these things until they are between the leading to the expression of self-conscious hats. Soon they are both pilots flying the air- ages of 3 to 5, and because there are individual emotions such as , , , and late in the second year (Barrett, 2005). Children as young as 17 months of age show signs of embarrassment and guilt when they engage in socially unacceptable behaviors, such as breaking something of value (Barrett, 2005). They also show clear expressions of pride when their actions or creations (e.g., a drawing) are praised by another. Thus, young toddlers can feel good or bad about themselves from a remarkably early age, and this ability is closely related to their developing sense of self. Self-conscious emotions are, by nature, rooted in young children’s relationships with the important people in their lives (Lagattuta & Thompson, 2007). For a child to feel guilt or pride, he must understand that the important adults in his life have external standards for his behavior. A rudimentary foundation for this understanding can be seen in social referencing. Through social referencing, infants begin to understand that others have important emotions related to shared events and experiences. As children begin to gain a sense of self throughout the second year of life, they recognize that their parents’ and caregivers’ emotional responses are judgments of their own behaviors. When a child builds a tower of blocks, the caregiver celebrates! When a child dumps a bowl of

cereal on the floor, the parent admonishes Photo: ©iStockphoto.com/Rohit Seth him. Children’s self-conscious emotions are directly related to the ways in which Parents support their child’s social and emotional development by tuning in to her parents and caregivers have repeatedly internal experiences.

March 2010 Zero to Three 13 differences in self-regulation, many children pretend play and control their impulses by of the development of self-regulation can may not have these skills until kindergarten. A logically thinking things through, resulting in help parents and caregivers support the network of brain areas and behavioral abilities fewer peer conflicts. These emergent abilities development of these skills in young children. must develop before children are capable quickly break down, however, if children are Warm, responsive parenting characterized of controlling their emotions in basic ways overly stressed or tired (Bronson, 2001). by appropriate rules and structure are key for or sharing with peers. Parents’ perceptions The brain regions governing self- the development of self-regulation. Mothers of their greatest parenting challenges— regulation do not fully mature until early who are more responsive have children who temper tantrums, controlling emotions, and adulthood. Indeed, certain areas of the are better able to control their behaviors minimizing aggression—may be closely linked prefrontal cortex necessary for controlling (Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan, 2000; Spinrad to their overestimation of what children one’s behaviors and making responsible et al., 2007). Children’s emotion regulation should be able to do at these ages. They wish decisions do not fully develop until people is influenced by parents’ sensitive responses that their young children would quickly are in their 20s. The expectation that young to their feelings, constructive parent– learn to manage these problem behaviors children will be able to control their impulses child conversations about emotions, and a themselves. or manage their emotions, especially family emotional climate with manageable Children have some important self- during stressful events (e.g., when children expectations of children’s emotions regulatory abilities before the age of 3. are frustrated or upset) is misplaced. So (Thompson & Meyer, 2007). It is important Biological maturation and brain development what needs to develop for children to have for parents and caregivers to assist children help infants shift from erratic sleep cycles to some of these skills by the time they enter in their self-regulatory efforts by validating a typical day-and-night routine (Diamond, kindergarten, and how can adults be helpful in their emotions, talking constructively about 2002; Posner & Rothbart, 2006). Toddlers can this developing process? emotions and emotional situations, and explore toys for sustained periods, and they creating manageable emotion expectations can occasionally change their behavior when The Many Components of based on children’s existing abilities. parents give warnings. By the age of 3, children Self-Regulation can focus their attention for longer periods Self-regulation is not a single thing that Tuning in to Young Children’s and follow simple instructions (Bronson, develops in . A network of developing Social and Emotional Experiences 2001). By the age of 5, children can solve abilities must coordinate for a young child ne of the most important ways problems and plan their activities ahead of to stifle a temper tantrum, share an item he for parents to support children’s time, which allows them to engage in complex wants to keep using, or make a plan. Only as Osocial and emotional development several aspects of self-regulation develop— is by tuning in to their child’s internal expe- inhibition, working memory, and cognitive riences. Rather than perceiving the baby as a flexibility—can a young child start to gain thing that needs constant attention and care, control of the emotional responses that parents can tune in to the inner social and Learn More first rise to the surface during challenging emotional experiences of that infant and rec- moments (Thompson, 2009). Inhibition is ognize that the baby is a small person with an Publications the ability to stop an automatic response, emotional and psychological life and who is Self-Regulation in Early Childhood: such as the emotional reaction of someone vulnerable to social and emotional difficul- Nature and Nurture grabbing a desired toy from another child’s ties. The brain—and the self-regulatory skills M. B. Bronson (2000) hands. Consider the game of Simon Says. that develop as the brain develops—grows New York: Guilford Many preschoolers will not be able to inhibit within an environment of important and The Amazing Infant the action of touching their head when they meaningful relationships. Children’s expe- T. Field (2007) hear, “Touch your head,” even though Simon riences with parents, caregivers, and peers New York: Wiley-Blackwell did not say it. By the age of 5, most children are important contributors to how and when can capably inhibit these responses. Working social and emotional milestones are reached. The Emotional Life of the Toddler memory is another important aspect of self- An important influence on children’s A. F. Lieberman (1995) regulation. Without keeping a certain amount emotional and psychological understanding, New York: Free Press of information in mind and manipulating it, as well as their self-regulatory skills, is how the From Neurons to Neighborhoods: children cannot plan their responses or their parent–child relationship functions very early The Science of Early Childhood solutions to social and cognitive problems in life. Parents who are more tuned in to their Development (e.g., devising a plan to share a toy or take infant’s internal lives will have more socially National Research Council & Institute of turns with it). Cognitive flexibility—or the and emotionally competent young children. Medicine (2000). In J. P. Shonkoff & D. A. Phillips ability to change perspective, attention, or Maternal mind-mindedness—mothers’ (Eds.), Board on Children, , and Families; focus—is a key component to regulating recognition that their infants have mental Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and one’s behaviors. A child engaging in a temper lives—is a key contributor to infants’ growing Education tantrum is usually unable to shift their psychological well-being (Meins et al., 2003). Washington, DC: National Academy Press attention to a new thing (e.g., “You can’t Mothers who are tuned in to what their infants have the candy bar in the store, but you can want, need, and understand are more likely to The Developing Mind [Theme Issue] have a fruit snack when we get home”) or have infants who bond closely with them and Zero to Three Journal (2008, May), 28(5) take the perspective of another (e.g., “It’s grow to understand the mental lives of others really embarrassing for me when you do this (Meins et al., 2002). Mothers’ insightfulness— Web Site in public”). All three of these aspects of self- their ability to consider the perspective of the National Scientific Council on the regulation are important for young children to infant and empathize with that perspective— Developing Child control their emotional and social responses also relates to how their infants develop www.developingchild.net in socially appropriate ways. Understanding relationships with them and develop social the complexity and the extended timeline and emotional skills. Mothers who are more

