Infant Social and Emotional Development Emerging Competence in a Relational Context

CHAPTER 6

Katherine L. Rosenblum Carolyn J. Dayton Maria Muzik

Perhaps no aspect of developmental change is Changes in each of these domains across the more salient to parents than their young child’s first years of life are dramatic. The newborn social and emotional behavior over the first infant arrives with limited capacity for self- years of life. The emergence of the first social regulation; emotion expressions are most likely smile is anticipated eagerly; parents worry about reflective of biologically based signals, evolu- the meaning of their infant’s cries. Emotion and tionarily designed to engage the other in pro- socially relevant words dominate parents’ early viding protection and care, and the infant still descriptions of their young child’s personality: depends on the other to respond to his or her “He’s such a happy baby,” “He’s so shy,” or “She physical and emotional needs. In just a matter just loves people.” of months, the infant’s emotional experience is The fascination with development in these markedly more complex. The infant can engage domains is by no means limited to parents. The others in interaction, express delight in face-to- study of emotional and social experience of in- face games, convey feelings of sadness or anger fants and young children has a long and rich through differentiated facial expression, and tradition in the philosophical and empirical lit- strategically use his or her parents’ emotional erature (Aristotle, 1941; James, 1884). Although expressions to determine how to respond to a often studied as separate domains, it is clear given situation. This rapid developmental prog- that within the child social and emotional de- ress is not limited to infancy; the toddler begins velopments are fundamentally intertwined. For to show signs of responding empathically to oth- example, as the young child’s ability to differ- ers, and with increasing self-awareness shows entiate emotions unfolds, there is an increasing evidence of more complex “self-conscious” capacity to rely on the emotional expressions of emotions such as shame, embarrassment, or others to determine how to respond to a certain guilt. Earlier social interactive experiences are situation. Consider the glance of a 1-year-old internalized, and the young child uses the day- child toward his or her mother when first meet- to-day lived experience of social and emotional ing someone new. This new “use” of the other interactions to guide responses to current inter- to navigate a social situation (often considered actions with others. a social advance) is entirely dependent on the Across all of these developments, what young child’s ability to differentiate and re- emerges is a move toward increasing social– spond to another’s affective expression (which emotional competence in the infant. With devel-

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. could be considered an emotional advance). opment, the young child evidences increasing

95 EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/2/2019 3:05 PM via TUFTS UNIV AN: 1843598 ; Zeanah, Charles H..; Handbook of Infant Mental Health, Fourth Edition Account: s3579704.main.ehost 96 I. Development and Context

capacities for emotion regulation and coping, ment. For example, as parents respond to their more complex affective expressions and under- child’s emotional displays, their reactions (e.g., standing, and more sophisticated interactions perhaps frustration with a difficult-to-soothe with important others in his or her social world. infant) shape the quality of the infant’s response In the context of facilitative environments the to the parent (e.g., more distress as the infant young child’s trajectory of greater competence reacts to the parent’s frustration). Both partners is accompanied by increasing feelings of self- shape each other’s social and emotional experi- efficacy, security, and trust. ence in a dynamic, ongoing fashion. Our understanding of infant social–emotion- Current research in the biological domain al development is informed by both normative has also underscored the complex interactions developmental processes and development in between biological (genetic) disposition and contexts of risk. A common goal of many in- environmental contexts. A gene–environment fant mental health interventions is to support interaction model emphasizes the ways that families and young children in maintaining, re- individuals’ biological propensities interact turning to, or developing a trajectory of social– with environmental characteristics to shape the emotional competence. Thus, we aim to provide course of development. For example, parental a foundation for other chapters in this volume, caregiving can alter the social developmental with an emphasis on normative processes of so- course of individuals who have genetic vulner- cial–emotional development and implications ability for shy/inhibited temperamental traits for infant mental health. (Fox et al., 2005). With regard to the social and emotional domains there are several more specific models Theoretical Models for Social that are important considerations. Attachment and Emotional Development theory (Bowlby, 1969/1982) has contributed enormously to current conceptualizations of Several theoretical models explaining develop- infant social development, and the formation mental process in the social and emotional do- of attachment relationships is considered the mains have been suggested. The maturational predominant organizing force of infant and model is perhaps the most basic, and from this young child social development. Early interac- perspective, individual development represents tions with care providers both promote surviv- an innate unfolding of preset maturational time al and form the basis for later, more complex points (Gesell & Armatruda, 1947). Higher-or- representations of the caregiver as available der capacities are seen as the result of growth of and responsive. Individual differences in at- brain and physical body functioning. The devel- tachment security are evident in the ways the opmental progression of emotional expressions, young child can use the attachment figure as a for example, may be seen as reflecting this type secure base, and have implications for social of “unfolding timetable.” and emotional development in a broadening Broader integrative models address the indi- array of contexts. vidual in context. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) con- Temperament models emphasize individual ceptualization of the child’s experience in terms differences, typically viewing young children of a widening series of contexts that mutually as varying in certain characteristics that both influence one another, the ecosystem model, shape their experience of the environment and emphasizes both immediate environments (e.g., their responses to it. Temperament models often parent–child interactions) that directly impinge emphasize biologically based individual differ- on children’s daily lived experience, as well as ences, though current research suggests a more more distal contexts such as institutions that do complex interplay with the environmental con- not directly interact with the child but influence text (e.g., (Fox et al., 2005; Zhang, Chen, Deng, development indirectly (e.g., child care policies, & Lu, 2014). While some features of tempera- cultural values). These contexts are likely to ment are less apparently related to social and shape many of the aspects of infant social and emotional development (e.g., activity level), emotional development. other features are inherently linked (e.g., emo- Transactional models consider the dynamic tionality and mood). interplay between child and context across time It is likely that the impact of a child’s emo- (Sameroff, 1993). This perspective has clear tionality on social functioning depends on his

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. implications for social and emotional develop- or her skills at emotion regulation (Lemerise

& Arsenio, 2000). Most emotion regulation ing more responsiveness and more consistent models emphasize the young child’s abilities to characteristics. control, modify, and manage aspects of his or her emotional reactivity and expressivity. In- 7–9 Months dividual differences in emotion regulation are often considered to be related to differences in This period involves a rapid increase in the the caregiving context (Calkins & Hill, 2007; differential response of the infant to familiar, Kim, Stifter, Philbrook, & Teti, 2014), though primary caregivers. The infant clearly discrimi- clearly children who vary in temperament also nates between care provided by the attachment face different tasks in regulating their emotions figure and that provided by less familiar others. (Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000; Thompson, 1988). Thus, this period has been termed the “onset of For example, a child with a positive disposi- focused attachment” (Emde & Buschsbaum, tion and a high threshold for distress has a very 1989). Infants who previously did not protest different regulatory challenge than one who is separation may now cry when the parent leaves more prone to intense and persistent negative the room. Stranger anxiety increases and is emotions. prominent. Advances in memory and cognition permit more anticipation or expectation regarding social routines and interactions. For Transitions in Social and Emotional Development example, whereas the younger child may have laughed upon completion of an interactive The first years of life involve dramatic change game, during this period, infants may laugh in across multiple domains of development. De- anticipation of the mother’s return during the velopments in each of these domains, however, peek-a-boo game (Lieberman, 1993; Saarni, are not evenly distributed across time. Despite 1999). some apparent underlying continuity and grad- Relatedly, this biobehavioral period is associ- ual unfolding, there are also periods of rapid ated with increasing complexity in the infant’s change and reorganization, sometimes referred capacity for intersubjectivity and an emerging to as biobehavioral “shifts” or “transitions” capacity for intentional communication with (Davies, 2010; Emde & Buschsbaum, 1989). Al- another. Intersubjectivity refers to the infant’s though earlier stages involved the unfolding and capacity to engage in mutual sharing of expe- emergence of certain capacities, during these riences about objects and events with another periods of reorganization, new capacities be- person, while intentional communication, come integrated and dominant. We outline here which builds on this intersubjective capac- several prominent developmental shifts within ity, reflects the infants ability to produce and the social and emotional domains. respond to nonverbal, spontaneous, and intentional actions between at least two people rela- 2–3 Months tive to, and often in order to direct attention to, a third entity (i.e., an object or person). In addi- Most of the newborn infant’s behavior is action to pointing, intentional communication can counted for by endogenous rhythms and inter- be conveyed through other means such as eye nal states. Following the 2- to 3-month shift, and gaze, or head and body turning in the direction corresponding to rapid neurological changes, of the target. Although the building blocks of in- much more of the infant’s daily life is spent in tersubjectivity are evident even earlier in devel- wakefulness, and the infant is more focused and opment (Meltzoff & Moore, 1998; Stern, 1985), better organized (Bowlby, 1969/1982). This has “joint attention,” that is, the nonverbal directing clear implications for social interactions and of another’s attention to a distal target, which is engagement, and the shift is often most read- often considered a hallmark of the capacity for ily apparent to parents in terms of their infant’s intentional communication, emerges following emotional expressions and social responses. By this critical second biobehavioral shift (Toma- 2 months, most infants have begun to display sello, Malinda, Josep, Tanya, & Henrike, 2005). social smiles, and about 2 weeks later, there is Research on the developmental psychopathol- evidence of cooing vocalizations in response ogy of autism highlights deficits in social-com- to social encounters. These advances typically munication behaviors, including reduced eye elicit delight in parents and other caregivers. gaze, coordination of gaze, and activities that

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. Parents begin to experience their infant as hav- involve joint intentions and attention, as early

indicators of this disorder (Tomasello et al., (i.e., what emotions can a child experience at 2005; Zwaigenbaum et al., 2007), which is often a given age?) and are consistent with matura- evident in children as young as 9 months of age. tional models (Bridges, 1932; Sroufe, 1996). Consistent with this approach, a great deal of 18–21 Months research has focused on developing a comprehensive taxonomy for identifying infant emo- This period is characterized by the emergence tional expressions, when they emerge, and how of increasing self-awareness and increases they evolve over the course of early develop- in symbolic representation. Infants display ment. For example, Izard (2007) has identified more independence, and social interactions a group of “first-order” emotions that emerge are increasingly facilitated by their emerging earlier in development, including interest, joy, symbolic capacity (e.g., language). Social ref- sadness, anger, and fear. Later in development, erencing is prominent; the child understands more complex emotions, such as jealousy and different affective expressions in the parent envy, come online, simultaneous with the in- and uses them to guide responses to novel situ- creasing cognitive capacities of the young child ations (Feinman, Roberts, Hsieh, Sawyer, & (Izard, 2011). Swanson, 1992). In addition, toddlers increas- Functionalists, in contrast, emphasize the re- ingly use affective expressions instrumentally, lational aspects of emotions, noting that emo- for example, they may seem to smile or pout to tions are elicited in reaction to stimuli that are “get their way.” Infants remember past events perceived as personally salient (Campos, Walle, and sequences, and have formed representa- Dahl, & Main, 2011). Functionalists assert that tions based on repeated events, which in turn emotions promote action readiness, that is, guide later behavior in new contexts. With in- “the attempt by the person to establish, main- creasing awareness of separateness, there are tain, change, or terminate the relation between corresponding increases in mood swings, se- the self and the environment on those matters cure base behavior, and sense of vulnerability that are important to the person” (Campos et al., (Lieberman, 1993; Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 2011, p. 27; also see Izard & Malatesta, 1987). 1994). During this time, the toddler begins to Emotions, from this perspective, are defined in display more self-conscious emotions, those terms of their function—that is, what they do. In that seem to require some sense of awareness this way, emotions may regulate other psycho- of self and other, including feelings of shame, logical and behavioral processes. For example, guilt, embarrassment, and empathy (Lewis, feelings of fear may result in a young toddler 2000). running to his or her parent to seek comfort, whereas feelings of comfort may allow him or her to reengage in a play activity. Emotional Development Although there is controversy about whether certain discrete emotions may be present from From the first weeks of life, emotional reactions earliest infancy as innate, universal, biologi- help to organize the infant’s responses to the cally determined phenomena, it is generally environment, and function as powerful com- agreed that emotional development involves in- municative signals. Emotional processes reflect creasingly more complex interactions between changes in physiology, cognition, and social emotional, cognitive, physiological, and social- functioning, and in turn, impact each of these environmental systems (Bell & Wolfe, 2004; domains. Parents direct a great deal of activity Fogel et al., 1992). We therefore begin with a toward helping the infant to organize emotional description of research on the unfolding of emo- reactions—either by amplifying displays of de- tion expression across the first years of life, fol- sired emotions or through efforts to divert or lowed by an examination of the interpersonal redirect unwanted ones. contexts of infant emotional development. There are two primary theoretical perspectives employed in the study of human emo- Development of Emotion Expression tion: structuralist and functionalist approaches. Structuralists focus on the underlying processes Newborns are capable of a more limited range that constitute emotion (e.g., what are the physi- of discrete emotional expressions but, with de- ological components of anger?), as well as the velopment, display a broader range of emotions

