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Citation: Billing, S. (2006). Bacewicz : the violin concertos. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London)
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City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] Bacewicz - The Violin Concertos
Sally Billing
PhD
City University Music Department
August 2006 Contents
List of Tablesand Illustrations 3 List of MusicalExamples 4 Acknowledgements 8 Abstract 9 PART 1: 1. BIOGRAPHYAND SOCIALCONTEXT 10 2. RECEPTION 25 3. MUSICAL INFLUENCES 34 (a) Baoewicz'sPolish Background 34 (b) WesternEuropean Influences 47 4. AN IIISTORICAL INTRODUCTIONTO 711EVIOLIN CONCER11 57 PART2: 1. MELODIC WRITING 69 (a) Stepsvs. Leaps 70 (b) CharacteristicIntervals 78 (c) Modality 82 2. HARMONY AND TONALITY 95 (a) VerticalIntervals of theFourth and Fifth 93 (b) Dissonance 98 (c) Bitinality 92 (d) CharacteristicFeatures 93 (e) Useof Keys 99 3. FORM 103 (a) OverallFormal Structure of theConoertos 104 (b) Structureand Character of Main Themes III (t) Useof Themes 112 (it) Bi-partiteStructure of the Main Theme 112 (iii) ImmediateRepetition of Themes 113 (iv) no BalancedDesign of Themes 114 (v) Ile Characterizationof Themes 115 (vi) Neo-ClassicalInfluences on ConcertoThemes 116 (vii) Rhythm 117 (viii) Introductionof AdditionalMaterial 122 4. TEXTURE 125 (a) Solo-TuttiRelationship 125 (b) Functionsof Texture t26 (e) TexturalJuxtaposition 130 (d) TexturalDensity 134 5. ORCHESTRATION 138 (a) Useof Timbre 138 (b) Scaleof Orchestration 143 (c) Range 145 (d) Useof the StringSection 147 6. WRITINGFOR SOLOVIOLIN 154 (a) virtuosity 154 (b) OpenStrings 159 (i) DoubleStoppirýriolagc 159 (it) DoublingStoppedA: )pm Notes 160 (iii) TimbralEffect 160 (iv) Extensionof Range 164 (c) Mrmonics 165 (d) Fingerings t66 (e) ContemporaryTechniques t68 7. COMMON MATERIAL 170 PART3- VIOLIN CONCERTONO. 5, MVT. I: A DETAILED DISCUSSIONOF STYLE AND COMPOSITIONALTEC11NIQUE 176 PART4: BACEWICZ'SMUSICAL DEVELOPMENT 201 (a) A GeneralConsideration of Bacewicz'sOeuvre 201 (b) Bacewiczsmusic: Gendered Music? 206 Appendix: List of Work:s 219 Bibliography 262
2 List of Tables and Illustrations
Figure
Tonic Keys 98
2 Key of Recapitulationof TbexneA 101
3 RondoForm: Conc. 2, Mvt. 11 110
4 Structureof OpeningTutti: Concerto5, Mvt. Il 112
5 Use of InstrumentalEffects 142
6 Insh-umentation 144
3 List of Musical Examples
Example
I Stravinsky:Symphony in ThreeMovements, Mvt. L b. 62 70 2 Conc. I, Mvt. 1,b. 115 (Solo Violin) 71 3 Conc.4, Mvt. III, b. I (Reduction) 72 4 Conc.4, MA. 1,b. 52 (Reduction) 72 5 Conc.4, Mvt. IL b. 25 73 6 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1,b. I (Reduction) 74 7 Conc.5. Mvt. 111,b. 4 (Reduction) 74 8 Stravinsky:Agon, Mvt. 11,b. I (ReducedScore) 75 9 Stravinsky:Violin Concerto,Mvt. 1,b. 161 (Solo Violin) 75 10 Stravinsky:Symphony in ThreeMovements, Mvt. 11,b. 76 (Oboes) 76 11 Conc.6, Mvt. 1,b. 28 (Solo Violin) 76 12 Conc.7, MvL 11,b. 103 (Solo Violin) 76 13 Conc.7, Mvt. 1,b. 19 (Solo Violin) 76 14 Cone.7, Mvt. II, b. 74 (Solo Violin) 76 15 Conc.7, Mvt. 111,b. 20 (Solo Violin) 77 16 Divertimento for String Orchestra,Mvt. III, b. 39 77 17 String QuartetNo. 7, Mvt. 111,b. 39 (Violin I and Cello) 78 18 String QuintetNo. 2, Mvt. 1,Fig. 9 78 19 Conc.3, Mvt. 1,b. 46 (Reduction) 79 20 Conc.3, Mvt 1,b. 278 (Solo Violin) 79 21 Concertofor String Orchestra,Mvt. 1,b. 35 80 22 Piano SonataNo. 2, Mvt. I, b. 1 80 23 Conc. 5, Mvt. 11,b. 7 (Flute) 81 24 Conc.5. Mvt. 1,b. 87 (Solo Violin) 82 25 Conc.5, Mvt. III, b. 75 (Solo Violin) 82 26 Conc. 3, Mvt. I, b. I (ReducedScore) 83 27 Cone.2, Mvt. 111,b. 87 (Solo Violin) 87 28 Piano SonataNo. 2, Mvt. III, b. 41 87 29 Szymanowski:Symphony No. 2, Mvt. II, b. 91 88 30 Conc.3, Mvt. 1,b. 12 (ReducedScore) 89 31 Conc. 3, Mvt. 111,b. 13 (ReducedScore) 89 32 Conc.4, Mvt. I, b. 84 (Reduction) 90 33 Conc.4, Mvt. I, b. 155 (Reduction) 90 34 Cone.5, Mvt. II, b. 115 (Reduction) 91 35 String QuartetNo. 5, Mvt. IV, b. 18 92 36 Conc.7, Mvt. I, b. 69 93 37 Conc. 7, MA 111,b. I 11 94 38 Conc.7, Mvt. 1,b. 55 (Reduction) 94 39 Stravinsky:Rite of Spring,Fig. 13 95 40 Cone.5, Mvt. 111,b. 104 (Reduction) 95 41 Piano SonataNo. 2, Mvt. 1,b. 120 95 42 Conc.2, Mvt. 111,b. 208 (Solo Violin) 95 43 Conc.2, Mvt. 111,b. I 97
4 44 Cone.4, Mvt. 1,b. I (ReducedScore) 98 45 Cone. 1, Mvt. 1,b. I (Reduction) 100 46 Cone.1, Mvt. 1,b. 18 (ReducedScore) 100 47 Cone.4, Mvt. 1,b. 12 (Reduction) 101 48 Cone. 1, Mvt. 11,b. 1 107 49 Cone. I* Mvt. 11,b. 47 108 50 Cone. 1, Mvt. II, b. 59 109 51 Cone.2, Mvt. 11,b. 7 (Solo Violin) 110 52 Cone.5, Mvt. 11,b. I (Reduction) 113 53 Cone.6, Mvt. 111,b. I (Reduction) 114 54 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 74 119 55 Cone. 1, Mvt. II, b. 12 (Solo Violin) 120 56 Cone. 1, Mvt. 1, b. 59 120 57 Cone.3, Mvt. 111,b. 21 (Solo Violin) 121 58 Cone.7, Mvt. 1,b. 43 (Solo Violin) 122 59 Cone.6, Mvt. 1,b. 141 123 60 Cone.4, Mvt. 1,b. 78 126 61 Cone.4, Mvt. 111,b. 78 127 62 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 101 128 63 Cone.5, Mvt. L b. 58 (ReducedScore) 128 64 Cone.4, Mvt. 111,b. 335 132 65 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 26 133 66 Music for Strings,Trumpets and Percussion, Mvt. 11,b. 74 133 67 Cone.7, Mvt. IlL b. 133 135 68 Cone.4, Mvt. 111,b. 105 136 69 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 136 137 70 Cone.3, Mvt. 111,b. 117 140 71 Cone.4, Mvt. IL b. 15 (ReducedScore) 143 72 Cone.4, Mvt. 1,b. 215 (Bassoon) 146 73 String QuartetNo. 7, Mvt. I, b. 122 (Cello) 146 74 Cone. 1, Mvt. 1,b. 29 148 75 Cone.7, Mvt. IL b. 31 149 76 Cone.7, Mvt. 11,b. 75 150 77 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 193 (Strings) 151 78 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 2 10 (Strings) 152 79 Cone.7, Mvt. L b. 67 152 80 Cone.7, Mvt. 1,b. 16 (Strings) 153 81 Cone.7, Mvt- I, b. 58 153 82 Cone.6, Mvt. I, b. 280 (Solo Violin) 155 83 Cone.7, Mvt. L b. 206 (Solo Violin) 155 84 Cone. 1. Mvt. L b. 39 (Solo Violin) 155 85 Cone.3, Mvt. 11,b. 130 (Solo Violin) 156 86 Cone. 1, Mvt. 111,b. 3 (Solo Violin) 156 87 Cone.7. Mvt. 111,b. 114 (Solo Violin) 156 88 Cone.5, Mvt. IL b. 112 (Solo Violin) 157 89 Cone.3, Mvt. 1,b. 198 (Strings) 158 90 Cone.6, Mvt. I, b. 191 (Violin 1) 158 91 Cone.6, Mvt. L b. 213 (Upper Strings) 158
5 92 Cone.6, Mvt. 11,b. 37 (Strings) 159 93 Cone.2, Mvt. 1,b. 87 (Solo Violin) 160 94 Cone.2, Mvt L b. 157 (Violin 1) 161 95 Cone.4, Mvt. 1,b. 125 (Solo Violin) 161 96 Cone.3, Mvt. III, b. 215 (Strings) 162 97 Cone.4, Mvt. 11,b. 4 (Solo Violin) 162 98 Cone.4, Mvt II, b. I I, (Solo Violin) 163 99 Cone.3, Mvt. 1,b. 150 163 100 Cone.2, Mvt. 1,b. 155 (Violin 11) 164 101 Cone.4, Mvt. 1,b. 14 (Violin 1) 164 102 Cone.4, MA IL b. 17 (Solo Violin) 165 103 Cone.4, Mvt. III, b. 162 (Violin 1) 166 104 Cone.7, Mvt. 1,b. 127 (Solo Violin) 166 105 Cone.5, Mvt. 111,b. 51 (Solo Violin) 167 106 Cone.5, Mvt. L b. 56 (ReducedScore) 168 107 Cone.7, Mvt I, b. 77 (Solo Violin) 169 108 Cone.7, Mvt. 11,b. 71 (Solo Violin) 169 109 Cone.7, Mvt. III, b. 42 (Solo Violin) 169 110 Cone. 1, Mvt. I, b. 39 (Viola and Cello) 171 ill Cone. 1, Mvt. IIL-b. 9 (ReducedScore) 171 112 Cone.2, Mvt. 11,b. 16 (Solo Violin) 172 113 Cone.2, Mvt. 111,b. 47 (ReducedScore) 172 114 Cone.6, Mvt 1,b. 86 (Solo Violin) 173 115 Cone.6. Mvt. III, b. 20 (Solo Violin) 173 116 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 1 177 117 Cone.5, Mvt 1,b. 23 179 118 Cone.5, Mvt. I, b. 30 181 119 Cone.5, Mvt L b. 41 (Solo Violin) 182 120 Cone.5, Mvt I, b. 49 184 121 Cone.5, Mvt. I, b. 61 (Solo Violin) 185 122 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 56 (Solo Violin, Flute, Clarinet) 185 123 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 17 187 124 Cone.5, Mvt. L b. 63 187 125 Cone.5, Mvt 1,b. 67 188 126 Cone.5, Mvt. I, b. 87 190 127 Cone.5, Mvt. 14b. 95 (Solo Violin) 190 128 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 101(Reduction) 191 129 Cone.5, Mvt. I, b. 115 192 130 Cone.5, Mvt. I, b. 136 192 131 Cone.5, Mvt. L b. 143 (Reduction) 193 132 Cone.5, Mvt. L b. 156 (Reduction) 194 133 Cone.5, MvL I,,b. 167 195 134 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 172 (Violin 1) 195 135 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 184 196 136 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 184 196 137 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 226 (Violin 1) 198 138 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 228 (Reduction) 198 139 Cone.5, Mvt. 1,b. 233 199
6 140 Conc. 5, Mvt. I, b. 245 (Solo Violin) 199 141 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1,b. 252 (Solo Violin) 200 Acknowledgments
Firstly, I would like to thank Andrew Knowles, Edward Powash,Emma RudomskL
Adrian Thomas, Stefan Kamasa, Maria Anna Harley and the staff at the Polish
Cultural Institute for their help collecting documentsand making contactsin the early stages of research. I arn particularly grateful to Wlodzimier-z Pigla of the National
Library in Warsawfor arrangingfor copiesof the autographmanuscripts to be copied and sent. My thanks also go to Andrzej Kosowski and Agata Stawskaof PWM for their time and effort providing statisticalinformation and recordings.