14 Zero to Three March 2010 insightful are also more sensitive caregivers, gest a need for greater understanding of early understanding of typical development that and they are more likely to have infants social and emotional milestones and offers will allow them to support their children’s with secure attachments (Koren-Karie, promise for the benefits that greater infor- social and emotional development. A Oppenheim, Dolev, Sher, & Etzio-Carasso, mation and understanding might provide to 2002). Attuning to an infant’s internal developing parent–child relationships. world can help parents develop reasonable Infants and toddlers have rich Emily K. Newton is a doctoral student in expectations of young children’s developing psychological and emotional lives, yet psychology at the University of California, skills, as well as promote a sensitive and they are still developing important skills Davis, where she studies how early relationships responsive relationship. for harnessing their psychological and influence emotional and social development emotional knowledge. Infants have amazing in infancy and toddlerhood. She holds an MA Conclusion abilities to read and respond to their in Child Development from California State arents responding to the ZERO TO own and others’ emotions, but the skills University, Sacramento. Before entering the THREE Parenting Infants and Tod- necessary for controlling those emotions doctoral program, she worked as the infant head Pdlers poll showed an interesting and and behaviors require a substantial period teacher at the Early Childhood Lab School at the unexpected pattern of responses. Parents of time to develop. They are remarkably University of California, Davis. are underestimating their young infants’ vulnerable to their parents’ and caregivers’ emotional and psychological experiences, responses to them and to disruptions of their Ross A. Thompson, PhD, is professor of but they are overestimating their toddlers’ environments. By tuning into their infants’ psychology at the University of California, self-regulatory skills. These findings are illu- rich psychological and emotional experiences, Davis. As director of the Social and Emotional minated by parents’ reports of their biggest parents can become more aware of the skills Development Laboratory, he studies parent–child concerns about their young infants—tan- and challenges of emotional and social relationships and the growth of psychological trums, biting, hitting, problems with sharing. development and help facilitate the skills understanding in young children, including All of these issues relate to toddlers’ self-reg- necessary for emotion regulation and self- emotion understanding, conscience development, ulatory skills. However, parents may also be regulation. By helping parents recognize the and self-awareness. He also works on the missing the influence of the emotional cli- emotional and social skills of the young infant applications of developmental science to public mate of the family on infants’ emotional and the burgeoning self-regulatory skills of policy, including school readiness, early childhood growth. Taken together, these responses sug- the toddler, we can empower them with an mental health, and early intervention.