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. developmental unfolding of emotion experience and grow more responsive to a wider variety of

eliciting conditions. For example, while general including the intensity levels of some expres- distress is the infant’s primary response to inoc- sions. This early capacity for discrimination ulation at 2 months, by 19 months, anger is pre- does not, however, imply “understanding” oth- dominant (Izard, Hembree, & Huebner, 1987). ers’ expressions; understanding others’ emo- Positive emotion expressions (e.g., smiles) typi- tions is a process that continues to unfold across cally emerge by age 2–3 months, with laugh- the first several years of life. Corresponding to ter often apparent by age 3–4 months. More developments in the cognitive domain, the 8- complex affective blends unfold over the first to 9-month-old infant begins to appreciate that year of life (Barrett, 2005; Kochanska, Gross, others’ emotional messages pertain to specific Lin, & Nichols, 2002); for example, a study of objects or events. Social referencing describes 6-month-olds revealed indicators of jealousy, the infant’s ability to use others’ expressions to indexed as diminished joy, heightened anger, help shape his or her own responses to the envi- and increased negative affect when the attention ronment. This ability is well established by 12 of a preferred caregiver was directed to another months of age (Feinman et al., 1992), but it also (Hart, Carrington, Tronick, & Carroll, 2004). increases in complexity over time. For example, With the onset of self-awareness in the sec- 18-month-olds appear to engage in “emotional ond year of life, many secondary or “self-con- eavesdropping,” whereby they use information scious” emotions become evident (Lewis, 2013) from interadult emotional expressions in order including embarrassment, shame, guilt, and to determine whether to approach an object pride. For example, Barrett, Zahn-Waxler, and (Repaccholi & Meltzoff, 2007). Cole (1993), observed two approaches taken by Beyond the ability to detect the emotional 2-year-olds after they believed they had broken expressions of others, infants also develop ex- the experimenter’s “favorite doll.” One group of pectations regarding others’ affective displays children tried to fix the situation (the “amend- during social engagement. Peek-a-boo games ers”), and the other group sought to avoid the initiated by adult caretakers tap the infant’s experimenter, usually by smiling with their ability to expect the adult’s smiling face fol- faces averted (the “avoiders”). The researchers lowing a period of disengagement. Researchers suggest the amenders were demonstrating behave studied these expectations through the use havior consistent with feelings of guilt, while of procedures designed to interrupt “usual” in- avoiders were presumably feeling something teractive contingencies. For example, the Still- akin to shame. In a replication of this study, Face Procedure (Mesman, van IJzendoorn, & Barrett (2005) found that 17-month-old children Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2009; Tronick, 2003) demonstrated feelings of guilt, embarrassment, is a structured, adult–infant interactive task and anxiety after “breaking” the doll. that typically includes (1) a period of face-to- Many social, cultural, and biological factors face free play, (2) a period during which the are likely to determine the types of reactions an adult holds a still, emotionally unresponsive individual child will have to specific emotion- expression, and (3) a reengagement period, dur- evocative situations. For example, guilt may ing which the dyad returns to face-to-face play. be more acceptable in many Western cultures Between ages 2 and 9 months, infants display (Walbot & Scherer, 1995), whereas shame is heightened negative affect, and corresponding often perceived as more aversive and disturb- physiological arousal, during the still-face, pre- ing. Many collectivistic cultures, in contrast, sumably because they recognize that this dis- view shame as an emotion that helps to facili- ruption in affective exchange is discrepant and tate appropriate social bonds and compliance undesirable (Mesman et al., 2009). (Cole, Tamang, & Shrestha, 2006; Kitayama, As emotional detection and expectation abili- Marcus, & Matsumoto, 1995). ties develop, the capacity for empathic responding also reveals developmental changes in the Infant Sensitivity to Others’ Emotional Signals young child’s sensitivity to others’ emotional displays. For instance, the process of emotional Emotional expressions are critical social sig- “contagion” (e.g., when other infants in a day nals; therefore, not surprisingly, infants become care center start to cry after one starts crying) is attuned and responsive to the emotional signals generally considered an infantile “preempath- of others at a very young age. By 2 months, ic” capacity (Saarni, 1999). Toddlers have been infants are capable of discriminating among observed to display more advanced empathic

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. distinct human expressions (e.g., Oster, 1981), responding, reflecting a higher-order cognitive

capacity that permits better perspective tak- Over the past several decades, studies have ing with others. Expressions of concern (e.g., a yielded mixed evidence regarding the stability worried look; patting; asking, “Baby okay?”), of temperamental features over time. Evidence or efforts to generate hypotheses about what for modest stability, at least after infancy, in- has caused another’s distress (asking, “Baby cludes the seminal longitudinal research of owie?”), suggest an emerging sensitivity to Thomas and Chess (1977), who investigated the distress of others. This growing ability for several temperamental dimensions in infancy empathy is likely to have a basis in how oth- and defined groups of “easy,” “difficult,” and ers have responded to the infant’s own displays “slow-to-warm” children, with the “difficult” of distress. For example, abused toddlers make group (approximately 10% of infants) show- fewer empathic gestures but are more personal- ing high levels of negative mood, irregularity ly upset or aggressive to distressed peers (Main in body functions, and slow adaptation to the & George, 1985), while infants whose mothers environment. Subsequent longitudinal research were more responsive during the first year of demonstrated that those children who presented life show more empathic concerned attention with high levels of negative emotional behav- and fewer personal distress reactions to others iors early in life, indexed as negative affect and at 18 months (Spinrad & Stifter, 2006). aggression, had more behavior problems in middle childhood (age 5 years) and adolescence Temperament, Genes, and Emotions in Infancy (ages 14–17). Yet although early childhood negative affect and aggression were significantly Beyond the changes that occur across devel- intercorrelated (r = .63), only those children opment, children differ in their emotional who displayed aggression at age 3 years were “makeup,” and these differences are often de- more aggressive in middle childhood, and in scribed in terms of temperamental variations. turn, had more behavior problems in adoles- For example, highly reactive, irritable babies cence (Lerner, Hertzog, Hooker, Hassibi, & are frequently described as “difficult,” while Tomas, 1988). infants who are more prone to positive emo- Others have focused on behaviorally inhib- tions and less reactive are described as “easy- ited infants, that is, the approximately 15% of going.” While temperament includes more than infants who exhibit extreme fear and inhibi- emotions, emotionality is considered to be an tion when exposed to novelty (e.g., Calkins & important component. Later in this chapter, we Fox, 1992; Kagan, Reznick, Clarke, Snidman, consider a related domain, emotion regulation, & Garcia-Coll, 1984). Studies have indicated separately. modest stability in behavioral inhibition from Consistent with the gene–environment inter- infancy to middle childhood (Fox, Henderson, action models, temperament has been under- Rubin, Calkins, & Schmidt, 2001), and suggest stood as a biologically based set of behavioral that behavioral inhibition in infancy is a signifi- tendencies that influence how an individual cant predictor of anxiety disorders, particularly will approach, respond to, and interact with the social anxiety in later childhood (Chronis-Tus- larger social world (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). In cano et al., 2009; Kagan, Snidman, McManis, defining temperament, some researchers have & Woodward, 2001; Schwartz, Snidman, & emphasized a narrow set of dimensions (e.g., Kagan, 1999). More recent work has focused on activity level, emotionality and socialibility; potential moderators of this early risk and has Buss & Plomin, 1984), while others have ar- identified a child’s ability to successfully recruit gued for a broader array, including proneness cognitive processes involved in the regulation to distress and fear, soothability, attention span, of negative reactivity, such as the infant’s the persistence, and positive emotionality (Rothbart capacity for attention shifting and/or inhibitory & Derryberry, 1981; Thomas & Chess, 1977). control, as critical (White, McDermott, De- However, there is general consensus that emo- gnan, Henderson, & Fox, 2011). For example, in tional reactivity is a critical feature of tempera- a recent study, behavioral inhibition in toddler- ment. Reactivity refers to the excitability or hood predicted subsequent anxiety at child age arousability of the individual’s response system 7 only for those who did not shift attention away (Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981), such as how from a perceived threat (White et al., 2017). quickly the infant expresses distress in response Although assessment of temperament is often to an unfamiliar stimulus, how intense the dis- based on behavioral observations, more recent

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. tress is, and how long the infant takes to recover. studies reflect advances in biological research.

Individual differences in infant temperament depression later on, but only when their care- are now generally thought to originate in ge- givers were themselves under heightened stress netic variations underpinning behavioral, neu- (Kaufman et al., 2004) or showed low parenting roendocrine, and physiological regulatory pro- sensitivity (Zhang et al., 2014). Similarly, in- cesses (see review by Propper & Moore, 2006). sensitive parenting, only when coupled with in- The human genome comprises approximately fant DRD4 vulnerability, was found to increase 20,000 genes that code essentially all structures a child’s likelihood for greater externalizing of the human body and also regulate function- problem behaviors in toddlerhood (King et al., ing across these structures. Variations within 2016; Windhorst et al., 2015) or preschool age any given gene are referred to as “allelic varia- (Bakermans-Kranenburg & van IJzendoorn, tions” of that gene, and often translate into vari- 2006). ations in gene activity level, that is, differences Until recently, most studies investigating in “gene expression.” Current research explores gene–environment interactions have focused associations between alleles of a given gene and on specific gene variants within so-called “can- temperamental vulnerability. didate” genes (e.g., 5-HTTLPR, DRD4), with Recently, genes coding for the activity level functions implicated in the outcome of interest of two receptors in the brain—the dopamine D4 (e.g., temperament, problem behaviors). How- receptor (DRD4) and the serotonin transporter ever, subsequent studies have often failed to receptor (5-HTTLPR)—have been examined as replicate initial positive results for particular underlying mechanisms for some key tempera- candidate genes (Braithwaite et al., 2013), un- mental variations, more specifically, individual derscoring the need for larger sample sizes (in differences in approach behaviors and inhibi- the tens of thousands) to increase the validity tion, attention, and novelty seeking (Auerbach, of such genetic studies, and increasing recogni- Benjamin, Faroy, Geller, & Ebstein, 2001; Eb- tion of the need for collaborative multisite re- stein et al., 1998; Kluger, Siegfried, & Ebstein, search to develop genetic registries that allow 2002). for such sample sizes. Similarly, recent work A meta-analysis summarizing research in 14 has focused on examining the interaction effect studies with more than 3,000 infants on the link of whole gene sets within the larger genome in between DRD4 and “reactive temperament” interaction with environment, called genome- did not confirm a previously identified “main wide environmental interaction (GWEI) stud- effect” of genetic risk on temperamental vul- ies (Windhorst et al., 2016), which also require nerability (Pappa, Mileva-Seitz, Bakermans- very large datasets. While cutting-edge, this Kranenburg, Tiemeier, & van IJzendoorn, research is currently only beginning and more 2015), suggesting instead that others factors work needs to be done to report valid results. may moderate the link. For example, research In summary, research on gene–environment suggests an additive effect of gene–gene inter- interactions is consistent with a transactional action of DRD4 and 5-HTTLPR allelic risks to- perspective and a “goodness-of-fit” model of gether as infants with risk alleles in both genes temperament (Seifer, 2000), which argues that display more negative emotional reactivity than the consequences of temperamental vulner- do infants who carry only one risk allele (Auer- ability are context-dependent and dynamic. bach, Faroy, Ebstein, Kahana, & Levine, 2001; Therefore, temperamental “difficulty” does not Auerbach et al., 1999). reside within the individual alone but is sig- Genetic effects are now widely accepted nificantly shaped or modified by the environ- as being open to moderation by environmen- mental context. As suggested here, one critical tal influences, and more current research on environmental influence that shapes whether gene–environment interactions underscores temperamental (genetic) vulnerability may im- the critical influence of early social experience pact developmental course involves the parent’s on gene functioning. Environmental factors ability to sensitively respond to the child’s emo- can either ameliorate or potentiate genetically tions as they unfold over the course of develop- based temperamental risk (Belsky, 2005; Caspi ment. et al., 2003; Fox et al., 2005; Kaufman et al., 2004), and this holds important implications for Parental Responses to Infant Emotions intervention. For example, children who were 5-HTTLPR risk carriers and had experienced The impact of parenting on infant emotional