I am tremendouslygrateful for the information and personal documents suppliedby the composer'sfamily. Her sister,Wanda, has madean enormouseffort to maintain regular correspondenceand provide hospitality. The help and friendship of Bacewicz'sPolish biographer, Malgorzata Gqsiorowska, has also been invaluable.
Specialthanks go to my supervisor,Rhian Samuel,for her endlesssupport and guidancein the preparationof this studyand her inspirationto investigatethe work-of this composerfurther. Ipparently Finally, I would like to thank David and my parents for their endless encouragement and enthusiasm, and my sister, Katy, who accompanied me with her backpackon trips to Poland.
grant powers of discretion to the University Librarian to allow this thesis to be copied in whole or in part without further referenceto me. This permissioncovers only single copies made for study purposes, subject to normal conditions of acknowledgement.
8 Abstract
This study focusesupon the music of the now-neglectedPolish composerGralyna
Bacewicz(1909-1969). Her successas both a composerand concertviolinist is well- documented;a long list of accoladesand prestigiousappointments serve as evidence of this. Her posthumousreputation, however, has declined at an alarming rate both inside and outsidePoland.
The study is introducedby a biography of the composercompiled from both
English and Polish sources,providing details of her roles as composerand performer and offering a brief discussionof her music in general. The main body of text is devotedto a contextualanalysis of Bacewicz's seriesof sevenviolin concertosand the study concludeswith a considerationof a numberof factorsaffecting Bacewicz's careerand subsequentreception, addressing issues such as Polish cultural policy, the status of women composers,and her juggling of a number of professionaland domesticroles. Appendicesprovide comprehensivelistings of both her catalogueof works and recordings.
Most importantly, however,the study uncoversthe merit and originality of a number of works which exhibit a creative approachto string writing and a highly imaginativeuse of timbre. Such researchshould provide the invitation to othersfor further investigationinto a cataloguecontaining over two hundredworks.
9 PART ONE
1: Biography and Social Context
During her lifetime, Gratyna Bacewicz(1909-1969) achieved a great deal of musical success. As a violinist she appearedwith several renowned orchestrasand was regularly invited to serveon the juries of internationalviolin competitions. Shewas also one of Poland'smost successfulcomposers, the recipientof numerousawards and prizesand much critical acclaimthroughout Europe and the USA. Her music playeda crucial role in the developmentof twentieth-centuryPolish music. Its gradual evolution mirrors that of Polish music itself, in that it bridgesthe gap betweenthe neo-romanticKarol Szymanowskiand the more avant-gardeLutoslawski.
In Poland, the composer's memory is still alive; there are numerous commemorativestatues, streets, and schools,and concertprogrammes still includeher music.1 With a catalogueof over 200 works, including symphonies,concertos, ballets and an opera,this composer'soutput wasimmense. Yet now it seemsall but forgotten outsidePoland. In Britain, for example,it is almost impossibleto obtain scoresof the 2 music, and very little has been published in terms of critical literature. The tremendousdisparity between the composer'sreputation inside and outside her
1Linda D. Dickson carriedout a brief surveyof Polish tributesin her 1992PhD dissertation, Violin Timbre as a Siructural Element in the Music of Gratyna Bacewicz (1909-1969) (Austin: University of Texas). Shelists musicschools in GdaAsk,Jaworzyna, Koszalin, Nowa S61,Warsaw and Wroclaw; a violin festival in C4stochowa; a music associationin Ostrol&a; a womereschorus; a Warsaw-basedString Quartet; streetsin Warsaw and Gdafisk-,a bust in Nowa, S61;a portrait in Jaworzyna,and a statuein front of the PornorskiPhilharmonic Hall in Bydgoszcz. 2 An introductorybiography by JudithRosen and a short studyof her chamberand orchestral works by Adrian Thomasare currently the only books publishedin the English language;see, Judith Rosen, Gra.*)m Bacewicz,Her Life and Works (Universityof SouthernCalifornia, 1984)and Adrian Thomas, Gratyna Bacewicz: Chamberand OrchestralMusic (University of SouthernCalifornia, 1985).
10 country is indeed perplexing and raises the question of why her music has been ignoredby the internationalcommunity in the yearssince her death.
Gra2ynaBacewicz (1909-1969)was bom in L6di, an industrial town situatedat the time within the Russianpartition of Polancl. The city, lessthan 100 km to the south- west of the former capitalWarsaw, was establishedas the manufacturingcentre of the country during the industrial revolution, earning it the nickname 'the -Polish
Manchestee.3 It did, however, retain its grand industrial, cultural infrastructure, allowing it to play a leading role in the subsequentdevelopment of Polish music.
Bacewicz was the third child of a mixed-nationalitymarriage between her
Lithuanian father, Vincas Bacevi6ius,and Polish mother, Maria Modlifisk-a. This union was later to createproblems for the family when, following the First World
War, Lithuania declaredindependence from the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth and relations between the two countries deteriorated rapidly. Fortunately, the
'socialist fortress' of L6di was always a source of employment for Vincas, a trained music teacher.4
The Bacewiczfamily played an active role in the musicallife of the city, first as frequentconcert-goers, then later as participants. Vincas,taught all four children a numberof instrumentsfrom an early age, implanting in them 'an imperativeof self- realisation by inculcating everyday systematic learning and practising playing different instruments'.5 Kiejstut (1904-1993) later became an outstanding accompanistand chambermusician; his appointmentsincluded Headmasterof the
3Mark Salterand Gordon McLachlan, Poland (London:The PenguinGroup, 1996), 129. " NormanDavies, Heart of Europe:A ShortHisfoq ofPoland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 131. 3Malgorzata Gosiorowska, 'The CulturalFormation of the BacewiczFamily', in Ro&ehstwo Bacewicz6w(The Bacewiczsiblings) (Lbdi: AkademiaMuzyczna w Lodzi: 1996), 33, E. summary.
11 SecondaryMusic School,Dean of the InstrumentalFaculty and the Rectorof the State
6 College of Music in L6di Witold (Vytautas)(1905-1970) also becamea composer,
7 living first in Lithuania with his father then later emigratingto the USA. Wanda(b.
1914)became a successfulpoet and writer, working for a numberof yearsas editor of the Departmentof Word-and-MusicBroadcasts at Polish Radio in Warsaw.8
By the age of seven,Bacewiczs potential as a violinist had becomeapparent.
She would give regular recitals accompaniedby Kiejstut or Witold at the piano and even producedshort compositionsfor such occasions. At this early stageBacewicz declaredshe would becomea composer,her manuscriptsdate from 1920 when she was only 11.
Bacewicz was fortunate that her formative years coincided with a time of relative calm in Poland'spolitical history. Following the First World War, the country had regained its independencefrom Russia, Germany and Austria, creating the
'SecondRepublic' where, in contrastto the yearsof foreign oppressionwhich had 'so seriouslyhampered cultural development',cultural variety was regarded'a sourceof 9 strength and vitality'. In addition, the relatively pro-feminist climate, which saw
Poland'sfirst woman deputy installed in 1919,could also be consideredto havebeen instrumental to the development of Bacewicz as a world-class composer and performer.
Bacewicis formal musical training began at the age of ten at Helena
Kijenska's conservatoryin Udi, where she comPleteda course of study whilst
6 Lucjan Cieglak,'Kiejstut Bacewicz- Artist, Pedagogue,Rector of StateCollege of Music in L6dz', in RodzehstwoBacewicz&, op. cit, 5 1, E. summary. 7 Krzysztof Droba, 'The Correspondenceof VytautasBacevi&us to his Family in Poland', in RodzehstwoBacewicz6w, op. cit., 183, E. summary. 8 Agnieszkalzdebska, 'The Life andLiterary Outputof WandaBacewicz; - An Attempt at a SynthesizingDescription', in RodzehstwoBacewicz6w, op. ciL, 80, E. summary. 9 Daviesýop. cit., 126.
12 attendingthe gimnazjum. At the age of 19, Bacewicz moved to Warsaw to join
Kazimierz Sikorski's classat the Conservatory.Here, she also becamea studentof the Polish violinist, J6zef Jarzqbski (1878 - 1955) and the pianist, J6zef Turczyfiski
(1884-1953).After threeyears, she was awardeda doublediploma with distinction in performanceand compositionand a special concert was organizedin her honour, intendedas a showcasefor her skills as both composerand performer.10 Despitethe great successof a numberof works dating from her yearsat the Conservatory,they were later destroyedby the composerand excludedfrom her catalogue. Throughout her composinglife, Bacewiczrepeatedly proved to be the severestcritic of her own work.
During her time in Warsaw, Bacewicz fell heavily under the influence of
Karol Szymanowski (1882-1937), then the Director of the Conservatory.