References Development, 59, 1569–1579. and its role in development. Annals of the Haviland, J. M., & Lelwica, M. (1987). The New York Academy of Sciences, 1001, 104–133. Barrett, K. C. (2005). The origins of social emo- induced affect response: 10-week-old infants’ Lewis, M., & Carmody, D. P. (2008). Self- tions and self-regulation in toddlerhood: New responses to three emotion expressions. representation and brain development. evidence. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 953–979. Developmental Psychology, 23, 97–104. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1329–1334. Bennett, D. S., Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. Izard, C. E., Fantauzzo, C. A., Castle, J. M., Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M. A., & (2005). Does the organization of emotional Haynes, O. M., Rayia, M. F., & Cibelli, C. D. (1997). Attachment strategies, expression change over time? Facial expressiv- Putnam, P. H. (1995). The ontogeny and signif- infant mental lag, and maternal depressive ity from 4 to 12 months. Infancy, 8, 167–187. icance of infants’ facial expressions in the first symptoms: Predictors of internalizing and Bernier, A., & Meins, E. (2008). A threshold 9 months of life. Developmental Psychology, 34, externalizing problems at age 7. Developmental approach to understanding the origins of 997–1013. Psychology, 33, 681–692. attachment disorganization. Developmental Kahana-Kalman, R., & Walker-Andrews, A. S. Madigan, S., Moran, G., Schuengel, C., Psychology, 44, 969–982. (2001). The role of person familiarity in young Pederson, D. R., & Otten, R. (2007). Bronson, M. B. (2001). Self-regulation in early child- infants’ perception of emotional expressions. Unresolved maternal attachment represen- hood: Nature and nurture. New York: Guilford. Child Development, 72, 352–369. tations, disrupted maternal behavior, and Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of pre- Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. disorganized attachment in infancy: Links to frontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: toddler behavior problems. Journal of Child Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochem- Continuity and change, antecedents, and impli- Psychology and , 48, 1042–1050. istry. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), cations for social development. Developmental Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 466–503). Psychology, 36, 220–232. Clark-Carter, D., Das Gupta, M., New York: Oxford University Press. Koren-Karie, N., Oppenheim, D., Dolev, S., Fradley, E., et al. (2003). Pathways to Fernald, A. (1993). Approval and disapproval: Sher, E., & Etzion-Carasso, A. (2002). understanding mind: Construct validity and Infant responsiveness to vocal affect in famil- Mothers’ insightfulness regarding their predictive validity of maternal mind-minded- iar and unfamiliar languages. Child Development, infants’ internal experience: Relations with ness. Child Development, 74, 1194–1211. 64, 657–674. maternal sensitivity and infant attachment. Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Field, T., & Diego, M. (2008). Maternal depres- Developmental Psychology, 38, 534–542. Das Gupta, M., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. sion effects on infant frontal EEG asymmetry. Lagatutta, K., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). The (2002). Maternal mind-mindedness and attach- International Journal of Neuroscience, 118, development of self-conscious emotions: ment security as predictors of theory of mind 1081–1108. Cognitive processes and social influences. In understanding. Child Development, 73, 1715–1726. Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., R. W. Robins & J. Tracy (Eds.), Self-conscious Montague, D. P. F., & Walker-Andrews, A. S. Bendell, D., Schanberg, S., et al. (1998). emotions (2nd ed., pp. 91–113). New York: (2001). Peekaboo: A new look at infants’ per- Infants of depressed mothers show “depressed” Guilford. ception of emotion expressions. Developmental behavior even with nondepressed adults. Child Lewis, M. (2003). The emergence of consciousness Psychology, 37, 826–838.

March 2010 Zero to Three 15 Moses, L. J., Baldwin, D. A., Rosicky, J. G., & Journal, 27, 327–343. joy and sadness. Developmental Psychology, 24, Tidball, G. (2001). Evidence for referential Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Educating 223–229. understanding in the emotions domain at twelve the human brain. Washington, DC: American Thompson, R. A. (2009). Doing what doesn’t come and eighteen months. Child Development, 72, Psychological Association. naturally: The development of self-regulation. 718–735. Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Gaertner, D., Zero to Three, 30(2), 33–39. National Scientific Council on the Popp, T., Smith, C. L., Kupfer, A., et al. Thompson, R. A., & Meyer, S. (2007). The social- Developing Child. (2010). Maternal depres- (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and ization of emotion regulation in the family. In sion can undermine the development of young toddlers’ effortful control to child’s adjust- J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. ment and social competence. Developmental (pp. 249–368). New York: Guilford. Retrieved from http://developingchild.har- Psychology, 43, 1170–1186. Thompson, R. A., & Raikes, H. A. (2003). Toward vard.edu/library/reports_and_working_papers/ Sullivan, M. W., & Lewis, M. (1989). Emotion and the next quarter-century: Conceptual and working_papers/wp8/ cognition in infancy: Facial expressions during methodological challenges for attachment Nylen, K. J., Moran, T. E., Franklin, C. L., & contingency learning. International Journal of theory. Development and Psychopathology, 15, O’hara, M. W. (2006). Maternal depression: Behavioral Development, 12, 221–237. 691–718. A review of relevant treatment approaches Termine, N. T., & Izard, C. E. (1988). Infants’ for mothers and infants. Infant Mental Health responses to their mothers’ expressions of

16 Zero to Three March 2010