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. childhood abuse were more likely to develop development and expression has been studied

from a number of different perspectives. Mul- mother–infant dyads increased from infant age tiple aspects of infant emotional behavior, in- 3 to 9 months, they typically spent more time cluding expressiveness, self and otherdirected in “miscoordinated” or “asynchronous” states emotion regulatory behaviors, and soothability, than in synchronized matching states. These have been linked, for example, to the parents’ results, consistent with a mutual regulation own emotional availability and expressiveness model, suggest that the process of disruption (e.g., Garner, 1995; Kim et al., 2014), awareness and repair may be a critical part of the devel- of emotional states (Gergely & Watson, 1996), opmental process (Beeghly & Tronick, 2011). and parental emotional dysregulation (e.g., For example, Rosenblum, McDonough, Muzik, depression) (Beeghly & Tronick, 2011; Field, Miller, and Sameroff (2002) observed that 1994). some mothers and infants used positive affect From early infancy, parents perceive a wide (e.g., peek-a-boo games) to “reconnect” follow- array of emotions in their young children, and ing the interactive disruption imposed by the these attributions of emotion can have impor- Still-Face Procedure, and this was associated tant implications, as evidenced by research on with indicators of more enhanced relationship how parents’ own mental health colors the ap- security. Similarly, the repeated dysregulation propriateness of emotions they perceive (Dix, of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA)– 1991; Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2003). For exam- cortisol stress system early in development may ple, mothers at risk for less secure attachment impair the long-term effectiveness of this neu- relationships with their infants make fewer be- robiological system, ultimately undermining its nign, and more hostile, attributions regarding capacity to regulate stress responsivity in adult ambiguous infant facial expressions (Rosen- life (Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007; Hibel, Granger, blum, Zeanah, McDonough, & Muzik, 2004). Blair, & Finegood, 2015). Across parent–infant dyads, parents’ emo- The process of emotional exchange has been tional exchanges with their infants tend to fol- proposed to play a central role in the infant’s low meaningful patterns of interaction. Stern emerging ability to recognize and regulate his (1985) has written extensively about his obser- or her own emotional states (Lewis & Ramsay, vation of mother–infant emotional exchange, 2005). Gergely and Watson (1996), for example, noting that the affective interactions have a provide a compelling account of the role of ma- dynamic “shape” to them, and that patterns of ternal affective mirroring, suggesting that the engagement vary across mother–infant dyads. mother’s ability to accurately perceive, mentally Infant mental health, Stern suggests, is strongly transform, then display a “marked” exaggerated affected by the synchrony of the interaction. response to the infant’s emotional displays is re- More recently, the term “biobehavioral syn- lated to the infant’s own ability to internalize chrony” was coined (Feldman, 2017; Feldman, and understand emotional experience. Distur- Singer, & Zagoory, 2010; Geva & Feldman, bances may arise when parents display a purely 2008) to describe the coupling of coordinated mirrored form of infants’ distress, without the behavior (gaze, touch, vocalization, and affect) accompanying “marking.” For example, parents with coordinated physiological (autonomous whose emotion regulation style is characterized nervous system and stress axis) and brain acti- by a tendency to overactivate emotional arousal vation (dopamine and oxytocin-related circuits) may simply mimic their infants’ emotional ex- responses in mother–infant dyads during social pression, without processing and transforming contact. Biobehavioral synchrony is now under- the emotion. This “pure mirroring” may esca- stood to be a key foundation for the develop- late the infant’s emotional state, having failed ment of human attachment (Feldman, 2017). to provide the necessary containment and assis- Thus, “asynchronous interaction,” observed tance in coping with the experienced emotion. when one of the partners is not sensitively at- With development, language plays an in- tuned and responsive to the cues of the other, creasingly important role in young children’s has been demonstrated to negatively affect in- understanding of emotion (Garner, 2003; fants’ early emotional development (Malatesta, Meins, Fernyhough, & Wainwright, 2003). Ver- Culver, Tesman, & Shepard, 1989; Tronick & bal acknowledgment of mental states, which Weinberg, 1997) and also may jeopardize in- may be considered a form of verbal mirroring, fants’ biological adaptation to stress (Feld- is increasingly used in place of facial mirroring man, 2006). Tronick and Cohn (1989) observed to facilitate the infant’s emotion understanding.

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. that while the coordination and synchrony of To illustrate, children whose mothers used more

mental-state language at 15 and 24 months, for Although both positive and negative emo- example, making reference to child desire (e.g., tions can be regulated and used to achieve goals “You want that rattle?”) or emotion (e.g., “That (e.g., smiling to enhance interactive repair, or surprised you!”), performed better on struc- anger to eliminate a barrier), child emotion reg- tured emotion understanding tasks (Taumo- ulation as a dynamic process is often most read- epeau & Ruffman, 2006). ily observed in contexts of challenge that afford Across early development, parents and care- negative emotions (Cole et al., 2004; Mesman takers are essential in helping infants to ex- et al., 2009). When confronted with challenging press and manage their developing emotions. situations, the infant or young child can use a Through these processes of affective exchange, variety of behavioral emotion regulation strate- disruption–repair sequences, and physical and gies to cope with heightened arousal, including verbal mirroring, infants begin to internalize distress reactions, avoidance, and self-comfort- emotion awareness, understanding, and early ing behaviors; the repertoire of available strate- emotional self-regulation abilities. gies increases over time (Calkins & Hill, 2007; Kopp, 1989). For example, in early infancy, the Emotion Regulation capacity for gaze aversion and motor control al- lows the infant to shift attention away from a Child emotion regulation is recognized as a negative event (e.g., something that is overstim- core component of social–emotional compe- ulating) to something more positive (e.g., a toy) tence, functional in almost all of the child’s and thereby modulate negative affect (Calkins, transactions with the world (Calkins & Hill, 2004; Johnson, Posner, & Rothbart, 1991; Ko- 2007; National Institute of Child Health and chanska, 2001). Parents can assist in this pro- Human Development [NICHD] Early Child cess through their efforts to divert the infant’s Care Research Network, 2004). As children attention (Crockenberg & Leerkes, 2004; John- move into the preschool years, they are largely son et al., 1991). By the end of the first year, in- expected to control their emotions in the service fants are more active in their attempts to modu- of their own, and society’s, goals (Sroufe, Ege- late distress. They are increasingly able to plan land, Carlson, & Collins, 2005), and indicators behavior and can act intentionally to signal oth- of emotional dysregulation are often the basis of ers to assist them in modulating their affective clinical referral. states. During the second year of life, infants Children who are well regulated (both in move from more passive to more active meth- emotion and behavior) are better able to adapt ods of emotion regulation, and while caregivers to contextual and situational changes in the continue to play an important role, toddlers are environment in a flexible and spontaneous increasingly able to use specific strategies to manner, as well as delay their reactions (e.g., manage different affective states. exert control) when appropriate (Eisenberg et Challenging events may elicit more or less al., 2001). From a developmental neuroscience effective regulation of the distress across in- perspective, emotion, cognition, and the de- fants. For example, Lewis and Ramsay (2005) veloping neural mechanisms of regulation are observed 4- and 6-month-old infants’ anger and dynamically linked and work together to help sadness reactions to situations that prevented the infant and young child process information them from achieving a desired goal. Infant dis- and engage in emotion-regulatory action (Bell plays of sadness were related to greater stress & Wolfe, 2004), a process that unfolds from hormone reactions (i.e., cortisol production), infancy into the preschool years and beyond while displays of anger were not, suggesting a (Kopp, 1989). more adaptive role of anger. Infant anger in re- Important reviews have addressed the contro- sponse to goal blockage is often associated with versial topic of how best to define and measure attempts to overcome the obstacle (Lemerise & emotion regulation (see Cole, Martin, & Den- Dodge, 2000). In contrast, sadness may reflect nis, 2004). Many of these definitions, however, the infants’ perceived lack of control over the share a perspective that emotion regulation pro- situation, or perception of task failure, with- cesses include behaviors, skills, and strategies, out corresponding coping to facilitate adaptive conscious or unconscious, effortful or automat- physiological regulation (Lewis & Ramsay, ic, that modulate, inhibit, or enhance emotional 2002, 2005). experiences and expressions (Calkins & Hill, The capacity for effective emotion regulation

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 2007). is often considered to have strong social origins,

based in the early interactions between parent cation and assessment of negative emotionality, and infant (Calkins & Hill, 2007; Cole, Teti, & or hostile–negative dyadic interactions, is often Zahn-Waxler, 2003; Kopp, 1989; Stern, 1985; the focus of infant mental health intervention, Stifter, 2002; Thompson, 1988). For example, the absence of positive affect may be an even less dyadic synchrony between mothers and more important harbinger of problems in the their 3-month-olds in the Still-Face Procedure emotional domain (Rosenblum et al., 2006). is associated with less effective physiological Current research also underscores the im- regulation of the challenge task (Mesman et portance of recognizing that the challenges of al., 2009). Among 2-year-old children, negative parenting are different for different groups of maternal behavior is related to poor physiologi- infants. For example, parents of temperamen- cal regulation, less adaptive emotion regulation, tally “difficult” infants face greater challenges and noncompliant behavior (Calkins, Smith, in soothing their children, and their children Gill, & Johnson, 1998). In contrast, maternal appear to be more sensitive to lapses in their positive guidance is associated with 18-month- caregiving. Leerkes and Crockenberg (2003) old toddlers’ effective use of distraction and suggest that mothers who are successful at mother-oriented regulating behaviors during a calming their temperamentally difficult infants frustration-inducing task (Calkins et al., 1998), may develop higher degrees of sensitivity than and 6-month-olds show less distress when their mothers with temperamentally “easy” infants mothers respond contingently to their efforts at or those who have difficult infants but are self-soothing (e.g., gaze aversion) (Crockenberg unsuccessful at soothing. When parents view & Leerkes, 2004). their temperamentally challenging infants as Ultimately, many factors, including the so- soothable, they display higher levels of sensi- cial environment, maturational processes, and tive caregiving (Ghera, Hane, & Malesa, 2006), temperament, influence emotion regulation which helps parents to recognize these chal- capacities during the first years of life. Each lenges as addressable and likely to have posi- child’s capacity for effective emotional self- tive impacts. regulation develops within a relational context, Taken together, these studies suggest that and becomes a core element of the child’s self- both parents and infants play an important role regulation and social–emotional competence. in the development of emotion regulation and social–emotional competence. In the follow- Emotional Development and Infant ing section we focus more fully on the social Mental Health Implications context within which these emotion regulation capacities develop and emerge. Given the vast number of expressive inter- changes that occur between parent and infant during the first months of life (Magai, 1999), Social Development the influence of parents’ emotional engagement with their infant is likely to hold significant Infants are born into complex social networks, consequences for infant emotional develop- and enter the world with strong propensities ment. Thus, from an infant mental health stand- for forming social–affective bonds with others. point, it is critical to assess the parent–infant From the first primary attachment relationship emotional “dance” (Stern, 1985), and to observe to increasingly complex social relations with both the process of affective synchrony and the extended family, peers, and others, the young process of repair following disruptions (Beegh- child is immersed in a world of social relatedly & Tronick, 2011; Rosenblum, Dayton, & Mc- ness. Donough, 2006; Tronick, 2006). Social developmental milestones across the The emotional tone of early experience pro- first 3 years are strongly rooted in cognitive vides a framework within which the infant and neurological advances, and are embedded develops his or her own affective repertoire in the broader social context. Table 6.1 provides (Cole, LeDonne, & Tan, 2013). Thus, a parent’s an overview of this developmental process, reduced capacity, for example, in the case of highlighting central tasks, the context of these untreated depression or anxiety, to engage in advances, and the young child’s corresponding emotionally positive interaction with the in- social-developmental milestones. The social fant may take on an especially important role context of these advances progresses from pri-