Szymanowskihad spentmany yearsbefore his appointmentto the Conservatory'on the move, acquaintinghimself with the new directions in music being pursuedin other Europeancountries. " Well awareof the relative isolation of Polish artists from such developments,he persuadedBacewicz, along with many of her contemporaries, to further her studiesin Paris. Following a brief recital tour of Lithuania and Latvia accompaniedby her brother Witold, she was able to make the trip to Paris with the help of a scholarshipfrom the Polish composerand pianist Ignacy Paderewski,and from 1932-33she attended the tcole Normale de Musiquein order to study harmony and counterpoint with the highly influential Nadia Boulanger.
The lively contemporary music scene in Paris exposed Bacewicz in particular to the works of Debussy,Ravel and Stravinsky,whose scoresshe studiedavidly. A
10 The concertfeatured Sinfonietta for stringorchestra, Cantata for orchestra,choir and soloists,a violin sonataand a stringquartet: Rosen, op. cit, 17. 11Ludwik Erhardt, Mavic in PoJaW (Warsaw.Interpress, 1975), 60.
13 link with the music of her homelandwas however always maintained,through her
active membershipof the Stowarzynenia ARodychMuzyk6w Polskich w Parylu
(Associationof YoungPolish Musiciansin Paris),an organizationestablished in 1926
to provide support for the large Polish musical community. During her year with
Boulanger,Bacewicz received her first major accolade:her Wind Quintet (1933) was
awardedfirst prize in the CompositionCompetition of the SocietyAide aurfemmes
de professions libres.12 While maling steady progressas a composer,Bacewicz
continuedher violin studiesin Paris with the greattechnician, Andr6 Touret. Indeed,
after the year'sintensive study, she choseto cementher reputationas a performerby
undertakinga short recital tour of SouthernFrance, Spain, Majorca and Northern
Italy.
It was to Udi, her hometown,that she eventuallyreturned in late 1933. She
accepteda position teachinghannony, counterpointand violin at the Conservatory,
althoughsoon found it to be to the detrimentof her own composingand performing.
Within a year she resigned her post and returned to Warsaw where she worked
towards a high profile recital, at which she was accompaniedby ProfessorJerzy
Lefeld. This was effectively Bacewicz's professional debut The progrwnme
compriseda selectionof her major works-for violin and piano, of which there were 13 alreadyelevem
in the winter of 1934Gratyna returnedto Paris,this time to pursueher studies
The as a violinist - attraction was the teaching class of the renowned Hungarian pedagogue,Carl Flesch. Bacewicis recollectionsof her time with Fleschwere later
12 For a completelisting of Bacewicz!s major prizesand awards, see Rosen, op. ca, 44. This was com? from informationsupplied by WandaBacewicz also seenby the 3iled author. Songfor Violin ad Piano (1927),Sonata (19291 Partita (1930), OnePiece Pour Efolonet Piano (1931), Violin Sonata(193 2), Mind (1932), Capfice (193 2), Andan te awJA Ilegro (1934), LithuanianSong (1934), Caprice (193 4) and 77'emewhi Variationv(193 4).
14 14 recordedin her book, Znakszczeg6lny (The Distinctive Mark). Whilst studyingwith
Flesch, Bacewicz wrote one of her best-knownworks for the violin, the Partita for
violin and piano (1935). It received its premiere on her return to Warsaw the
following year in a concertorganized by her publishers. WandaBacewicz, GWyna! s
sister and now guardianof her memory,has in her possessiona pressclipping from
The WarsawCourier (undatedand anonymous)referring to the Partita.
This composer has no need for sensationaleffects and is to be commendedon the beauty and seriousnessof the work. There is a senseof youth in the compositionwhile simultaneouslythere is a high degreeof maturity. The musical impressionswill overwhelmyou and the musical thoughtswill absorbyou. She has a lot to say, and she alreadyknows how to sayit well.
At the same time, Bacewicis reputation as a solo violinist was growing. In 1935 she
entered the First International Henryk Wieniawski Competition, held in Warsaw I Although competing with the likes of Ginette Neveu and David Oistrakh, Bacewicz
was given an honourable mention.
In 1936 Bacewicz participated in a young composers' competition organized
by the Polish music publishers,Towarzystwo Wydawnictwo Mwzyki Polskiei where
her Trio for oboe, violin and violoncello was awardedsecond prize. Later that year
she married a leading Polish heart specialist, Dr. Andrzej Biemacki. Himself a
competentpianist, he camefrom a musicalfamily; his father wrote acharming! book
on Chopin.15 Bacewiczkept her maidenname throughout her career,although legally
had to be known on official documentationas 'Gralyna Bacewicz-Biernacka!.She
14(Warsaw: Czytelnik, 1970). Sometimesreferred to as '7he Birthmark, this book is a collectionof anecdotesby Bacewicz,compiled posthumously. Dacewicz was also an accomplished writer, shewrote a numberof novels,short stories, notes and poems. 15Nfieczqslaw Biernacki, Dzielo FryderykaChopina (Lublin, 1933),referred to in B. Maciejewski, TwelvePolish Composers(London: Allegro Press,1976), 59.
15 was occasionallyrefeffed to as 'Bacewicz6wna!,a colloquial way of indicating that shewas married.
In 1936Bacewicz! s careertook a very different turn. In an attemptto make the Polish Radio Orchestramore competitive, Grzegorz Fitelberg, its founder and
Principal Conductor, asked a number of talented Polish musicians to become members.ý Bacewicz acceptedthe position of principal violinist for a period of two
j 16 years,'her main ob ective being to gain practical experiencein symphonicwriting
It proved, however, to be fruitful in other ways; Bacewicz performed her Violin
ConcertoNo. I with the orchestra,and they gavethe premiereof her ThreeSongsfor
Tenorand Orchestra.
Bacewiczvisited Paris briefly in 1939 in order to attenda concertconsisting entirely of her own compositions,at the tcole Normale de Musique. The Parisian critics were reportedly 'luke-warm'.17 This would not be surprising if the work of
French women composerssuch as Lili Boulanger,Cdcile Chaminade,and Germaine
Tailleferre had been known to them, for Bacewicz!s work contrastedgreatly with theirs.18 But there is no evidenceof their familiarity with this music, and thus there remainsthe generalquestion of the receptionof women composersin Paris at this time.
Unfortunately Bacewicz returned to Warsaw just two months before the
Germaninvasion of Poland. The war saw the completedevastation of cultural life in
Poland. Concert halls, opera housesand libraries were burnt down, orchestrasand musicalsocieties were scattered,and there was, of course,loss of life.
16B. Maciejewski, Mid, 59. '7 ibid, 60. 'a ibid
16 'An inexorable persecutionof the Polish intelligentsia was waged, denying the Poles the to their Polish right own culture ... all the universities,indeed all educationalestablishments from and including secondaryschools, were closed'for everI. 119
Bacewicz spent the wartime period participating in undergroundconcerts
given in private homesand coffee houses,usually organizedby the Main Protective
Council. She'devoted increasing her to an amountof time composing... oblivious to all elseshe could composefor hourseach day'. 20 Obviouslyaffected by the horrorsof
Nazi occupation,Bacewicz had more than most to copewith: she becamepregnant in
1941,giving birth to her daughterAlina. early in 1942. Shewas alsobadly affectedby
the 1944 WarsawInsurrection which saw the destructionof the entire city. She and
other family memberswere takento the Pruszk6wconcentration camp, then, later, the
nearbytown of Lublin. Many of her manuscriptswere lost and her sister Wandawas
criticallY injured. Bacewiczbecame a full-time nursefor the rest of the war, nursing
21 her backto health her husband his sister and assisting with medicalwork . The liberation of Poland, mastermindedby the Soviet army during the final
stagesof the war, saw the instaflation of a new 'Polish Peoples'Republic. The
cultural infrastructuresoon began to recover: the state departmentof Polish Radio
started broadcasting Polish and Jewish music, the Polish Radio and Warsaw
PhilharmonicOrchestras started giving concerts,a governmcnt-runpublishing house
was established(Polskie WydawnictwoMuzyczne - PWM), the classicallabel Odeon
Polish PhonographicWorks (the precursorof Polskie Nagrania) was set-up and the
Conservatorywas reopened. Power was, however, assumedby a communistparty
(Polish United Workers' Party, PZPR) formed by Stalin himself from Polish exiles
19 0. Halecid, A History ofPoland (Iondon: Routledge and Kegan PauL 1983), 313. 20Stefan Kisielewski, 'Gratyna Bacewicz 1913 (sic) 1969', Polish music, No. 2 (1975), 13. 21 - Infonnation obtained in interview with Wanda Bacewicz (Warsaw, June 2001).
17 and Russians with Tolonized! names, effectively entering Poland into Russian administration. This had far-reachingconsequences for the developmentof Polish music; in 1948 a sweeping 'cultural policy' was announced. Composerswere encouragedto write music 'socialist in contentand national in form', ie. basedon or 22 at the very least inspired by, folk music. Demandswere also made for a return to functional harmony and the major-minor tonal system. These directives were enforcedby a numberof newly installedstate-run institutions, including a Ministry of
Culture responsiblefor the nationalorchestras, opera companies and conservatories,a state-subsidizedpublishing house and a tightly controlledmusic press. Works that did not comply, such as Lutoslawski's SymphonyNo. 1 (1947), which was accusedof beingtoo 'formalistic, were removedfrom concertprogrammes indefinitely.
[The Bacewicz family] did not yield to defeatism, practising their 'pure art', agreeing only to such compromises that did not infringe basic ethic standards. The Bacewiczes won the fight for moral survival, although we can find some influence of the doctrine, e.g., in the music of Gratyna Bacewicz, especially in her symphonies of the fifties.23
Bacewicz returned to the war-tom capital shortly after the declaration of peace. Cataloguesshow that a great number of her works were published soon afterwards by the newly-nationalized PWM. 24 It would be reasonableto assumethat
1945was not actually the completiondate for the long list of works publishedduring this year, but that theseworks were the result of her reportedhard work during the whole war period.
22Adrian Thomas,Polish Music sinceSzymmsowski (Cambridge: Cmbridge University Press, 2005), 42. 23Malgorzata Gqsiorowska, 'The CulturalFormation of the BacewiczFamily', in Ro&-ehstwo Bacewicz6w,op. cit, 33. 24The mostreliable list of Bacewicz!s works canbe found in MalgorzataGilsiorowska's monograph,Bacewicz (Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1999).
18 The following year was spent preparing for a high-profile engagementas
soloist in Szymanowski'sViolin ConcertoNo. I. Accompaniedby the Orchestredes
ConcertsLamoureux under the direction of Paul Kletzki, the concertwas held at the
Salle Pleyel in Parison 2 May. A hectic scheduleof performancesensued: a recital in the Salle Gaveau featuring Szymanowski'sNocturne and Tarantella, Szalowski's
Suite and her own Sonatada Camera;an appearanceat the Franco-SlaveFestival at the Sorbonneand a recital at thetcole Normale de Musique in Paris. Once back in
Warsaw,Bacewicz gave a performanceof the MendelssohnViolin Concertowith the
Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra. Her heightenedprofile as a performer led to invitations to sit on the juries of a number of internationalcompetitions for young violinists.