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. (Beeghly & Tronick, 2011). While the identifi- marily the parent–infant relationship to include

other significant relationships, including peers, fort when distressed (Grossmann et al., 2002; extended family, or child care relationships. Paquette, 2004). Across mothers and fathers, The coordination of these advances initially re- however, attachment relationships serve as a flects primarily parent-led sequences, but with foundation for the early establishment of regu- time incorporate greater infant initiative and lation of affect and arousal. Individual differ- back-and-forth interactions. With continued de- ences in the quality of these early relationships velopment, these interactive encounters reflect appear to have implications for the young the establishment of goal-corrected partner- child’s emerging emotion regulation, sense of ships, in which the infant and adult negotiate self-efficacy, and social relatedness outside the their exchanges with an awareness of each other parent–child context (Sroufe et al., 2005; Vol- as separate, yet interdependent, selves. ling et al., 2014). While attachment relationships are not the only context for infant social development Individual Differences in Attachment Relationships (Crockenberg & Leerkes, 2000), attachment theory is a predominant model for understand- Whereas, from an evolutionary perspective, in- ing early infant–parent relationships. In the fants are biologically driven to form attachment following section we provide an overview of relationships, individual differences in the qual- how parent–infant attachment relationships de- ity of these relationships have been the focus velop, moving from a discussion of universal of abundant research over the past decades. processes to a review of individual differences Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978) in the quality of attachment relationships. We developed a laboratory-administered proce- consider the caregiving context of attachment dure, the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP), to security, and how early experiences serve as re- assess individual differences in the quality of lational templates for later social relationships. attachment relationship patterns. Through the induction of stressful challenges, the SSP pro- Infant–Parent Attachment Relationships vides an opportunity to observe the process of interactive repair; challenges include exposure Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969/1982) em- to an unknown environment, interaction with phasizes the fact that human infants exist for an an unknown adult, and two separations from extended period of time in a state of dependen- and reunions with the parent. These challenges cy, wherein proximity to a caretaker is essential are intended to activate the infant’s attachment for both physical survival and the development strategy, and the infant’s behavior during this of psychological health (e.g., security, emotion procedure is observed, with special attention regulation) (Simpson, 1999). The primary evo- paid to the ways the infant uses the parent to lutionary function of this proximity is to pro- regulate his or her emotional states following mote survival of the dependent infant, but with separation. development, attachment relationships evolve Ainsworth described three organized pat- to include more complex functions. The infant terns characterizing how infants (and parents) is increasingly able to use the attachment figure negotiate this attachment-behavior-eliciting as a secure base, deriving the security needed to task: secure, anxious–avoidant, and anxious– allow for exploration of the environment when ambivalent attachment patterns (Ainsworth et safe, and the protection and comfort needed al., 1978). Ainsworth’s pioneering work vali- in times of fear or distress (Sroufe & Waters, dated patterns of attachment based on many 1977). hours of home observation during the first year Across diverse cultural contexts, mater- of life. nal attachments are often primary, although Infants demonstrating secure attachments shifting work–family balances within many to their caregivers were able to openly and (especially Western) cultures has resulted in genuinely display their emotions and use their fathers spending increasing amounts of time parents to help regulate their distress. Once actively parenting their children (Hofferth, comforted, these infants returned to explor- Pleck, Stueve, Bianchi, & Sayer, 2002). Rela- atory play. Their balanced and open regulatory tive to maternal attachments, contemporary strategy was not surprising in light of home theory and research suggests that infant–fa- observations that suggested these infants had ther attachments emphasize the infant’s ability mothers who were generally sensitive and ten-

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. to explore versus the propensity to seek com- der in their caretaking interactions. The infants

EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/2/2019 3:05 PM via TUFTS UNIV AN: 1843598 ; Zeanah, Charles H..; Handbook of Infant Mental Health, Fourth Edition Account: s3579704.main.ehost 6–9 months 3–6 months 2–3 months 7–18 months 0–3 months Ages Evidence intentionality of and goal direction—the infant shows a preference certain for activities and leads attention Delight in peek-a-boo) games (e.g., Infant increasingly responsive to social bids Increased eye-to-eye contact Emergence social of smiles Social vocalizations Stranger anxiety, separation distress Emergence person of permanence ability (i.e., to keep the parent in mind even when he or she is not present) Secure base behavior Developing attentiveness to the social world Increasing coordination parent–infant of interactions Select milestones Select Infant initiation with play of others, as well as an increasing ability to direct activities Infant embellishes on others’ initiations Back-and-forth exchanges between infant and others Parent-led system coordinated of engagement with the infant Face-to-face interaction with increasing mutual gaze Parent language and verbalization toward infant Parent provides secure base Infant relies on parent comfort for and protection during times distress of or perceived threat Infant explores the environment in the presence of caregiver Parent assists the infant in regulating sleep, feeding, distress, arousal and Coordinated behaviors Parent–infant and close family relationships Parent–infant and close family relationships Primarily the parent–infant relationship Parent–infant relationship Primarily the parent–infant relationship Social context(s) Social Social Developmental Tasks, Contexts, and Milestones across the First 3 Years of Life Onset and establishment of Infant initiative Infant Reciprocal exchange Regulation Emerging sociability attachment focused TABLE 6.1. Developmental task Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

106 EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/2/2019 3:05 PM via TUFTS UNIV AN: 1843598 ; Zeanah, Charles H..; Handbook of Infant Mental Health, Fourth Edition Account: s3579704.main.ehost 18–36 months 18–36 months 18–24 months 9–12 months Increasing interest in other children fromMoves solitary to parallel play Rough-and-tumble with play peers Evidence empathic of concern regarding peer distress Emerging recognition the of permanence and continuity primary of relationships Increasing ability to negotiate and coordinate behavior in terms the of goals the of other Empathic responding Mirror self-recognition “no” and of Use temper tantrums Increasing autonomy Egocentric reasoning Imitative learning Imitative Social referencing Expresses affect instrumentally or purposefully Child engages in meaningful interaction with siblings and peers in groups, play day care environments, and settingsother Child displays an emerging awareness that the caregiver’s intentions are separate from his or her own The coordination sequences of increasingly reflects exchanges between two autonomous yetinterdependent individuals Infant has an awareness self of Infant determines and selects his or her own goals and intentions apart from parents Infant displays an awareness others’ of point view of Infant seeks others’ facial expressions in order to understand situations new Siblings, peer relationships Broader social context, including parents, family, peers, care providers Broader social context, including parents, family, peers, care providers Broader social context, including parents, family, peers, care providers . Data from Sparrow, Sander Balla, (1975); & Cicchetti and Sroufe (1989). (1984); Establishing peer relationships Recognition, Recognition, continuity, and emergence a goal- of Self-assertion and self- independent concept partnership corrected Note Emergence joint of attention Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

107 EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/2/2019 3:05 PM via TUFTS UNIV AN: 1843598 ; Zeanah, Charles H..; Handbook of Infant Mental Health, Fourth Edition Account: s3579704.main.ehost 108 I. Development and Context

appeared to “trust and expect” the parent to Relation of Early Attachment with Later provide care and protection, and indeed, these Social–Emotional Competence mothers were contingently responsive and at- Longitudinal research has followed children tuned to the expressed needs and desires of from infancy into early adulthood, and confirms their infants. that, in general, the quality of early attachment In contrast, infants with an anxious–avoidant pattern behaved as if they did not need com- relationships holds consequences for children’s fort from their parent at all, although physiolog- later social and emotional competence, though ical indicators revealed high levels of arousal later life events also moderate the stability of and distress. Avoidant children played inde- these associations (Grossmann, Grossmann, & pendently and often seemed impervious to the Waters, 2005; Sroufe et al., 2005). In general, parent’s presence or absence. During home ob- children who build a secure attachment with servations, mothers of avoidantly attached in- their caregiver early in life continue to hold a fants were rejecting of infant distress; thus, the secure working model of relationships in mind behavioral strategy shown by anxious–avoidant and show the most optimal developmental out- infants has been understood as an effort on the comes in later years. child’s side to maintain proximity to the parent In contrast, children with avoidant attach- by deactivating his or her own display of emo- ment histories appear to expect rejection within tional needs (Magai, 1999). the context of relationships, and research indi- The third pattern, anxious–ambivalent at- cates reduced interpersonal competence later in tachment, was characterized by a heightened life, particularly when coupled with other risk activation strategy. These infants appeared factors. These children are more vulnerable to desperate to have contact with their parents but becoming emotionally insulated, hostile, and appeared unable to be soothed by the parent antisocial themselves, potentially provoking once reunited. Thus, these infants were unable adults and peers into rejecting them (Weinfield, to return to exploratory play (Magai, 1999). Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999). For example, Mothers of ambivalently attached infants were previously avoidant children are likely to exhibit observed to be fairly inconsistent in their care, greater hostility and scapegoating of peers than and their interactions with their infants often their secure and ambivalent resistant counter- were not contingently based on the infants’ parts (Suess, Grossmann, & Sroufe, 1992). cues. The infants’ heightened emotion activa- Children with ambivalent–resistant histo- tion was therefore understood as an effort on ries have learned to behave in an overaroused the child’s side to keep the parent responsive manner in an attempt to garner the emotional and involved. warmth that has been offered inconsistently. In A fourth attachment pattern, later articulated early childhood, these children are described as by Main and Solomon (1986), was labeled dis- more hesitant in exploring novel situations, im- organized. These children, often with histories mature, and easily frustrated; more likely to be of maltreatment, abuse, and neglect, seemed to neglected by their peers (in contrast to the rejec- lack a coherent, organized strategy for gaining tion that the avoidant children face); more likely proximity to their parent when distressed, but to display separation anxiety; more socially iso- instead displayed bizarre or uncoordinated be- lated and/or hostile; and less empathetic to other haviors in response to the stressful paradigm. children’s displays of distress than their secure For example, some of these infants temporarily counterparts (Horvath & Weinraub, 2005; Kes- froze or displayed conflicted approach–avoid- tenbaum, Farber, & Sroufe, 1989; Sroufe, 1983). ance behaviors toward their parent, as if ex- The most vulnerable group appears to be pressing ambivalence and fear in their attempts infants with disorganized attachment patterns. to gain proximity. Because mothers of disorga- This pattern evolves in the face of a child’s fear nized infants have been found to display both and uncertainty regarding how the parent will frightening and frightened behaviors (e.g., bi- react given a history of frightened or frightening zarre vocalizations, sudden intrusive physical responses that might include seductive enmesh- movements, reacting with fear to infant behav- ment, helplessness, hostility, or abuse (Lyons- iors) (Lyons-Ruth & Jacobvitz, 1999), the infant Ruth, Yellin, Melnick, & Atwood, 2005). Thus, experiences an understandable conflict regard- not surprisingly, the outcomes of these infants ing how and whether to seek proximity and care are relatively poor; studies have documented a host of problematic outcomes, including more

controlling behavior in early childhood, more However, there is evidence that other paternal hostile/aggressive behavior toward peers, more behaviors, such as the ability to be emotionally externalizing and internalizing behavior prob- supportive and challenging during play interac- lems, and developmental lags that include lower tions, may have an important role in supporting academic self-esteem and achievement (for re- the infant’s exploration (rather than proximity view, see Solomon & George, 2011). seeking, as assessed in the SSP), and may therefore be more salient aspects of the father–infant Parental Influences on Infant Social Development relationship (Grossmann et al., 2002). Coincid- ing with shifting norms and social policies in a The caregiving context plays a critical role in number of countries reflecting greater support the development of infant attachment security for paternal involvement (e.g., increased pater- and early social–emotional competence. We nity leave), models specific to understanding consider here several domains of parental in- the role of fathers and fathering have evolved, fluence on the infant and young child’s social– including an increasing focus on biological and emotional development, including parenting be- behavioral processes (e.g., studies related to the havior, verbal engagement with the infant, and “paternal brain”) (Feldman, Sussman, & Zigler, the parents’ own attachment representations. 2004; Swain, Dayton, Kim, Tolman, & Volling, 2014). Caregiving Behavior: Behavioral and Verbal Sensitivity In addition to behavioral sensitivity, researchers have explored the importance of Beginning with Ainsworth’s seminal home parents’ verbal attributions of mental states studies, maternal caregiving sensitivity (e.g., to their infants, or mind-minded comments warmth, attunement and acceptance) has been (Meins, Fernyhough, & Fradley, 2001; Meins suggested as the primary mechanism underly- et al., 2003). Mind-mindedness refers to a par- ing infant attachment relationships (Ainsworth ent’s tendency to treat the infant as an individ- et al., 1978). The role of caregiving sensitiv- ual with a mind. For example, parents high in ity, particularly in response to infant distress mind-mindedness comment on their child’s in- (McElwain & Booth-LaForce, 2006), has since terests, desires, feelings, and beliefs during in- been confirmed across multiple studies, al- teraction (e.g., “You want that ball, don’t you?” though later research has generally not demon- or “Are you so sad?”). A parent low in mind- strated effects as strong as Ainsworth’s original mindedness tends to view the child more con- work (DeWolff & van IJzendoorn, 1997). cretely in terms of need states and behaviors, or Other factors have also been identified that in terms of the parent’s own perspective (e.g., may shape the development of attachment pat- “You’re just being fussy”). Maternal mind- terns, for example, child temperament (Man- minded comments during interaction with gelsdorf, McHale, Diener, Goldstein, & Lehn, their 6-month-old infants are correlated with 2000), the broader child care context (Aviezer, behavioral sensitivity and interactive synchro- Sagi-Schwartz, & Koren-Karie, 2003; Sagi, ny (Meins et al., 2001; Muzik & Rosenblum, van IJzendoorn, Aviezer, & Donnell, 1994), 2003; Rosenblum, McDonough, Sameroff, & or other aspects of caregiving, such as dyadic Muzik, 2008) and indeed, some evidence indi- regulation and emotional availability (Biringen, cates that mothers’ appropriate mind-minded 2000; Harrist & Waugh, 2002). These and other comments may be a stronger predictor of at- studies confirm that many aspects of the care- tachment security at 1 year than maternal be- giving context contribute to infant attachment havioral sensitivity (Meins et al., 2001). In ad- outcomes. dition, mind-minded comments in the first year The role that fathers play in the social devel- of life have been linked to 4-year-old children’s opment of their young children has been given understanding of other people’s mental states, increasing attention (Cabrera, Hofferth, & Chae, or “theory of mind” (Meins, Fernyhough, & 2011; Dayton, Walsh, Oh, & Volling, 2015; Vol- Johnson, 2006). ling et al., 2014). In general, early research failed to find an association between traditional (e.g., Parents’ Internal Working Models of Relationships: mother-derived) assessments of fathers’ sensi- The Role of Mental Representations tivity and infant attachment (Braungart-Rieker, Garwood, Powers, & Wang, 2001; Grossmann Attachment theory postulates that through-

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. et al., 2002; van IJzendoorn & De Wolff, 1997). out early development, daily lived experiences

of interactions with the primary caregiver are mous AAI classifications have been observed to stored as memory templates. These internal be more sensitively attuned to a wider range of working models, or mental representations, infant affects than have nonautonomous moth- incorporate both the cognitive and affective ers (Haft & Slade, 1989). elements of early caregiving experiences (Crit- The power of these representations is evident tenden, 1990), and are thought to guide be- from the high level of intergenerational corre- haviors and expectations within other social spondence between parental (even grandparen- relationships, including parents’ relationships tal) representations and child security. Work by with their children. In the following section we Dozier, Stovall, and Albus (2001) illustrates the discuss influences of parental representations, power of these effects in the context of a natu- both regarding parents’ representations of past ral experiment, following child placement with relationships with their own parents and current a foster parent. After only 3 months of place- representations of their children, on parenting ment, these researchers observed significant behavior and infant attachment. correspondence between children’s attachment security and the foster parents’ AAI classifica- Parents’ Representations of Their Own Early tions, with rates comparable to those of intact Relationship Experiences. Research on adult mother–child dyads. attachment representations has focused primarily on the individual’s current state of mind with Parents’ Representations of Their Chil- respect to his or her early attachment relation- dren. While the AAI research confirms the in- ships assessed via the Adult Attachment Inter- fluence of parents’ own childhood representa- view (AAI; George, Kaplan, & Main, 1985). tions for their infants’ attachment security, these The AAI yields four main categories (autono- representations are rather distal to the parent– mous, dismissive, enmeshed, and unresolved) child relationship in the here and now. Attention that correspond, respectively, to the four in- has also been directed to the more proximal role fant attachment categories (secure, avoidant, of parents’ representations of their children, of resistant, and disorganized). Primary among parenting, and of their relationships with their the factors differentiating the autonomous (se- children (Mayseless, 2006), and a number of in- cure) versus non autonomous adult attachment terviews have been developed to tap into these patterns is the ability to psychologically access representations (Aber, Slade, Berger, Bresgi, & and coherently articulate affectively charged Kaplan, 1985; George & Solomon, 1996; Zea- thoughts and events without the need to mini- nah & Benoit, 1995). mize (as in the dismissing category) or distort These more proximal representational as- (as in the preoccupied category) the informa- sessments have been employed in low- and tion (Main & Goldwyn, 1984). Thus, regardless high-risk samples (Benoit, Parker, & Zeanah, of the specific content of the childhood events 1997; Rosenblum et al., 2002), pre- and postna- being recounted (e.g., memories of abuse or tally (Benoit et al., 1997; Huth Bocks, Leven- neglect vs. love and support in childhood), the dosky, Theran, & Bogat, 2004), and in healthy critical factor is how openly and coherently the or at-risk pediatric populations (Schechter et al., adult can describe these memories in his or her 2008; Vreeswijk, Maas, & van Bakel, 2012). In narrative report of past events. general, parents’ mental representations of their Thus, parents’ internal working models of child and parenting, both pre- and postnatally, relationships also function as emotion regula- are significantly related to their children’s at- tors in the relational context (Rosenblum et al., tachment security, at rates comparable to the 2006; Zimmermann, 1999), and are likely to in- AAI (Benoit et al., 1997; Huth Bocks et al., fluence the degree to which parents can openly 2004). In addition, parental representations are and genuinely identify and orient to their chil- linked to how parents engage with their infants dren’s emotions (Cassidy, 1994). For example, (Dayton, Levendosky, Davidson, & Bogat, mothers’ AAI attachment classifications have 2007; Slade, Belsky, Aber, & Phelps, 1999; been related to the way they conveyed emotions Vizziello, Antonioli, Cocci, & Invernizzi, 1993; toward their infants while singing to them; dis- Vreeswijk et al., 2012; Zeanah, Keener, Stewart, missive mothers were found to be unable to & Anders, 1985). modify their singing to adjust for infant distress Despite the evidence for links between par- (Milligan, Atkinson, Trehub, Benoit, & Poul- ents’ representations, sensitivity, and infant

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. ton, 2003). Conversely, mothers with autono- attachment, results of meta-analyses of these

studies have identified a “transmission gap” Schechter et al., 2005; Slade, Grienenberger, (DeWolff & van IJzendoorn, 1997), in that Bernbach, Levy, & Locker, 2005; Stacks et al., parenting sensitivity explains only 23% of the 2014). Relatedly, the Insightfulness Assessment association between parental and child work- (IA; Koren-Karie, Oppenheim, & Dolev, 2002) ing models. A number of explanations for this is a narrative-based interview designed to as- gap have been proposed, including the need to sess parents’ insight and empathic understand- consider other contextual factors and a broader ing of their children’s experiences. The IA asks array of caregiving behavior. At a very proximal parents to observe video recordings of their level, for example, parent positive affect or de- young child and respond to a series of questions light (e.g., Rosenblum et al., 2002), or the quality that tap into insightfulness (e.g., “What do you of verbal mirroring (Meins et al., 2001), may be think your child was thinking or feeling?”). Re- more important transmitters of relational secu- sponses to the IA have also been related to child rity than maternal behavioral sensitivity per se. attachment security, parenting sensitivity, and Nonetheless, current research does sug- positive cooperation in families with toddlers gest that parenting sensitivity is likely to play (Koren-Karie et al., 2002; Marcu, Oppenheim, a critical, albeit less direct role, than previously & Koren-Karie, 2016). thought. For example, one study indicated that Parental reflective functioning and insight- mothers who were not autonomous on the AAI fulness are evident when parents acknowledge yet had secure infants were more behaviorally and tolerate complex feelings, acknowledge insensitive than nonautonomous mothers with intergenerational or other contextual influences, secure infants (Atkinson, Goldberg, & Raval, display openness and complexity in representa- 2005). From an intervention perspective this is tions of the child, and search for mental mean- particularly intriguing, pointing to our need to ing that underlies their own and their child’s know more regarding factors that facilitate sen- behavior. Low reflective functioning is evident sitive parenting in parents with insecure states when parents very rarely acknowledge feelings of mind. or mental states, fail to acknowledge the influence of psychological processes on their own or Mental State Awareness: The Role of Reflective others behavior, or generate extremely stereo- Functioning and Insightfulness typed, action- versus emotion-oriented explanations for behavior. “Reflective functioning” is a clinically mean- Extant research has underscored the impor- ingful concept that refers to the individual’s tance of parental reflective functioning and ability to appropriately attribute mental states insightfulness for children’s development, par- and beliefs to others (Fonagy & Target, 1997). ticularly in the face of early parental or child Because this capacity includes the ability to un- adversity or hardship. For example, reflective derstand the motivational forces that underlie functioning has been observed to be particu- behavior, high reflective functioning helps to larly predictive of child attachment when moth- make behavior of the infant more meaningful ers had also experienced significant childhood and predictable. Reflective functioning has also adversity (Fonagy, Steele, Steele, Higgitt, & been posited to be directly associated with indi- Target, 1994), and maternal insightfulness has viduals’ ability to tolerate ambivalent or painful been shown to play a particularly important role affect without the need to minimize, distort, or in buffering against the negative effects of vio- split off such unwanted emotional experiences. lence exposure (Gray, Forbes, Briggs-Gowan, Thus, the parent who has the capacity to engage & Carter, 2015). in reflective functioning is likely to respond to the child’s emotional needs and reactions with Social Development and Infant Mental openness and acceptance, which in turn fosters Health Implications in the child a sense that both positive and negative emotions are tolerable and can be integrated. The infant mental health field has long appre- The capacity for reflective functioning has ciated the centrality of the parent–child rela- been coded from parents’ adult attachment nar- tionship, and today the number of manualized ratives and from interviews designed to assess relationship-focused intervention models is in- the parents’ representation of the child, and creasing; evidence for the efficacy of these in- has been related to infant attachment security terventions is accumulating (Berlin, 2005; Cas-

Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. (Fonagy, Steele, Moran, Steele, & Higgitt, 1991; sidy, Woodhouse, Sherman, Stupica, & Lejuez,