1948has been described as 'an especiallyrich year' for Bacewicz.25 Itsawthe completion of a number of works, including the Olympic CantatA written for the
London games. The Concertofor String Orchestra,awarded the National Prize! in
1950, is perhapsthe work for which Bacewicz is best known; the large number of reviewsof this work collectedby PWM is evidenceof the internationalsuccess of the work.
The Concertowas shortly followed by a numberof other significantworks. In
1949the Piano Concertoreceived second prize in the piano and orchestracategory of the ChoPin CompositionCompetition in Warsaw (the first prize was not granted).
The Violin SonataNo. 4, premieredshortly afterwards by the composerand her brother Kiejstut, was also hugely acclaimed,receiving performances in London,New
York, Boston, Berlin, Pragueand Geneva. Towards the end of the year, Bacewicz
23 RLoser4 Mitt 24.
19 completeda work in a quite different genre, an educationalpiece scored for four violins. The Quartet was acceptedinto the curriculum of a number of institutions, receiving many performancesat, for example, the Royal Academy of Music in
London. The year endedwell for Bacewicz;she was awardedthe Warsaw Prize in honourof her musicalachievements and actsof humanityduring the war.
During the next year, Bacewicz was occupied primarily with a large-scale concert tour of EasternEurope. She perfonnedher Violin ConcertoNo. 3 with the
RomanianState Symphony Orchestra at numerousvenues within Romania,and then took the work to Hungary, appearing with the BudapestRadio Orchestra under
GrzegorzFitelberg. She also visited Czechoslovakiawhere she gave nine smaller- scalerecitals, again featuring her own works.
Bacewic2soutput of works once back in Warsawwas enormous. Her Cello
ConcertoNo. 1, SymphonyNo. 2, PianoQuintet No. I andString Quartet No. 4 were all'completed in 1951. At the insistenceof her brother, Bacewiczentered the String
Quartet,described by one critic as 'beautifuland good music, one could say - perfect!, in the ConcoursInternational de Compositionpour Quatuer a Cordes(International
Competitionfor String QuartetComposition). 26 From a total of 57 entries,it took first prize. It made a very strong impressionat the competition and in 1953 becamea required piece for competitors in the International String Quartet Competition in 27 Geneva. The successat Li6ge led to a greatnumber of engagementswithin Belgium in following years. Later in 1952,for example,Bacewicz was invited to serveon the jury of the InternationalQuartet Competition in Li6ge.
26La MeUSC (Liýge, 3, X, 195 1). 27 Rosen, op. cit., 26.
20 In 1953 Bacewicz amazedboth her friends and colleaguesby assuminga completely new role; she gave a piano recital featuring her own works and the premiereof her Piano SonataNo. 2. Although primarily a violinist, Bacewicz had alwaysbeen a competentconcert pianist having taken lessonswith J6zef Turczyihski during her time at the WarsawConservatory.
1954 was a fateful year for the composer. In the early autumn her entire family was involved in a seriouscar accident. Her husbandand daughterescaped with only minor cuts and bruises,but Wanda and her mother-in-lawwere seriously hurt, and Gratyna, sustainingby far the worst injuries, wasalmost killed. Fracturesto the pelvis and ribcageas well as substantialhead and facial injuries left her, despitea miraculousrecovery, partly disabled. Her engagementsas a violinist dwindled in the following years. Thus, in 1955the premiereof the Violin ConcertoNo. 5 was given by the composer'sfriend, Wanda Wilkomirska, and the Warsaw Philhannonic
Orchestra,although Bacewicz was well enoughthe following year to return to the stage with the premiere of a secondPartita for Violin and Piano (1955).
Censorshipof the arts beganto relax in the mid 1950sfollowing Stalin's death in 1953, allowing Polish composersmore freedom to explore the avant-garde,but prizes suchas the Medal of the 10th Anniversaryof the Polish People!s Republic and the Award of the Minister of Culture and Art, received by Bacewicz during this period, indicatethe continuingpresence of the institutionalpowers.
In 1956, Bacewiczjoined a large group of Polish artists and scientistson a tour of India via Egypt. Sheattended a numberof Indian Classicalmusic concertsat the New Delhi Music School and gave concerts of her own music to highly enthusiasticaudiences. On her return, Bacewicz attendedthe first ever Warsaw
21 Autumn InternationalFestival of ContemporaryMusic at which her String Quartet
No. 4, Concerto for String Orchestraand Overture were performed. The 'Warsaw
Autumn'proved to be essentialto the progressof Polish music, providing the first real forum for the exchangeof musical ideas between Eastern and Western European countrieS.28 Many Polish concert-goersheard for the first time the music of
Stravinsky, Schoenberg,Berg, Bart6k, Shostakovich, Honegger and Prokofiev, alongside works by the Polish composersSzymanowski, Lutoslawski, Malawski,
Szabelskiand Spisak.
Bacewicz!s engagementsover the next two years indicate her immense standing as a violinist at the time. She was chairman of the jury at the third
Wieniawski Violin Competitionheld in Poznafi,presiding over great namessuch as
Oistrakh, Grinke and Persinger, also, she was chosen to be a member of the international jury at the first-ever Tchaikowsky Violin Competition in Moscow.
Always able to cope with a hectic work schedule,Bacewicz was at this time participatingin the organizationof the InternationalSociety of ContemporaryMusic conference in Strasbourgand holding the post of vice-chairman of the Polish
Composers'Union (Zwiqzek Kompozytor& Polskich). She was well known for filling her time to capacity; as she explained,'I possessa little unseenengine, and thanksto it I accomplisha task in ten minuteswhich takesothers an hour or more; I
but I fast; beatsfaster #29 normally do not walk run; speak evenmy pulse than others. .
Bacewicz!s next major work, Musitfor Strings, Trumpetsand Percussion,was premieredat the Warsaw Autumn of 1959. Awarded first prize in the orchestral
29Cindy Bylander, Music and Politics in Poland. 7he WarsawAutumn International Festival of ContempormyMusic 1956-1961,www, usc. edu/dgl2Wish-musictessayýftland. htinl accessed 2000. 29Maciejewski, op. cit., 66.
22 division in UNESCO's International Tribune Competition (1960), it has been describedby 'ber 30 A followed many as greatestorchestral achievement' . commission from Polish Radio to write a comic opera. AeAdventure qfKingArlhur, basedon a libretto by EdwardFiszer, was performedon both Belgian radio and Polish television, later receivingan awardfrom the Committeefor the Affairs of Radio and Television.
Another pivotal work completed shortly afterwardswas her Pensieri Notturni for orchestra,first perforniedat the Biennalein Venice.
In 1962 Bacewicz travelled to Yugoslavia where she visited the new experimentalstudio for electronicmusic. Shesaid upon her return, 'I feel directedby 31 the colouringin soundsand the new rhythmsof electronicMUSiC!. This influence is of coursedifficult to pinpoint in the largenumber of works that followed.
Bacewicz's compositional output did not relent in following years despite taking on responsibilityfor a compositionclass at the StateHigher Schoolof Music in
Warsaw (1966). Her internationalengagements were also time-consuming-,in 1967 she acceptedthe invitation to preside over the jury of the International Henryk
Wieniawski Competitionand serveon thosefor the InternationalQuartet Competition in Budapestand International Violin Competitionin Naples.
Towardsthe end of 1968,Bacewicz began to devoteher time to a large-scale project: a full-length ballet based on Picasso'splay, Desire Trapped by the Tail.
Shortly before its completion the composer travelled, by invitation of the
Government,to Armenia, unusually leaving behind detailed instructions for the concluding part of the work. Whilst abroad, despite the comparativelytemperate climate, Bacewicz caught Asian 'flu. She immediately travelled back to Warsaw,
30Rosen, P. c.it, 30. 31 0 Stefan KisielewskL Z muzyc.,?W miCdryepoki, 204 in Rosen, op. cht. 32.
23 where, in an attemptto speedher recovery,she took a lethal doseof antibiotics. On
January 17 1969, the Polish Radio broadcastthe announcementof her death. An obituary appearedshortly afterwards in the Polish Music Quarterly statingthat:
Polish music was plungedinto mourningat the loss of one of its most eminent artists. Death struck quickly and unexpectedly. Just a few days earlier Gra2ynaBacewicz had been seen at the concert in the National PhilharmonicHall. Listening to her future plans, seeingher so full of life and her usualcaptivating chartri, who could haveguessed death? The that shewas alreadymarked with the stigmaof ... work of Gra2yna Bacewicz, the pride of Polish music and a valuable contribution to the music of our time, lives and speakswith a living 32 voice of art. Thereinlies the victory of creativegenius over death.
32 NfaciejewsK op. cit., 77-78.
24 2: Reception
Maria Anna Harley has described Gratyna Bacewicz as 'the first to be equals.33
Despite the success of a small number of Polish women composers before her,
Bacewicz was the first to establish herself on the international stage and be accepted 34 as an equal by her male peers. It is perhaps surprising that she did not experience more difficulties building a career, her sister, Wanda, claims that her works were always readily performed, recorded and published. The dates of the first performance of her works listed in the Appendix appear to verify this information. 69 of her 81 performed works (85%) received their first performance within a year of completion, 35 comparing well with Lutoslawski's 89%.
Additional attention may have been paid to her careerinternationally given the limited number of Polish composersheard abroad at this time. Undoubtedly, being a performer/composerwill also haveassisted Bacewicz enormously in the early stagesof her career,helping her gain the attentionand respectof her contemporaries and enabling her to make contactswith conductorsand performing organisations.
Bacewiczwas of courseallowed to leavePoland on a regularbasis to perform abroad
(see Biography and Social Context). According to Malgorzata Gqsiorowska,the
Ministry of Culturebelieved her to be a good advertfor Poland. Shecertainly did not experienceany of the difficulties reportedby other Easternbloc composerssuch as
Shostakovichand Lutoslawski, whose works challenged the directives. Wanda
Bacewiczrefutes this speculationabsolutely, claiming that Gratyna refusedto submit
33Maria Anna Harley, 'Notes on PolishWomen Composers', Bulletin of ihe Polish Itistituie ofArts and Sciencein Canada (Vol. 13,1996,36 - 40). 34Maria Szymanowska,Tekla Badarzewska,Irena Wieniawska, and Anna Maria Klechniowska. 35Statistics are drawnfrom informationprovided by cataloguesof works.