2011; Hoffman, Marvin, Cooper, & Powell, emotional domains. New capacities emerge 2006; Lieberman, Ghosh-Ippen, & van Horn, with regularity, and with the development of 2016; Sameroff, McDonough, & Rosenblum, newly acquired skills, the infant moves toward 2004; Swain et al., 2017; Toth, Rogosch, Manly, greater levels of social–emotional competence. & Cicchetti, 2006). What these interventions When developmental milestones are met and share is a focus on the assessment and treatment supported, social–emotional competence is evi- of the infant in a social-relational context. dent in the young child’s emerging awareness Studies indicate that attachment outcomes and understanding of his or her own and others’ are most improved when services are, among emotions; capacity for empathic involvement; other things, delivered to a clearly defined risk ability to cope adaptively with aversive emo- population, and when the focus is on enhancing tions and challenging circumstances; open and parenting sensitivity (Bakermans-Kranenburg, trusting emotional communication within rela- van IJzendoorn, & Juffer, 2003). This empha- tionships; ability to rely on others for safety and sis on sensitivity is consistent with research that support; and ability to explore, play, and carry suggests outcomes for children with sensitively forward a sense of effectance and trust (Saarni, responsive parents, even if the parents themsel- 1999; Sroufe et al., 2005). When developmental ves maintain a number of other risk factors, are milestones for competence in social–emotional better than outcomes for those who evidence less domains are not met, or when the developmen- sensitive parenting. For example, in a large and tal trajectory is set awry, later deficits in the diverse sample, Belsky and Fearon (2002) obser- social–emotional domains are more likely to ved that children with secure attachment histo- unfold. The field of infant mental health has ries whose mothers became insensitive during long recognized that social–emotional compe- toddlerhood had lower psychosocial functioning tence emerges from a dynamic developmental scores at 3 years compared to children with in- interplay of complex transactions across matu- secure attachment histories whose mothers were rational, environmental, biological, and inter- sensitive later in development. This suggests personal contexts. Assessment and intervention that more proximal parenting behaviors are hig- that attend to the infant within this dynamic hly predictive of child outcomes and can even developmental context are central to returning overcome early insecure attachment histories. to or maintaining the young child on this pow- Interventions to enhance parenting sensi- erful track toward increasing social–emotional tivity can have important positive effects on competence. children’s social–emotional outcomes (Baker- mans-Kranenburg et al., 2003), particularly for those parents and infants who are most vulne- REFERENCES rable. For example, intervention effects may be strongest for those parents with highly tempe- Aber, J. L., Slade, A., Berger, B., Bresgi, I., & Kaplan, ramentally reactive infants (Klein Velderman, M. (1985). The Parent Development Interview. Un- Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Juffer, 2006). Other published manuscript, New York University, New more comprehensive models of intervention, for York. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, example, the Circle of Security (Hoffman et al., S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological 2006; Huber, McMahon, & Sweller, 2015) or study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erl- Mom Power (Muzik et al., 2015; Rosenblum et al., baum. 2018; Swain et al., 2017), both attachment-focu- Aristotle. (1941). The basic works of Aristotle (J. L. sed interventions, have documented treatment Beare, Trans.). New York: Random House. efficacy, yet they target not only parents’ sensi- Atkinson, L., Goldberg, S., & Raval, V. (2005). On the tivity but also their abilities to understand their relation between maternal state of mind and sensi- children’s emotional communications, their own tivity in the prediction of infant attachment security. mental representations, and their capacity for Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 42–53. reflective reasoning about child behavior. Auerbach, J., Benjamin, J., Faroy, M., Geller, V., & Ebstein, R. (2001). DRD4 related to infant attention and information processing: A developmental link to ADHD? Psychiatric Genetics, 11(1), 31–35. Conclusions Auerbach, J., Faroy, M., Ebstein, R., Kahana, M., & Levine, J. (2001). The association of the dopamine The first years of life are remarkable for the D4 receptor gene (DRD4) and the serotonin transporter promoter gene (5-HTTLPR) with tempera-

ment in 12-month-old infants. Journal of Child Psy- alization and research findings. American Journal of chology and Psychiatry, 42(6), 777–783. Orthopsychiatry, 70, 104–114. Auerbach, J., Geller, V., Lezer, S., Shinwell, E., Bel- Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attach- maker, R. H., Levine, J., et al. (1999). Dopamine D4 ment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. (Original receptor (D4DR) and serotonin transporter promoter work published 1969) (5-HTTLPR) polymorphisms in the determination of Braithwaite, E. C., Ramchandani, P. G., O’Connor, T. temperament in 2-month-old infants. Molecular Psy- G., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, chiatry, 4(4), 369–373. M. J., Glover, V., et al. (2013). No moderating effect Aviezer, O., Sagi-Schwartz, A., & Koren-Karie, N. of 5-HTTLPR on associations between antenatal (2003). Ecological constraints on the formation of anxiety and infant behavior. Journal of the American infant–mother attachment relations: When maternal Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(5), sensitivity becomes ineffective. Infant Behavior and 519–526. Development, 226(3), 285–299. Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Garwood, M. M., Powers, B. Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, J. H. P., & Wang, X. (2001). Parental sensitivity, infant af- (2006). Gene-environment interaction of the dopa- fect, and affect regulation: Predictors of later attach- mine D4 receptor (DRD4) and observed maternal ment. Child Development, 72(1), 252–270. insensitivity predicting externalizing behavior in Bridges, K. M. B. (1932). Emotional development in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 48(5), early infancy. Child Development, 3, 324–341. 406–409. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human de- Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., velopment: Experiments by nature and design. Cam- & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. sensitivity and attachment interventions in early Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195–215. developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erl- Barrett, K. C. (2005). The origins of social emotions baum. and self-regulation in toddlerhood: New evidence. Cabrera, N. J., Hofferth, S. L., & Chae, S. (2011). Pat- Cognition and Emotion, 19, 953–979. terns and predictors of father–infant engagement Barrett, K. C., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Cole, P. M. (1993). across race/ethnic groups. Early Childhood Re- Avoiders vs. amenders: Implications for the investi- search Quarterly, 26(3), 365–375. gation of guilt and shame during toddlerhood? Cog- Calkins, S. D. (2004). Early attachment processes and nition and Emotion, 7(6), 481–505. the development of emotional self-regulation. In R. Beeghly, M., & Tronick, E. (2011). Early resilience in F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of the context of parent–infant relationships: A social self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications developmental perspective. Current Problems in (pp. 324–339). New York: Guilford Press. Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 41(7), 197– Calkins, S. D., & Fox, N. A. (1992). The relations among 201. infant temperament, security of attachment, and be- Bell, M. A., & Wolfe, C. D. (2004). Emotion and cog- havioral inhibition at twenty-four months. Child De- nition: An intricately bound developmental process. velopment, 63, 1456–1472. Child Development, 75(2), 366–370. Calkins, S. D., & Hill, A. (2007). Caregiving influences Belsky, J. (2005). Differential susceptibility to rearing on emerging emotion regulation: Biological and en- influence. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), vironmental transactions in early development. In J. Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. and child development (pp. 139–163). New York: 229–248). New York: Guilford Press. Guilford Press. Calkins, S. D., Smith, C. L., Gill, K. L., & Johnson, M. Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2002). Early attachment C. (1998). Maternal interactive style across contexts: security, subsequent maternal sensitivity, and later Relations to emotional, behavioral, physiological child development: Does continuity in development regulation during toddlerhood. Social Development, depend upon continuity of caregiving? Attachment 7, 350–369. and Human Development, 4(3), 361–387. Campos, J., Walle, E. A., Dahl, A., & Main, A. (2011). Benoit, D., Parker, K. C. H., & Zeanah, C. H. (1997). Reconceptualizing emotion regulation. Emotion Re- Mothers’ representations of their infants assessed view, 3, 26–35. prenatally: Stability and association with infants’ at- Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, tachment classifications. Journal of Child Psychol- I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life ogy and Psychiatry, 38(3), 307–313. stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism Berlin, L. J. (2005). Interventions to enhance early in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389. attachments: The state of the field today. In L. J. Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences of at- Berlin, Y. Ziv, L. Amaya-Jackson, & M. T. Green- tachment relationships. Monographs of the Society berg (Eds.), Enhancing early attachments: Theory, for Research in Child Development, 59, 228–249. research, intervention, and policy (pp. 3–33). New Cassidy, J., Woodhouse, S. S., Sherman, L. J., Stupica, York: Guilford Press. B., & Lejuez, C. (2011). Enhancing infant attachment Biringen, Z. (2000). Emotional availability: Conceptu- security: An examination of treatment efficacy and Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

differential susceptibility. Development and Psycho- Ebstein, R. P., Levine, J., Geller, V., Auerbach, J., Grit- pathology, 23(1), 131–148. senko, I., & Belmaker, R. H. (1998). Dopamine D4 Chronis-Tuscano, A., Degnan, K. A., Pine, D. S., Perez- receptor and serotonin transporter promoter in the Edgar, K., Henderson, H. A., Diaz, Y., et al. (2009). determination of neonatal temperament. Molecular Stable early maternal report of behavioral inhibition Psychiatry, 3(3), 238–246. predicts lifetime social anxiety disorder in adoles- Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, cence. Journal of the American Academy of Child R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., et al. (2001). The and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(9), 928–935. relations of regulation and emotionality to children’s Cole, P., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological Child Development, 72(4), 1112–1134. challenges and directions for child development re- Emde, R., & Buschsbaum, H. K. (1989). Toward a psy- search. Child Development, 75(2), 317–333. choanalytic theory of affect: II. Emotional develop- Cole, P., Tamang, B.-L., & Shrestha, S. (2006). Cultural ment and signaling in infancy. In S. I. Greenspan & variations in the socialization of young children’s G. H. Pollock (Eds.), The course of life (Vol. 1, pp. anger and shame. Child Development, 77(5), 1237– 165–192). Madison, CT: International Universities 1251. Press. Cole, P., Teti, L. O., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003). Mutual Feinman, S., Roberts, D., Hsieh, K. H., Sawyer, D., emotion regulation and the stability of conduct prob- & Swanson, D. (1992). A critical review of social lems between preschool and early school age. De- referencing in infancy. In S. Feinman (Ed.), Social velomental Psychopathology, 16, 1–18. referencing and the social construction of reality in Cole, P. M., LeDonne, E. N., & Tan, P. Z. (2013). A lon- infancy (pp. 15–54). New York: Plenum Press. gitudinal examination of maternal emotions in rela- Feldman, R. (2006). From biological rhythms to social tion to young children’s developing self-regulation. rhythms: Physiological precursors of mother–in- Parenting, 13(2), 113–132. fant synchrony. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), Crittenden, P. M. (1990). Internal representational mod- 175–188. els of attachment relationships. Infant Mental Health Feldman, R. (2017). The neurobiology of human attach- Journal, 11(3), 259–277. ments. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(2), 80–89. Crockenberg, S. B., & Leerkes, E. (2000). Infant social Feldman, R., Singer, M., & Zagoory, O. (2010). Touch and emotional development in family context. In attenuates infants’ physiological reactivity to stress. C. H. Zeanah, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental Developmental Science, 13(2), 271–278. health (2nd ed., pp. 60–90). New York: Guilford Feldman, R., Sussman, A. L., & Zigler, E. (2004). Pa- Press. rental leave and work adaptation at the transition to Crockenberg, S. B., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004). Infant parenthood: Individual, marital, and social corre- and maternal behaviors regulate infant reactivity to lates. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychol- novelty at 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 40, ogy, 25(4), 459–479. 1123–1132. Field, T. (1994). The effects of mother’s physical and Davies, D. (2010). Child development: A practitioner’s emotional unavailability on emotion regulation. guide. New York: Guilford Press. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Dayton, C. J., Levendosky, A. A., Davidson, W. S., & Development, 59, 208–227. Bogat, G. A. (2007, March). The child as held in the Fogel, A., Nwokah, E., Dedo, J. Y., Messinger, D., Dick- mind of the mother: The impact of prenatal maternal son, K. L., Matusov, E., et al. (1992). Social process representations on later parenting behaviors. Paper theory of emotion: A dynamic systems approach. So- presented at the Society for Research in Child Devel- cial Development, 1, 122–141. opment, Boston. Fonagy, P., Steele, H., Moran, G., Steele, M., & Higg- Dayton, C. J., Walsh, T. B., Oh, W., & Volling, B. itt, A. (1991). The capacity for understanding mental (2015). Hush now baby: Mothers’ and fathers’ strat- states: The reflective self in parent and child and its egies for soothing their infants and associated par- significance for security of attachment. Infant Men- enting outcomes. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, tal Health Journal, 13, 200–217. 29(2), 145–155. Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Higgitt, A., & Target, DeWolff, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitiv- M. (1994). Theory and practice of resilience. Journal ity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental an- of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 231–257. tecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1997). Attachment and reflec- 68(4), 571–591. tive function: Their role in self-organization. Devel- Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: opment and Psychopathology, 9, 679–700. Adaptive and maladaptive processes. Psychological Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K., Calkins, S. Bulletin, 110, 3–25. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and dis- Dozier, M., Stovall, K. C., & Albus, K. E. (2001). At- continuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: tachment for infants in foster care: The role of care- Psychophysiological and behavioral influence across giver state of mind. Child Development, 72, 1467– the first four years of life. Child Development, 72(1), 1477. 1–21. Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fox, N. A., Nichols, K. E., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K., chrony: Its structure and function in children’s de- Schmidt, L., Hamer, D., et al. (2005). Evidence for a velopment. Developmental Review, 22(4), 555–592. gene–environment interaction in predicting behav- Hart, S. L., Carrington, H. A., Tronick, E. Z., & Carroll, ioral inhibition in middle childhood. Psychological S. R. (2004). When infants lose exclusive maternal Science, 16(12), 921–926. attention: Is it jealousy? Infancy, 6, 57–78. Garner, P. W. (1995). Toddlers’ emotion regulation be- Hibel, L. C., Granger, D. A., Blair, C., & Finegood, haviors: The roles of social context and family ex- E. D. (2015). Maternal–child adrenocortical attun- pressiveness. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 156, ement in early childhood: Continuity and change. 417–430. Developmental Psychobiology, 57(1), 83–95. Garner, P. W. (2003). Child and family correlates of Hofferth, S. L., Pleck, J., Stueve, J. L., Bianchi, S., & toddlers’ emotional and behavioral responses to a Sayer, L. (2002). The demography of fathers: What mishap. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 580–596. fathers do. In S. Tamis-LeMonda & N. Cabrera George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1985). The Adult (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidis- Attachment Interview: Interview protocol. Unpub- ciplinary perspectives (pp. 63–92). Mahwah, NJ: lished manuscript, University of California at Berke- Erlbaum. ley, Berkeley, CA. Hoffman, K. T., Marvin, R. S., Cooper, G., & Powell, B. George, C., & Solomon, J. (1996). Representational (2006). Changing toddlers’ and preschoolers’ attach- models of relationships: Links between caregiving ment classifications: The Circle of Security interven- and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, tion. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 198–217. 74(6), 1017–1026. Gergely, G., & Watson, J. S. (1996). The social biofeed- Horvath, D. D., & Weinraub, M. (2005). Predicting chil- back theory of parental affect mirroring: The devel- dren’s separation anxiety at age 6: The contributions opment of emotional self-awareness and self-control of infant–mother attachment security, maternal sen- in infancy. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, sitivity, and maternal separation anxiety. Attachment 77, 1181–1212. and Human Development, 7(4), 393–408. Gesell, A., & Armatruda, C. S. (1947). Develomental Huber, A., McMahon, C. A., & Sweller, N. (2015). Effi- diagnosis. New York: Haber. cacy of the 20-week Circle of Security intervention: Geva, R., & Feldman, R. (2008). A neurobiological Changes in caregiver reflective functioning, repre- model for the effects of early brainstem functioning sentations, and child attachment in an Australian on the development of behavior and emotion regula- clinical sample. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36(6), tion in infants: Implications for prenatal and perina- 556–574. tal risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Huth Bocks, A. C., Levendosky, A. A., Theran, S. A., 49(10), 1031–1041. & Bogat, G. A. (2004). The impact of domestic vio- Ghera, M. M., Hane, A. A., & Malesa, E. (2006). The lence on mothers’ prenatal representations of their role of infant soothability in the relation between in- infants. Infant Mental Health Journal, 25(2), 79–98. fant negativity and maternal sensitivity. Infant Be- Izard, C. E. (2007). Basic emotions, natural kinds, emo- havior and Development, 29(2), 289–293. tion schemas, and a new paradigm. Perspectives on Gray, S. A., Forbes, D., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, Psychological Science, 2, 260–280. A. S. (2015). Caregiver insightfulness and young Izard, C. E. (2011). Forms and functions of emotions: children’s violence exposure: Testing a relational Matters of emotion–cognition interactions. Emotion model of risk and resilience. Attachment and Human Review, 3, 371–378. Development, 17(6), 615–634. Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., & Huebner, R. R. (1987). Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Fremmer-Bombik, Infants’ emotion expressions to acute pain: Devel- E., Kindler, H., Scheuerer-Englisch, H., & Zim- opmental change and stability of individual differ- merman, P. (2002). The uniqueness of the child– ences. Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 105–113. father attachment relationship: Fathers’ sensitive Izard, C. E., & Malatesta, C. Z. (1987). Perspectives on and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16- emotional development: I. Differential emotions the- year longitudinal study. Social Development, 11(3), ory of early emotional development. In J. D. Osofsky 307–331. (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd ed., pp. Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., & Waters, E. (2005). 494–554). New York: Wiley. Attachment from infancy to adulthood: The major James, W. (1884). What is an emotion? Mind, 9, 188– longitudinal studies. New York: Guilford Press. 205. Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. M. (2007). Early care Johnson, M. H., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1991). experiences and HPA axis regulation in children: A Components of visual orienting in early infancy: mechanism for later trauma vulnerability. Progress Contingency learning, antocipatory looking, and in Brain Research, 167, 137–149. disengaging. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Haft, W. L., & Slade, A. (1989). Affect attunement and 3(4), 335–344. maternal attachment: A pilot study. Infant Mental Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Clarke, C., Snidman, N., & Health Journal, 10(3), 157–172. Garcia-Coll, C. (1984). Behavioral inhibition to the Harrist, A. W., & Waugh, R. M. (2002). Dyadic syn- unfamiliar. Child Development, 55(6), 2212–2225. Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Kagan, J., Snidman, N., McManis, M., & Woodward, cial information processing.Child Development, 71, S. (2001). Temperamental contributions to the af- 107–118. fect family of anxiety. Psychiatric Clinics of North Lemerise, E. A., & Dodge, K. A. (2000). The develop- America, 24(4), 677–688. ment of anger and hostile interactions. In M. Lewis Kaufman, J., Yang, B. Z., Douglas-Palumberi, H., & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emo- Houshyar, S., Lipschitz, D., Krystal, J. H., et al. tions (2nd ed., pp. 594–606). New York: Guilford (2004). Social supports and serotonin transporter Press. gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Lerner, J. V., Hertzog, C., Hooker, K. A., Hassibi, M., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of & Tomas, A. (1988). A longitudinal study of negative the USA, 101(49), 17316–17321. emotional states and adjustment from early child- Kestenbaum, R., Farber, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1989). In- hood through adolescence. Child Development, 59, dividual differences in empathy among preschool- 356–366. ers: Concurrent and predictive validity. New Direc- Lewis, M. (2000). Self-conscious emotions: Embarrass- tions for Child Development, 44, 51–64. ment, pride, shame, and guilt. In M. Lewis & J. M. Kim, B.-R., Stifter, C. A., Philbrook, L. E., & Teti, D. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd M. (2014). Infant emotion regulation: Relations to ed., pp. 623–636). New York: Guilford Press. bedtime emotional availability, attachment security, Lewis, M. (2013). The rise of consciousness and the and temperament. Infant Behavior and Develop- development of emotional life. New York: Guilford ment, 37(4), 480–490. Press. King, A. P., Muzik, M., Hamilton, L., Taylor, A. B., Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (2002). Cortisol response to Rosenblum, K. L., & Liberzon, I. (2016). Dopamine embarassement and shame. Child Development, 73, receptor gene DRD4 7-repeat allele × maternal sen- 1034–1045. sitivity interaction on child externalizing behavior Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (2005). Infant emotional and problems: Independent replication of effects at 18 cortisol responses to goal blockage. Child Develop- months. PLOS ONE, 11(8), e0160473. ment, 76, 518–530. Kitayama, S., Marcus, H., & Matsumoto, H. (1995). Lieberman, A. F. (1993). The emotional life of the tod- Culture, self, and emotion: A cultural perspective on dler. New York: Free Press. “self-conscious” emotions. New York: Guilford Press. Lieberman, A., Ghosh-Ippen, C., & van Horn, P. (2016). Klein Velderman, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. Don’t hit my mommy!: A manual for child–parent psy- J., & Juffer, F. (2006). Effects of attachment-based chotherapy with young witnesses of family violence interventions on maternal sensitivity and infant at- (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Zero to Three Press. tachment: Differential susceptibility of highly reac- Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment tive infants. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(2), disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational vio- 266–274. lence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strat- Kluger, A. N., Siegfried, Z., & Ebstein, R. P. (2002). egies. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Hand- A meta-analysis of the association between DRD4 book of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical polymorphism and novelty seeking. Molecular Psy- applications (pp. 520–554). New York: Guilford chiatry, 7(7), 712–717. Press. Kochanska, G. (2001). Emotional development in chil- Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. dren with different attachment histories: The first (2005). Expanding the concept of unresolved mental three years. Child Development, 72(2), 474–490. states: Hostile/helpless states of mind on the Adult Kochanska, G., Gross, J. N., Lin, M., & Nichols, K. E. Attachment Interview are associated with disrupted (2002). Guilt in young children: Development, de- mother–infant communication and infant disorga- terminants, and relations with a broader system of nization. Development and Psychopathology, 17(1), standards. Child Development, 73, 461–482. 1–23. Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative Magai, C. (1999). Affect, imagery, and attachment: emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Working models of interpersonal affect and the so- Psychology, 25, 343–354. cialization of emotion. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver Koren-Karie, N., Oppenheim, D., & Dolev, S. (2002). (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research Mothers’ insightfulness regarding their infants’ in- and clinical applications (pp. 787–802). New York: ternal experience: Relations with maternal sensitiv- Guilford Press. ity and infant attachment. Developmental Psychol- Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1994). Stages in ogy, 38(4), 534–542. the infant’s separation from the mother. In G. Handel Leerkes, E., & Crockenberg, S. B. (2003). The impact & G. G. Whitchurch (Eds.), The psychosocial inte- of maternal characteristics and sensitivity on the rior of the family (4th ed., pp. 419–448). Hawthorne, concordance between maternal reports and labora- NY: Aldine de Gruyter. tory observations of infant negative emotionality. Main, M., & George, C. (1985). Responses of abused Infancy, 4, 517–539. and disadvantaged toddlers to distress in agemates: Lemerise, E. A., & Arsenio, W. F. (2000). An integrated A study in the day care setting. Develomental Psy- model of emotion processes and cognition in so- chopathology, 21, 407–412. Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Adult attachment presented at the conference of the Society for Re- scoring and classification systems (2nd ed.). Unpub- search on Child Development, Tampa, FL. lished manuscript, University of California at Berke- Muzik, M., Rosenblum, K. L., Alfafara, E. A., Schuster, ley, Berkeley, CA. M. M., Miller, N. M., Waddell, R. M., et al. (2015). Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of a new, in- Mom power: Preliminary outcomes of a group insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. tervention to improve mental health and parenting In T. B. Brazelton & M. Q. Yogman (Eds.), Affective among high-risk mothers. Archives of Women’s Men- development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Norwood, NJ: tal Health, 18(3), 507–521. Ablex. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2004). Malatesta, C. Z., Culver, C., Tesman, J. R., & Shepard, Affect dysregulation in the mother–child relation- B. (1989). The development of emotion expression ship in the toddler years: Antecedents and conse- during the first two years of life. Monographs of the quences. Development and Psychopathology, 16, Society for Research in Child Development, 54(1–2), 43–68. 1–103. Oster, H. (1981). “Recognition” of emotional expression Mangelsdorf, S., McHale, J. L., Diener, M., Goldstein, in infancy? In M. E. Lamh & L. R. Sherrod (Eds.), L. H., & Lehn, L. (2000). Infant attachment: Con- Infant social cognition: Empirical and theoretical tributions of infant temperament and maternal char- considerations (pp. 85–125). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. acteristics. Infant Behavior and Development, 23(2), Pappa, I., Mileva-Seitz, V. R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, 175–196. M. J., Tiemeier, H., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015). Marcu, I., Oppenheim, D., & Koren-Karie, N. (2016). The magnificent seven: A quantitative review of do- Parental insightfulness is associated with coopera- pamine receptor D4 and its association with child tive interactions in families with toddlers. Journal of behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, Family Psychology, 30(8), 927–934. 57, 175–186. Mayseless, O. (2006). Parenting representations: The- Paquette, D. (2004). Theorizing the father–child rela- ory, research, and clinical implications. New York: tionship: Mechanisms and developmental outcomes. Cambridge University Press. Human Development, 47(4), 193–219. McElwain, N. L., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2006). Ma- Propper, C., & Moore, G. A. (2006). The influence of ternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress parenting on infant emotionality: A multi-level psy- as predictors of infant–mother attachment security. chobiological perspective. Developmental Review, Journal of Family Psychology, 20(2), 247–255. 26, 427–460. Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., & Fradley, E. (2001). Re- Repaccholi, B. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2007). Emo- thinking maternal sensitivity: Mothers’ comments tional eavesdropping: Infants selectively respond to on infants’ mental processes predict security of at- indirect emotional signals. Child Development, 78, tachment at 12 months. Journal of Child Psychology 503–521. and Psychiatry, 42(5), 637–648. Rosenblum, K., Dayton, C. J., & McDonough, S. (2006). Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., & Johnson, F. (2006). Mind- Communicating feelings: Links between mothers’ mindedness in children: Individual differences in representations of their infants, parenting, and in- internal-state talk in middle childhood. British Jour- fant emotional development. New York: Cambridge nal of Developmental Psychology, 24(1), 181–196. University Press. Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., & Wainwright, R. (2003). Rosenblum, K. L., Lawler, J., Alfafara, E., Miller, N., Pathways to understanding mind: Construct validity Schuster, M., & Muzik, M. (2018). Improving mater- and predictive validity of maternal mind-minded- nal representations in high-risk mothers: A random- ness. Child Development, 74(4), 1194–1211. ized, controlled trial of the Mom Power parenting Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1998). Infant inter- intervention. Child Psychiatry and Human Develop- subjectivity: Broadening the dialogue to include ment, 49, 372–384. imitation, identity and intention. In S. Bråten (Ed.), Rosenblum, K. L., McDonough, S., Muzik, M., Miller, Intersubjective communication and emotion in early A., & Sameroff, A. (2002). Maternal representations ontogeny (pp. 47–62). Paris: Cambridge University of the infant: Associations with infant response to Press. the still face. Child Development, 73(4), 999–1015. Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans- Rosenblum, K. L., McDonough, S. C., Sameroff, A. J., Kranenburg, M. J. (2009). The many faces of the & Muzik, M. (2008). Reflection in thought and ac- still-face paradigm: A review and meta-analysis. tion: Maternal parenting reflectivity predicts mind- Developmental Review, 29(2), 120–162. minded comments and interactive behavior. Infant Milligan, K., Atkinson, L., Trehub, S. E., Benoit, D., Mental Health Journal, 29(4), 362–376. & Poulton, L. (2003). Maternal attachment and the Rosenblum, K., Zeanah, C. H., McDonough, S., & communication of emotion through song. Infant Be- Muzik, M. (2004). Video-taped coding of working havior and Development, 26(1), 1–13. model of the child interviews: A viable and useful Muzik, M., & Rosenblum, K. (2003, April). Maternal alternative to verbatim transcripts? Infant Behavior reflective capacity: Association with sensitivity and and Development, 27(4), 544–549. mental state comments during interaction. Poster Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychol- nary study. Attachment and Human Development, 7, ogy: Social, emotional, and personality development 283–298. (Vol. 3, pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley. Solomon, J., & George, C. (2011). Disorganized attach- Rothbart, M. K., & Derryberry, D. (1981). Development ment and caregiving. New York: Guilford Press. of individual differences in temperament. In M. E. Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, A. D. (1984). Lamb & A. L. Brown (Eds.), Advances in develop- Vineland adaptive behavior scales. Circle Pines, mental psychology (pp. 37–86). Cambridge, UK: MN: American Guidance Service. Cambridge University Press. Spinrad, T. L., & Stifter, C. A. (2006). Toddlers’ empa- Saarni, C. (1999). The development of emotional com- thy-related responding to distress: Predictions from petence. New York: Guilford Press. negative emotionality and maternal behavior in in- Sagi, A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Aviezer, O., & Don- fancy. Infancy, 10(2), 97–121. nell, F. (1994). Sleeping out of home in a kibbutz Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Infant–caregiver attachment and communial arrangement: It makes a difference for patterns of adaptation in preschool: The roots of mal- infant–mother attachment. Child Development, adaptation and competence. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), 65(4), 992–1004. Minnesota Symposium in Child Psychology (Vol. 16, Sameroff, A. (1993). Models of development and devel- pp. 41–83). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. opmental risk. In C. H. Zeanah, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook Sroufe, L. A. (1989). Relationships, self, and individual of infant mental health (pp. 3–13). New York: Guil- adaptation. In A. J. Sameroff & R. N. Emde (Eds.), ford Press. Relationship disturbances in early childhood (pp. Sameroff, A., McDonough, S., & Rosenblum, K. L. 70–94). New York: Basic Books. (Eds.). (2004). Treating parent–infant relationship Sroufe, L. A. (1996). Emotional development: The or- problems: Strategies for intervention. New York: ganization of emotional life in the early years. New Guilford Press. York: Cambridge University Press. Schechter, D. S., Coates, S. W., Kaminer, T., Coots, T., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, Zeanah, C. H., Jr., Davies, M., et al. (2008). Distorted W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The maternal mental representations and atypical behav- Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaptation from Birth ior in a clinical sample of violence-exposed mothers to Adulthood. New York: Guilford Press. and their toddlers. Journal of Trauma and Dissocia- Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an tion, 9(2), 123–147. organizational construct. Child Development, 48, Schechter, D. S., Coots, T., Zeanah, C. H., Davies, M., 1184–1199. Coates, S. W., Trabka, K. A., et al. (2005). Mater- Stacks, A. M., Muzik, M., Wong, K., Beeghly, M., nal mental representations of the child in an inner- Huth-Bocks, A., Irwin, J. L., et al. (2014). Maternal city clinical sample: Violence-related posttraumatic reflective functioning among mothers with child- stress and reflective functioning. Attachment and hood maltreatment histories: Links to sensitive par- Human Development, 7, 313–332. enting and infant attachment security. Attachment Schwartz, C. E., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1999). Ado- and Human Development, 16(5), 515–533. lescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the in- temperament in childhood. Journal of the American fant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(8), psychology. New York: Basic Books. 1008–1101. Stifter, C. A. (2002). Individual differences in emotion Seifer, R. (2000). Temperament and goodness of fit: regulation in infancy: A thematic collection. Infancy, Implications for developmental psychopathology. 3, 129–132. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Suess, G. J., Grossmann, K. E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1992). Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd Effects of infant attachment to mother and father on ed., pp. 257–276). New York: Kluwer Academic/Ple- quality of adaptation in preschool: From dyadic to num Press. individual organisation of self. International Jour- Simpson, J. A. (1999). Attachment theory in modern nal of Behavioral Development, 15(1), 43–65. evolutionary perspective. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shav- Swain, J., Dayton, C., Kim, P., Tolman, R., & Volling, er (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research B. (2014). Progress on the paternal brain: Theory, and clinical applications (pp. 115–140). New York: animal models, human brain research, and mental Guilford Press. health implications. Infant Mental Health Journal, Slade, A., Belsky, J., Aber, J. L., & Phelps, J. L. (1999). 35(5), 394–408. Mothers’ representations of their relationships Swain, J., Ho, S. S., Rosenblum, K. L., Morelen, D., with their toddlers: Links to adult attachment and Dayton, C. J., & Muzik, M. (2017). Parent–child in- observed mothering. Developmental Psychology, tervention decreases stress and increases maternal 35(3), 611–619. brain responses and connectivity in response to own Slade, A., Grienenberger, J., Bernbach, E., Levy, D., & baby-cry. Development and Psychopathology, 29(2), Locker, A. (2005). Maternal reflective functioning, 535–553. attachment, and the transmission gap: A prelimi- Taumoepeau, M., & Ruffman, T. (2006). Mother and Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