25 to political control; however, her cataloguereveals a timely change in approach coinciding with the announcementof the cultural policy in the late 1940s. In her defence,Gqsiorowska remarks that, '[A]Ithough Bacewiczhad strongprinciples, she believedthat folk melodieswere beneficialto peopleduring wartime'.36
The usual obstaclesto career progressionfor women composersdid not particularly deter Bacewicz in her twenties and thirties. Her marriage,according to
Wanda,was not a happy one; yet though (or because)her husbandwas distant and unableto showemotion, he providedher with personalspace and the independenceto maintain a full-time commitment to her profession. Indeed, he was ultimately supportiveof her work and would even assistwith domestictasks. Bacewicz also chosenot to sacrifice her professionallife for childbearingand child raising. She relinquishedmany of her maternalresponsibilities to her sisterWanda. This situation was certainly unusual. Accordingto Harley:
A particular aspect of Polish gender stereotypesis the connection betweenthe esteemfor motherhoodand the emphasison the mothe& achievementsin preservingthe Polish languageand culture.During the years of partitions (1795-1918), when the country lost its independence,the family becameIhe strongholdof national identity.' Women played an important role in the society since their work in educatingchildren as well as their personalachievements contributed to the cultural survival of the nation. Thus, in the Polish national mythology,'mothee became a heroic figure: 'Matka Polka!whose work for the countrywas as vital as her importancewithin the family.37
Other Polish women composersin the same position have made quite different choices. 'Anna Zawadzka-Golosz(b. 1954)decided to sacrificeher artistic interests for her Bernardetta.Matuszczak (b. the sake of two children ... and others,such as
36 Comments made in conversation (Warsaw, June 2001). 37 Harley, 0P. Cil.
26 1937),chose to remain single. 38 It was also obviously an advantagefor Bacewicz that her husbandhad a well-paid job, making it possibleto employ maidservantsto easeher domesticresponsibilities.
It would be wrong, however,to assumethat Bacewiczfound it easyto balance her commitments. In her book, Znak S-zczeg61ny,she relatesa conversationshe had as a young composer with Boulanger about the pressuresof life as a woman composer:
To be a good wife, good mother, good housewifeand find time for one's creativework is almost impossible. Men are more fortunatein this respectfor in the history of music we know of severalcomposers' wives who sacrificed their personalambitions in order to devote all their time to supporttheir husband'scareer. MadameLutoslawska is a prime example. How many husbandsof women composerswould sacrifice their personalcareer and ambitionsin order to be chainedto the kitchen sink, bring up children, copy their wife's manuscriptand write letters to publishersand concert managers? Nadia Boulanger replied that in order to succeedin this essentiallymasculine world of musical creation,there was no time for self-pity and prolongedweak moments.
Another obstacle for many women composershas been the lack of or nature of reviewsby critics. Citron states:
[T]he critical establishment has been overwhelmingly male. The absence of women has meant the absence of a female voice and a female point of view, even if it is difficult to specify precisely what they might mean. As such, male modes of discourse have formed the basis of professional music criticism. By male modes we do not mean some essentialist traits but rather patterns that grow out of ideology and acculturation in Western society. It is also important to remember that male critics internalized musical values from male predecessors and contemporaries, and that conditions of response formed a pre- evaluative context for the structuring of their discourse.39
38 Mid 39 Citror% op. CiL, 18 1.
'27 The relationship betweenmale reviewer and woman artist is often quite different from that of male reviewer,male artist. It has and can still be quite typical for male critics to assessthe music of a women composerin terms of its masculinity. It is evencommon for critics to criticize womenfor being too feminine,but also for trying to be too masculine.40 A number of reviews of Bacewiczs works use gendered vocabularyand makereference to their femaleauthorship.
StefanKisielewski, wrote the following review of a concertat the Congressof the Polish Composers'Unionin 1949.
Concertofor String Orchestra,full of impetus and energy,of fluent invention and excellentinstrumental ideas, finally rousedus from our lethargy. The work is akin to Back or Haendel -a sort of a contempomryBrandenburg Concerto. We felt here at last a 'Vital piece' of healthy and tasteful music, written with cmative, truly masculinepotenCy. 41
The next, taken from a 1952 edition of the WashingtonDaily News, was written by
Milton Berliner.
'Ladies Night' at the Symphony. Woman - in spirit and in person- dominated last nighfs National Symphony Orchestra concert at Constitution Hall. Howard Mitchell opened the program with the American premiere of Gratyna Bacewic2s Concerto Grosso for Strings. Actually, there was nothing feminine about Miss Bacewicz!s piece. It was vigorous, even virile, with (in the first movement)a pulsing, throbbing rhythm and bold thematic material. It was either conservativelly modem or radically classical. In any caseit was worth listeningto. 42
40Rhian Samuel discusses the useof theseterms in reviewsof works by other women composersin her prefaceto 77teArew Grove Dictionaty of WomanComposerv (London: Macmillan, 1994). 41Stefan Kisielewski, A statementduring the Congressof the PolishComposees Union (Warsaw,1949) taken from: GratynaBacewicz (PWM marketingbrochure), 43. 42Milton Berliner, WashingtonDaily News (3 1, XIL 1952),taken from: Gratyna Bacewicz, ibid. 44.
28 On the other hand, a large number of complimentaryreviews which made such no demeaningreferences were published in responseto performancesof Bacewicz's. works. The following is a selection:
The Concertofor Strings by Gratyna Bacewiczfrom 1948also turned out to be a revelationfor the British critics. They liken it to the most outstandingcompositions of the first half of the twentiethcentury and emphasizethe individual characterof the soundworld createdby the Polish womancomposer. ElIbieta Jagielska ExpressWieczoW, 14 January1987 43
Musicfor Strings, Trumpets Per=vsion by Gra2ynaBacewicz ,.. and is a work with its own aestheticsand its own mood: it is so personal and individual that it goesbeyond styles and over the styles and will certainlyspeak over the epochs... Stefan Kisielewski Ruch Muzyczny, November 197544
Gra2ynaBacewicz is talent in the field ... an outstanding of chamber music; this can be seenfrom her great achievementsin this sphereof in in Poland composition which sheremains - - unparalleled... TadcuszA. Zielinski RuchMzcy4=ny, 196 145
The Quartet Aro.4 madea strong impression. The musical ideas,full of substance,in which the characteristicfeatures of chambermusic find their full expression. Beautiful and good music, one could say - There is in it, perfect ... no trace of exaggeration no speculative quests;instead we find sublimity of thought,dignity of attitudeas well as a power of expressionworthy of the greatestworks. La Meuse,Li6ge, 3 October 195146
Many critics and contemporariesadmired the composer'suse of structure,melody and sonority,predicting a securefuture for a numberof works in the musical canon.
43Taken from: Gral)m Bacewicz, ibid, 45. 44ibid. 45 ibid, 47. 46 ibid, 48.
29 This, however,did not turn out to be the case. Bacewicz' sister, Wanda,and PWM both report an immediate decline in her popularity following her death in 1969.
Wandabelieves that the Statedid little to keep Gratyna's memory alive, due to her political beliefs; she ironically comparesthis treatmentto that accordedthe appeaser,
Penderecki,whose music hasbeen actively promotedby the Polish government.
It is unlikely, however, that the situation is as simple as this. There are a numberof factorsthat must haveaffected the durability of Bacewicz'sreputation; the exact impact of these, however, is very difficult to measure. First, it is hard to calculatethe numberof present-dayperformances of Bacewicz'smusic. Wandaquite understandablydoes not respondto questionsabout the composer'sroyalties, and
Gratyna's publishers do not receive data on the numbers of performancesof individual composers'music ftom the Polish performing rights association(ZAIKS).
The only data revealedto this author by PWM relate to the total amount of money they earn from sheet music sales and hire for each composer on their books.
Bacewiczis at the top of their list for domesticsheet music salesand fourth highestin internationalsales. However, with regardto an internationalrepufatior4 it is difficult to derive any meaning from these statistics: PWM was restricted from operating abroad for many years following Bacewicz's death. Many of Bacewicz's contemporaries,on the other hand, are/weredistributed by both PWM and other publishers. Lutoslawski, for example,also has works published by Chester,now known as Music Sales,and Pendereckiby Schottand Moeck. The Director of PWK
Andrzej Kosowski, claims that, by having contractswith other publishing houses,
Lutoslawski and Pendereckihad a tremendousadvantage; Lutoslawski's works, for example, were promoted internationally by his publishers and indeed by the
30 composerhimself He regularly wrote articlesand reviews for the musical pressand travelled extensively,conducting concerts of his works. Such activities helped to develop a sizeable public image that was more likely to be able to support a posthumousreputation. Bacewicz,in contrast,did very little promotion work in the latter part of her career,she did not usually conducther works and she was always reluctantto discuss*her music and methodswith journalists. Then, when Bacewicz's music finally became available through publishers in the West, it undoubtedly suffered from the delay, appearingdated in relation to the music of the younger generationof Polish composerswith whosepublication it coincidecL
A number of glowing obituaries were published on the occasion of
Bacewicz'sdeath in 1969. Within a short time, however,performances of her works dwindled; her earningsat PWM decreasedenormously. It seemsthat an insufficient number of individual musiciansand performingorganizations within and outsideof
Polandworked to keepher works on the concertplatform. Neither did musicologists championher music; the expectedbiographies and articles did not appear,as was the caseat first for Lutoslawski,Penderecki and other Polish composers.To compound the problem for Bacewicz,this is also entirely typical of the way in which the music of successfulwomen composershas been barred from the canon following their deaths. Elisabeth-ClaudeJacquet de la Guerre (1665-1729) and Lili Boulanger
(1893-1918), for example, both enjoyed successfulcomposing careers yet their
'have into the 47 Accordingto reputations sunk oblivion among concert-goingpublic' . Citron, 'mainstream canonicity has derived mostly from male structures and conventions,and. canons have provided a powerful toot for their self-perpetuation.AS
47SamueL op. cit., xiii. 49Citron, op. Cit, 41.
31 In recentyears, greater numbers of musicologists'have been concernedwith proposingways of negotiatingwomen and their works with existentcanons. *49 -Me work of a small numberof academicsfrom the 1980sonwards has encouraged the re- evaluation of music by composerssuch as Bacewicz and greater numbers of performanceshave occurredas a result. The anniversaryof her birth and death in
1999prompted the releaseof a numberof additional works by PWM and additional promotional work was undertakenby them. It is now possibleto find scoresand recordingsof a numberof Bacewicz's most popular works in specialistmusic shops in Poland,although the classicalmqsic sectionsof the more mainstreamshops have none. In the UK it is possibleto find old copiesof sheetmusic in libraries, but none of her music is stockedin shops. Although the situationis betterin the United States, it still seemsdifficult to believe that PWM can make very much money from internationalsales. Although a forum for the appreciationof her music does now exist, it is highly limited; her music has certainly not been deliveredsuccessfully to the mainstream.
Bacewicz'slegacy, however, is far more thanjust a catalogueof works. Accordingto
BemadettaMatuszczak (b. 1937):
In Poland,Gratyna the for It opened way women composers... was difficult for her, but with her greattalent shewon, shebecame famous Afterwards, had My .. we an open path, and nobody was surprised: God, a woman composeragain! ' Bacewiczhad alreadybeen there, so the next one also had a right to exist. Femalestudents of composition found hope for themselveswhen seeing BacewiCis name on the programsof the Warsaw Autumn Festivals and reading monographs abouther. "
49 ibid. 219. 50 Maria Anna Harley, 'Gratyna Bacewicz:Biography', www. usc. eduldept/polish-musict VEPM/bacewiczIbac-bib.html, March 2000, accessed2000.
32 Ultimately, Bacewiczhas provideda model that has madeit possiblefor other Polish women to maintain 'their precariousbalance on the parallel bars of being both an aftist anda woman'.51
51Christine Battersby, Gemkr and Genius (London: The Women's PressLtd., 1989), 144.
33 3: Musical Influences
Bacewiczwas naturally exposedto the music of her Polish predecessorsas a young composer,and was then fortunateenough to becomeimmersed in the contemporary musicalscene in Paris. Both of thesegroups exerted an influenceon her music.
(a) Bacewicz'sPolish Background
The period precedingthat in which Bacewicz was an active composerhas been described 'the daunting in [the] history Polish Polish as most of ... music and 52 culture'. Throughoutthe nineteenthcentury the occupyingpowers had attemptedto de-nationalizethe Polish people; cultural activity was severely hamperedby the differing political objectives of each partition's governmentand very few Polish composerswere able to forge successfulinternational careers. At the beginning of this century the most effective musical proponentof the Polish causewas FrWric
Chopin (181049), who similarly combinedcomposing and performingcareers. From his base in Paris he developed a musical language described by the Polish musicologistZofia Lissa as "the Polish national style' combining the harmonic and 53 rhythmic characteristics of Polish folk music with European Romanticism'.
According to Lissa, 'his mazurkas,nocturnes, preludes, and evensome of his waltzes, are infusedwith that tinge of melancholyand 'grief which to his contemporarieswere the embodimentof 'Polishness".54 Chopin's contribution to the developmentof
Polish music was enormous. He laid the foundationsfor a viable nationalisttradition,
52Ludwik Erhardt, Music in Poland (Warsaw:Interpress, 1975), 26. 53Zofia Lissa, 'Romanticism' in Stefan Jarocifiski, Polish Music (Warsaw: PWN, 1965), 110. 54ibid, 111-112.
34 returned Polish culture to the world stageand led the way in the developmentof national schools of music. Composersremaining in Poland, such as Stanislaw
Moniuszko (1819-72),also worked to build a national style, althoughthe resultshad limited appealoutside Poland. Their work was aided by Oskar Kolberg (1814-90), the first Polish ethnographer,who producedan enormouscache of materialto support this trend. His multi-volume publication of nearly 20,000 folk melodies 'had no
in the in its dimensions precedent world and compass... and savedthe riches of Polish folk culture from oblivion'. 55
The political situationin Polandworsened in the secondhalf of the nineteenth century,particularly within the Russianand Prussianzones. Musical institutionswere regularly closed-downand musicalgroups disbandCA: L For manyyears the country did not havea single symphonyorchestra and the managementof operahouses showed an open hostility to Polish-works. -56 Many composersclung to the nationalist style created by Chopin, Moniuszko, and their contemporaries,making little effort to modernize,again reducingPoland to a cultural backwater. The next generationof composersreacted against this trend. At the beginningof the twentiethcentury with cultural life slowly beginning to improve, a group of composersknown as Alloda
Polska ('The Young Poland) formed,vowing to take Polish music into the twentieth century. The members of this group, Grzegorz Fitelberg (1879-1953), Ludomir
R62ycki (1884-1953),Apolinary Szeluto (1884-1966),Karol Szymanowski(1882-
1937)and MieczyslawKarlowicz (1876-1909),attempted to modernizePolish music, drawing predominantlyon the Germanromantic style. The group stayedtogether for a very short time; althoughthey held commonbeliefs, their careerstook them in very
55Ludwik Erhardt, Music in Poland (Warsaw: Interpress, 1975), 46. 56ibid., 4748.
35 different directions. The composer who ultimately succeededin re-forging the broken links with the national style developed by Chopin, thus creating a viable musical inheritance for Bacewicz and others, was Szymanowski. In his own words, he intended to 'move Polish music from its deadlock and release it from its provincialism and lethargy'. 57
Szymanowskispent his formative yearsin Poland,experimenting with the use of traditional genresand familiarizing himself with Chopin's legacy. Much of his adult life, however,was spent travelling, gaining experienceof a range of musical culturesand keepingup to date with contemporarytrends. As a young composerhe spenttime in Germanyand Austria studyingthe music of Wagner,Strauss and Reger.
It took Szymanowskia number of years to establishhis own identity within this aestheticand then an equally long time to move on. He spenttime in 1914first with
Artur Rubinsteinin Paris,and then with PawelKochahski in London.58 On his return he remarked, 'My journey influenced me in many ways, creating new artistic problems'.59 At this stage, Szymanowskibegan a reassessmentof his aesthetic principles as part of a generalreaction against German Romanticism at the beginning of the twentieth century. His music shows an increasedinfluence from the French impressionists,Debussy and Ravel, and the Russian composer, Skryabin. Like
Chopin, Szymanowskibegan to spenda lot of time in Paris. He knew Ravel,Cocteau, 61 severalmembers of 'Les Six'60and was a great admirer of Stravinsky. In 1921he wrote an article on the composer,making clear the relevanceof the Russian'smusic
57jim Samson,Szymanowskj (London: Kahn & Avefill, 1980), 11. 58ibid, 79. 59 ibid, 77. 60The associationknown as 'Les SWor 'LesNouveaux Jeuneswas formedby Francis Poulenc(1900-1963), Darius Milhaud (1892-1974),Arthur Honnegger(1992-1955), Germaine Tailleferre(1892-1983), Georges Auric (1899-1983)and Louis Durey (1888-1979). " Samson,op. cit, 181.
36 to his own changingartistic outlook. In particular, 'Stravinsky revealedto him that folklorist elementscould be incorporatedinto a work without failing into the old
t. 62 clichds
Just one year later, Szymanowskitravelled to Zakopane,a mountain resort in the south of Poland rich in folk culture. His next work, a collection of twenty
Mazurkas,effectively marked a move to the final phaseof his career. Thesedrew heavily upon the melodic, harmonic and rhythmic characteristicsof the G6ral music he had studiedin Zakopane.According to Samson,
V]n his revival of the Mazurka Szymanowskiwas emphasizingboth his dependence the tradition Chopin. the his on of .. and at sametime independence that tradition. He in of ... was a senseclaiming with them his hard-wonright to be regardedas the creator of a twentieth- centuryPolish style.
The focus of Szymanowski'swriting altereda numberof times during his career,his stylistic developmenýhowever, was not vast His works alwaysremained in the style of the late-Romanticcomposers, representing 'the twilight of an era much more than 63 the dawn of a new age'. Szymanowskihimself warned young composersnot to imitate his own music:
[h]e found ... sought and support among the youth, the new generation of musicians. The wise and farsighted Szymanowski was to them an ideal, the ideal of light, transparent laconic and intellectual French his He turned their toward ... music, not own music. eyes Paris of the inter-war period and told them to seek for new aesthetic ideals there. Szymanowski could associate himself with those values and trends in music to which he himself could not contribute, and in this. lies his 64 .. greatness.
62 Samson, op. cit, 156. 63 ibid, 204. 64Lissa, op. cit, 167.
37 He was, however,able to revitalise the searchfor a Polish national style, particularly within his folk-inspiredworks of the 1920s/30s.
Bacewicz's contact with Szymanowski in 1929 provided the young composer with a link to her Polish inheritanceand a strongmodel for its use. His influencecan certainly be tracedin Bacewicz'sfolk-inspired middle period works. Their harmonic languageis related through the common use of perfect fourths and fifths, as for example in the opening of Szymanowski'sSlopiewnie No. 2 (1921), and a strong connection can be found in the two composers' use of colour. Szymanowski developed a fascination with the colouristic qualities of harmonies during his impressionistperiod, often combiningthese with unusualtextural effects. Bacewicz was certainlyhighly familiar with at leastone of Szymanowski'simpressionist works: sheperformed his First Violin Concertoin 1946.
Szymanowskicompleted this concertoin 1916 on his return from a trip to
North Aftica including visits to Algiers, Tunisia and Biskra. He had compiled a number of notebookson the music and culture of these counties and quite clearly reflected this interest in his music at the time. Works dating ftom this time demonstratean interest in the formation of more unusualsonorities; harmonies are chosenfor colour rather than tonal function and are often basedon the augmented 65 triad and pentatonics. I-fis use of the orchestrademonstrates an awarenessof the modem French style; timbral combinationsare no longer restrictedby conventions and demonstratefar greater diversity and depth. Greater use is also made of instrumental effects, creating a more 'exotic" sound with a higher incidence of tremolo, con sord and sul ponticello directions. The opening of the concerto
63 Samson, op. cit., 80.
38 demonstratesa numberof the abovetrends. The stringsare directedto play tremolo, sul ponticello, pizzicato and harmonicsin turn, accompaniedby harp, piano, celesta, bells and a triangle, whilst the harmonicframework of this openingpassage 'suggests 66 a simultaneity of white and black note pentatonicism. It is perhaps not a coincidencethat the most conspicuousfeatures of Szymanowski'smiddle-period works becameparticular enthusiasms of Bacewicz's.
Another hugely influential memberof 'The Young Poland' group, Grzegorz
Fitelberg, had a definite impact on Bacewicz's career. He moved away from composition, concentrating instead on conducting and promoting. '[Il]e propagated
Polish music on the concert-platforms all over the world'ý7 According to
Lutoslawski,
He was a figure of particularimportance to 0 Polish composersof my It thanks to him that introduced to generation.... was we were contemporarymusic in our youth. He renderedimmense services to ' its performanceand propagation- he wasa true pioneer.
Bacewicz'srelationship with Fitelbergcreated numerous opportunities for her, both as a performer and composerand provided invaluableprofessional support particularly during the early stagesof her career.
Another huge influence on many Polish composers' careers was the pedagogueKazimierz Sikorski. As Professor of Composition at the Warsaw
Conservatory, Sikorsld taught two generations of Polish composers, including
Bacewicz, Kisielewski, Kren7, Malawski, Palester,Panufnik, Serocki, Szatoivsk4
66Samson, op. cit., I IS. 67Lissa, op. cit., 126. 68Erhardtý op. ciL, 78.
39 Spisak, Szeligowski, Perkowski, Woytowicz, Kondracki, Mycielski, Zulawski and
Skrowaczewski.69
Bacewiczwas born at a more settledtime in Polish history; the pre-warperiod was a time of optimism and growth in the arts and full independencefor Poland followed the end of the First World War, creating a more permissive creative environment. Although Poland remainedisolated from WesternEurope at this stage,
Bacewicz'stime spentwith Boulangerin Pariscompensated considerably.