infant talk about mental states relates to desire lan- psychology of shame, guilt, embarassement, and guage and emotion understanding. Child Develop- pride (pp. 465–487). New York: Guilford Press. ment, 77(2), 465–481. Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and de- E. A. (1999). The nature of individual differences in velopment. New York: Brunner/Mazel. infant–caregiver attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Thompson, R. (1988). Emotion and self-regulation. In Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, re- R. A. Thompson (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Mo- search, and clinical applications. (pp. 68–88). New tivation (Vol. 36, pp. 367–467). Lincoln: University York: Guilford Press. of Nebraska Press. White, L. K., Degnan, K. A., Henderson, H. A., Pérez- Tomasello, M., Malinda, C., Josep, C., Tanya, B., & Edgar, K., Walker, O. L., Shechner, T., et al. (2017). Henrike, M. (2005). Understanding and sharing in- Developmental relations among behavioral inhi- tentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behav- bition, anxiety, and attention biases to threat and ioral and Brain Sciences, 28(5), 675–691. positive information. Child Development, 88(1), Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, 141–155. D. (2006). The efficacy of toddler–parent psycho- White, L. K., McDermott, J. M., Degnan, K. A., Hen- therapy to reorganize attachment in the young off- derson, H. A., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Behavioral inhibi- spring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A tion and anxiety: The moderating roles of inhibitory randomized preventive trial. Journal of Consulting control and attention shifting. Journal of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 1006–1016. Child Psychology, 39(5), 735–747. Tronick, E. Z. (2003). Things still to be done on the still- Windhorst, D. A., Mileva-Seitz, V. R., Linting, M., Hof- face effect. Infancy, 4, 475–482. man, A., Jaddoe, V. W., Verhulst, F. C., et al. (2015). Tronick, E. Z. (2006). The inherent stress of normal Differential susceptibility in a developmental per- daily life and social interaction leads to the develop- spective: DRD4 and maternal sensitivity predicting ment of coping and resilience and variation in resil- externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychobiol- ience in infants and young children. Annals of the ogy, 57(1), 35–49. New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 83–104. Windhorst, D. A., Mileva-Seitz, V. R., Rippe, R. C., Tronick, E. Z., & Cohn, J. F. (1989). Infant–mother Tiemeier, H., Jaddoe, V. W., Verhulst, F. C., et al. face-to-face interaction: Age and gender differences (2016). Beyond main effects of gene-sets: Harsh in coordination and the occurence of miscoordina- parenting moderates the association between a do- tion. Child Development, 60, 85–92. pamine gene-set and child externalizing behavior. Tronick, E. Z., & Weinberg, M. K. (1997). Depressed Brain and Behavior, 6(8), e00498. mothers and infants: Failure to form dyadic states of Zeanah, C. H., & Benoit, D. (1995). Clinical applica- consciousness. In L. Murray & P. J. Cooper (Eds.), tions of a parent perception interview in infant men- Postpartum depression and child development (pp. tal health. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics 54–81). New York: Guilford Press. of North America, 4(3), 539–554. van IJzendoorn, M. H., & De Wolff, M. S. (1997). In Zeanah, C. H., Keener, M. A., Stewart, L., & Anders, T. search of the absent father—meta-analysis of infant– F. (1985). Prenatal perception of infant personality: father attachment: A rejoinder to our discussants. A preliminary investigation. Journal of the Ameri- Child Development, 68(4), 604–609. can Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24(2), 204–210. Vizziello, G. F., Antonioli, M. E., Cocci, V., & In- Zhang, M., Chen, X., Deng, H., & Lu, Z. (2014). Iden- vernizzi, R. (1993). From pregnancy to motherhood: tifying the interaction of maternal sensitivity and The structure of representative and narrative change. two serotonin-related gene polymorphisms on infant Infant Mental Health Journal, 14(1), 4–16. self-regulation. Infant Behavior and Development, Volling, B. L., Yu, T., Gonzalez, R., Kennedy, D. E., 37(4), 606–614. Rosenberg, L., & Oh, W. (2014). Children’s respons- Zimmermann, P. (1999). Structure and functions of in- es to mother–infant and father–infant interaction ternal working models of attachment and their role with a baby sibling: Jealousy or joy? Journal of Fam- for emotion regulation. Attachment and Human De- ily Psychology, 28(5), 634–644. velopment, 1(3), 291–306. Vreeswijk, C. M., Maas, A. J., & van Bakel, H. J. (2012). Zwaigenbaum, L., Thurm, A., Stone, W., Baranek, G., Parental representations: A systematic review of the Bryson, S., Iverson, J., et al. (2007). Studying the working model of the child interview. Infant Mental emergence of autism spectrum disorders in high-risk Health Journal, 33(3), 314–328. infants: Methodological and practical issues. Jour- Walbot, H., & Scherer, K. (1995). Cultural determinants nal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(3), in experienceing shame and guilt. In J. P. Tangney & 466–480. K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/2/2019 3:05 PM via TUFTS UNIV AN: 1843598 ; Zeanah, Charles H..; Handbook of Infant Mental Health, Fourth Edition Account: s3579704.main.ehost