Just four years younger, Witold Lutoslawski (1913-1993) was far less fortunate. He spent his early childhood in Warsaw, raised, like most Polish musicians,on a staplediet of Chopin and Beethoven. He soonbecame interested in the more contemporarymusical languageof Szymanowski,and at the age of eleven 70 'spent days trying to recapture [the] sounds [of his third symphony] at the piano'.
Only during his time at the WarsawConservatory in the compositionclass of Witold
Maliszewski did he come into contactwith the scoresof Debussy,Ravel and early
Stravinsky. He studied these works in great detail, assimilating aspectsof their harmoniclanguage, orchestration, etc. He was, however,unlikely to have been able to hear any of them performed;The Rite ofSpring, for example,had not yet received its first performancein Poland. Like Bacewicz and so many other young Polish composers,Lutoslawski intendedto continue his studiesin Paris with Boulangeror
Koechlin but following a year's national service,was unableto leave Polanddue to the onsetof the SecondWorld War.
The following yearswere spentworking and composingin Poland under the constraintsfirst of the Nazi occupiers,then the realists. Throughout these years
69Stefan Jarocifiski, ? olish Music after World War 11r, YheMusical QuaHe?V, No. 1,1965, 244-258. 70Tadeusz Kaczyfiski, Conservations with Witold Lutoslawski (Undon: Chester, 1984), 33.
40 Lutoslawskiwas forced to devotetime to the compositionof functional music or risk censure. Privately, he was working on his first major symphonic workSymphony No.
1 (1941-7). Within this he was able to develop a new modem musical language, drawing upon aspectsof the Frenchstyle known to him. ConsideringLutoslawski's very limited experienceof contemporarydevelopments in Western Europe, it is highly unlikely that at this stagehe would not have looked towardsmusicians such as
Bacewicz who had been fortunate enough to travel in the inter-war years for inspiration. Unfortunately,the first performanceof the symphonyin the spring of
1948 coincided with the announcementof the new cultural policy, and in 1949 it became'the first eminent work to be officially censuredas formalist and removed from the repertoire.71
Travel outside the Soviet block was severely restricted at this time; only
'compliant'performers such as Bacewiczwere able to promotePolish music abroad-
Lutoslawski,for example,was rarely able to visit WesternEurope until the uprising of
1956 had loosenedthe Soviets' grip on the country. Týe subsequentfree-flow of information causeda numberof Polish composersto re-examinetheir compositional style. Bacewicz's harmonic languagedid not undergo much of an upheaval,but
Lutoslawskisuffered 'a genuinecrisis of style", resultingin an abruptmove in the late 72 1950s to a radically different musical language. This major change in approach is immediately apparent when comparing the scores of the early 50s, for example
Concertofor Orchestra(1950-4) and Maid Suita (1950), with those of the late 50s; seefor exampleMusiquefunabre (1954-58). Lutoslawskitravelled extensively in his
71Steven Stucky, 'Lutoslawski and his Music (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1981), 36. 72ibid, 64.
41 later years, engagingwith contemporarymusical styles and actively promoting his own music as a conductorand lecturer.
Despitedifferences in their circwnstances,Lutoslawski and Bacewiczshared a common musical heritage and aesthetic. It is possible that they first met at the
Warsaw Conservatoryin the late 1920s:living in Warsaw as a child, Lutoslawski attendedthe Conservatoryfor instrumentallessons while Bacewicz was there as a student. For a period of time they even shared the same piano teacher. The composers'friendship became much closeras their careersprogressed; Lutoslawski is reportedto have stayedat the Bacewiczfamily home for a period of time during the 73 SecondWorld War. He reflected on their friendship in his contributionto Rosen's monogaph publishcdin 1984.
When I think of Gra2ynaBacewicz, I can not limit myself to her music alone. I was fortunate to belong to that group of people who were bound with her by virtue of professionalfriendship. Imus, I was privileged to know her closely for many years. It allowed me to observeand admire her characterfirst hand - her integrity, honesty, compassionand her willingnessto shareand sacrifice for others. This imageof her as an artist and humanbeing oughtto be an inspirationto the succeedinggenerations of composersin Polandand throughoutthe world.74
He was certainly very familiar with Bacewicz's music: he publisheddetailed 75 reviewsof at leasttwo of her works.
Concertofor Strings is the high the 'objective' ... point of period of Gra,tyna Bacewicz's Its creative output ... austere, rather ascetic texture always impresses with its dignity and authority, making this work similar in mood to some moments of the Symphony ofPsalms by Stravinsky. However, I particularly like the dense, acid harmonies, enveloping the secondary subject of the finale. Their taste is
73 Disclosed to the author during an interview with Wanda Bacewicz (Warsaw, May 2002). 74Rosen, op. cit, 12. 73ElIbieta Widlak, G. Bacewicz (Krak6w: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1999), 44,49.
42 especially clear in compapsonwith the austere,'empty' harmonies which prevail in that score.76
From the times of Bart6k few composers were privileged to penetrate the mysteries of the quartet texture to such an extent as Gralyna Bacewicz. The Quartet No. 7, one of Gra2yna's last pieces[j will certainly make a long journey through the stages and studios of the 77 whole world.
WandaBacewicz claims that it took Lutoslawskia numberof yearsto acknowledge, the importance of Bacewicz to the developmentof Polish music; Lutoslawski's biographerscertainly do not include her in accountsof his musical influences. It is important to bear in mind, however,that Lutoslawski was always keen to promotea particular image of himself as a composer. He discussedhis musical influencesat length, yet rarely made reference to other Polish composers, deliberately distancing himself, for example,from the music of Szymanowskiafter the SecondWorld War.78
It is thereforenecessary to look directly at the scoresof both composers,Lutoslawski and Bacewicz,in orderto detectcommon features and speculateon their origins.
Their early years in particular were spentin much the samemusical climate.
Both studiedthe music of Szymanowskiand other impressionists,thus developingan early interest in the use of hannony as colour. Perfect fourths and fifths, intervals particularly common in works by Szymanowski,can be detectedin abundanceboth composers' works. There is, for example, an explosion in their use in Lutoslawski's works of the early 1950s;see for examplehis Concertofor Orchaora. The timing of this is particularly interestingconsidering the hugeincrease in their usein Bacewiczs third concertocompleted in 1948. Lutoslawski claims that his 'model in folk-music
76Witold Lutostawskt RuchMuzymny, taken ftorn: Gra-+ynaBacewicz (PWM marketing brochureý,43. Witold Lutoslawski, RuchMuzymily. 78 Stucky, op. cit.
43 settings was Bart6k, not Szymanowski',again distancing himself from his Polish predecessor. Stucky, however, questionsthis claim, finding 'remarkably little in common' with similar settingsby Bart6k.79
Lutoslawski's experimentationwith polychords in his works of the same period is also comparableto Bacewicz's gradually expandingharmonic language.
Although Lutoslawski was the first of the two to incorporatethe use of twelve note chords,in Morze, the first of his Five Songson texts of KazimieraIllakowicz (1956-
7), thereare striking similaritiesbetween the two composers'journeysto this point.
Another strong connectioncan be seen betweenthe two composers'use of melody. Throughouthis career,Lutoslawski makes use of the Bartokiantechnique of interval-filling. Its use,apparent in the form of three-notecells in his first symphony, even forms the basis of the melodic writing in his Partita written in 1984. The technique,not adopted by Bacewicz until the mid fifties, becomescentral to her maturestyle and is almostcertainly an appropriationfrom Lutoslawski.
In contrast,Bacewicz's experimentation with layeredtextures predates that of
Lutoslawski. Her works of the late 1950soccasionally include melodic lines that aflow individual performersto determinepitch. The gradual developmentof such techniquesby Baccwicz surely anticipates,perhaps even facilitates Lutoslawski's more abrupt adoption of alcatorism two years later.
In addition to these very distinctive musical characteristics, the two composers'works sharea number of more generalfeatures, typical of the genre or their commonaesthetic, for which the origins are more difficult to trace. One such example is the shaping of movementsin large-scaleworks. Perhapsthe most
79 Stucky, op. cit, 41.
44 prevailing feature of Bacewicz's concertomovements is the internal organisation.of the musical details to form a highly-balancedwhole. This feature can be seen in
Lutoslawski's very first work in this genre, Concertofor Orcliestra. In the third
Passacaglia, 'episodes' 'undergoes movement, each of the thirteen ... growth and decline in severalparameters: register, dynamic, textural densityand tempo. 80 Thus is revealed a common respect for formal structures and the discipline they impart.
A brief studyof the two composers'catalogues implies that the two composers drew inspiration from each other; their compositionalstyles progressedat a similar rate and developedalong much the same lines. It may even be that Bacewicz influenced the developmentof Lutoslawski's early musical language. Lutoslawski certainly spokehighly of Bacewicz'sachievements in an interview with Polish Radio following her deathin 1969.
If Polish music has won an exceptionallyhigh position in the world, it is in great measure [also] the personal contribution of Gratyna Bacewicz. In this difficult situationin which the contemporarymusic has found itself - continually throwing out new slogans,destroying traditions, bandying new and often shocking technical means - Gra,tyna Bacewiczalways succeeded in finding her own way. Shedid not stand still, she did not stop at the points at which she had won internationalawards - she moved forwards choosingonly what suited her, what she was able to melt in the crucible of her individual, very personalstyle. 81
A contemporaryof the two composers,Andrzej Panufnik (1914-1991), explored similar issuesin his writing. A discussionof his Tragic Overture(1942) in Thomas' book, Polish Music since Szymanowski,for example, specificafly mentions layered texturesand the inclusionof an eleven-notechord. 82
goStucky, op. dL, 54. a' Witold Lutoslawski (20 January 1969), in Widlak, op. cit., 12. 92 Thomas, op. cit., 25.
45 Composersin the next generationof Polish composers,led by Krzysztof Penderecki
(b. 1933), were only able to embrace the avant-gardefully as a result of the groundwork done by their predecessors.Together, they achievedthe impossible;
Polish music was rescuedfrom virtual obscurity,given a unique national flavour and elevatedto a completely new level on the world stage. Penderecki'sbiographer,
Wolfram Schwinger, refers to Bacewicz as the 'most successful composer' of the post-Szymanowskigeneration. 83 Her influence can certainly be traced in works by
Pendereckialthough Schwinger rarely acknowledgesthis. He links Penderecki's interestin writing for stringedinstruments to 'many other Polish composerssuch as
Lutoslawski, Serockiand even more Gorecki', yet fails to mention Bacýwicz,one of the most obvious.84 He claims that 'Pendereckisurpassed them all, eventhen, by his abundanceof works for strings and also by the richnessof invention with which he alienated,even denaturalizedthat string sound.85 If he had consideredBacewiczs cataloguehe would have found that 44% of her works were written for strings in comparisonto only 35% of Penderecki's. His experimentalwork with string timbre, also, is clearly an extension of work undertakenby Bacewicz and Lutoslawski.
Schwingeralso describesthe composer'suse of "timbre-or cluster-musicwbereby sounds and noises are considered equally suitable as material for musical composition. '86 He acknowledges that 'several composers have arrived at an almost identical principle, differing only in the constructionof the sounds',but claims thA
'the two most important innovatorsin this region are Pendereckiand Gyargy Ligeti', ignoring the crucial work of earlier composers. There can be little doubt that
93Wolfram Schwinger, Krzysztqf Penderecki.- His Life and Work, traris. William Mann (Stuttgart: Schott& co., 19891 25. 94ibid, 122. 85ibid 86ibid, 136.
46 Penderecki'smanipulation of the string section and use of timbre owe much to
Bacewicz,whose music, togetherwith the works of her contemporaries,provides for modemPolish composersan enviablenational inheritance.
(b) Western European Influences
As well as invoking her Polish musical inheritance, Bacexvicz drew heavily on the music of composers she was exposed to whilst outside of Poland. Her exposure to these musicians and their music was carefully managed by Boulanger.
Boulanger maintained a particularly close relationship with Poland and Polish musicians throughout her career, perhaps due in part to her Soviet ancestry-, her mother Ralssa was a Russian Princess. According to Rosenstiel, 'Nadia lived in
RaYssa'sshadow. As she continued to cling to the shreds of her Russian heritage,
Nadia often insisted that certain of her studentsparticipate in Russian Orthodox rituals 87 and customs with her. Ra7fssa'sname day - the'name day is a custom shared by
in Russians and Poles - would always be spent the company of Boulanger's Polish students. Boulangertaught many Poles; a great number were sent to her by Karol
Szymanowski,then the director of the Warsaw Conservatory,and often with the financial assistanceof the PaderewskiScholarship Fund. 88 Maria Modrakowska,a well-known Polish singerand former pupil of Boulanger,wrote in the MondeMusical in 1931that Nadia's Polish studentsloved their teacher'fanatically'. 89 Boulanger's sympathyfor the Polish causewas evident during the SecondWorld War when she
87Uonie Rosenstiel,Na&a Boulanger.A Life inMuWc (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1982), 214. It is importantto notethat Rosenstiel,despite providing an interestingaccount of Boulanger'slife, did not studywith her. 88These include SzeligowskL PerkowsK Woytowicz,Kondracki, MycielsK SzalowskL Spisak,Rudzinski, Zulawski, Serockiand Skrowaczewski. " RosenstieLop. cit., 240.
47 becameclosely associatedwith the Polish Relief Fund. A few yearslater in 1956she made a huge political statementby attendingthe first Warsaw Autumn Festival of
Contemporary Music. 90
Bacewicz wrote very little about her time with Boulanger,however accounts of lessonswritten by other of her pupils allow us to speculateabout their impact on
Bacewicz. In an anthology of such memoirs, each pupil emphasizesthat Boulanger did not have a set teaching method or impose any particular musical style.9' Virgil
Thomsonwrites,
[Ifler teaching the techniques is full her of musical ... of rigor, while toleration of expressive and stylistic variety in composition is virtually infinite Her is to draw than impose, to ..... great gift out rather guide than direct, is the hallmark teaching rather which surely of great ... She has her musical prejudices, too.... generally she tends not to mention the names of composers she does not like rather than pronounce against them, but she has made little effort later in life to conceal the fact that she has little sympathy with the music of Rachmaninov, for example. 92
It is interestingthat Rachmaninovwas specificallymentioned by WandaBacewicz in an interview with the author (Warsaw,May 2001) as a composerdetested by her sister. Boulanger'sattitude to the music of the SecondViennese School has also been the topic of much debateamong musicologists. Rosenstiel suggests that,
In keeping with her new policy, Nadia did not analyzein depth the works of twentieth-centurycomposers whose aesthetic principles were antitheticalto Stravinsky's,barely mentioning them in passingin her tcole Normaleand Wednesdayclasses. 93
90 Information disclosed to the author during an interview with Malgorzata,Gqsiorowska (Warsaw, May 2002). 91Alan Kendell, The Tender Tyrank Xadfa Boulanger, A Life Devoted to Music (London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1976). 92 ibi4 48. 93Rosenstiel, op. cit., 207.
48 This does not, however, give a full accountof her views. In interview with Ellen
Rosand,Robert Moevs, a pupil of Boulanger'sfor five years,reports an early interest in Schoenberg'smusic: 'She had thought that the greatestrevolution in music had been causedby Pierrot Lunaire.' Her tastesapparently changed when she became involved with classicism.
Shebegan to seethe whole Vienneseapproach as a kind of morbid and decadentmorass that should be swept aside. She reactedviolently againstit and in favor of the clear,strongly rhythmic music of the type Stravinskywas writing in Paris.94
Moevs goeson to say that, 'she modified this negativeattitude toward the Viennese
School'. Shawnalso takesa lessextreme view:
Although Boulanger disapprovedof Schoenberg'saesthetic point of view and the conceptof serialism,she felt that it was a deadend that eliminated the possibility of tension and relaxation in music - she attendedthe premiere of his chamber music Pierrot Lunaire, and studiedthe twelve-toneworks of Berg and Webern. (When the score of Berg's opera Wozzeckwas first published, she had her students practice both the voice and the orchestralparts. ) With Stravinsky's embraceof serialismin the 1950sand the arrival of a new generation of compositionstudents, Boulanger's attitudes became more flexible. She was conversant,when she was in her eighties,with the music of Messiaen,Berio, Xenakis,Boulez, Stockhausen and Penderecki.95
It is clear that Boulanger's attitude to twelve-tone composition changed, giving rise to the differing accounts of her students. Bacewicz was certainly a pupil at a time when
Boulanger was less tolerant of the technique. At this time her relationship with
Stravinsky was exceptionally close: 'Nadia had become so friendly with Stravinsky
94Ellen Rosand, 'Recollections:Nadia Boulanger (1887-1979)', HisforicalMusicology (March 1980),277. 95Allen Shawn, 'Nadia Boulanger'sLessons', 7heAtlantic Monthly (March 1993), 78-85.
49 that be sent her copies of his newest works long before their public. premi6rcs.96
Roscnsticl claims that Boulanger's 'commitment to Stravinsky led her to devote
time to his Stravinsky's fitted much class works ... neo-classicalworks particularly well into traditional systemsof analysis'.97
Boulanger'sway of teachingrelied heavily on analysisand the detailedstudy of compositionaltechniques. Individual lessonswould be conductedat the piano and would draw heavily on musical examplesfrom every period of history. In addition, every Wednesdayafternoon, the majority of her pupils would be invited to attendan analysisclass at her apartment. Pupils would be surroundedby watercoloursand photographsof figures such as Hindemith, Bart6k, Lipatti, StravinskyýEnesco and her sister Lili. Copland, a pupil of Boulanger,reported mingling with composers such as Poulenc, Stravinsky and Marcelle de Manziarly at these sessions.98 The programmeof works studied in theseclasses during the academicyear 1935/6Oust three years following Bacewicz's participation) included 'Bach (SI John Passion),
Monteverdi, Hindemith, Schiltz, Stravinsky (PersJphone), Carissimi (Jephtha),
Palestrina,Taverner, Taflis, Lotti, Cavalieri, Debussy,Binchois Frangaix and ... Twenty-four later " years ... the menuwas still much the same'. Boulanger'schoice of repertoireand musical models might have influenced the musical taste of her pupils. Just as crucial, however, was her approachto compositionand her philosophyconcerning its teaching. Boulangerexpected pupils to completeand perform harmonyexercises, building an awarenessof the range of
96 RosenstieL op. cit., 23 7. 97 ibid, 208. 98 ibid, 299. " KendelL op. cit., 3940.
50 possibilities available within a, simple chord sequence. As pupil Allan Shawn comments,
With Boulanger,these exercises were doorwaysthat led to discourse on every aspectof life, public and private, and seamlesslyback to the music at hand. Her aim here, as well as in the study of large-scale works, was to revealthe life presentin the basic materialsof music,to showthe beautyand shapeof small as well as large structures'.' 00
The intensity of the analysescarried out in theseclasses have resonancein the detail of Bacewicz'sworks, whoseminutiae define her personalstyle.
Boulanger's personal demeanourwas also essential to her successas a teacher. Her stem, but caring and enthusiasticapproach left a lasting impressionon manyof her pupils.
I find it amazingthat the two short yearsI spentin Nadia Boulanger's to this day to be the life presenceseem crucial yearsof my musical ... In those two years, standardswere set, demandsmade, challenges delivered,which were enoughfor a lifetime. They still resoundin me everyday. The struggleto meetthem never ends. '01
Sheprovided the strongdirection and senseof commitmentto art and developmentthat looking for The to our own we were ... senseof rhythmic control, phrasing,and coherentstructure that shetaught the elimination of unnecessarynotes - all thesematters of discipline had a greatimpact on the developmentof a maturestyle. 102
Boulanger's impact on Bacewicz's musical developmentshould therefore not be underestimated.It seemsthat in later life Bacewiczspent much of her time working alone and very little attendingconcerts, listening to music, or studyingthe scoresof
100Shawn, op. cit., 80. 101Laurence Rosenthal, 'Confronting'the 'Next Impossible':Musical Studieswith Nadia Boulanger' Parabola (Spring 1989), 78-79. 102, Rosand,op. cit, 277.
51 other composers.103 These early musical models must have, therefore, had even more bearing on her than some other Boulanger pupils. Indeed it is interesting to consider the extent to which outside influences could possibly have contributed to later developments in Bacewicz's compositional style, considering the lack of attention paid by Bacewicz to the work of her contemporaries. The impact of her teacher's musical philosophiesalso appearsto have been significant. It is well-documented,for example, that Bacewicz disliked serial music despite a brief experimentation with serialism.in her String Qwrtet No. 6 (1960), and that the two musicians shared an aversion to Romantic music. Interestingly, a list of Bacewicz's musical preferences as reported by Wanda Bacewicz follows quite closely the pattern of Boulanger's programmeof works specified earlier.104
Bacewicz arrived in Paris at time of creative ferment there. In the preceding decades the First World War had led to a rejection of German musical aesthetics,accused by the French and English of 'destroying the clarity of the Eighteenth Century'. 105The more concise, logical approachadopted by a number of composerswas discussedat length by the French poet, Jean Cocteauýin his 1918 essay,Le Coq el I ýarlequin(Ibe
Cock and Harlequin), with particular reference to the music of Erik Satie. Messing writes,
The 'classical path' of clarity which Cocteau accorded Satie was a solitary one that did not reach back into the past. The 'new simplicity' Satie both 'classic' 'modern; 'a French that did of ... was and music' not recall any other Frenchmusic. 106
103This is an assertionmade by both WandaBacewicz and Malgorzata GWorowska. 104Interview with Wanda Bacewicz (Warsaw, June 2001). 10-5Scon Messing, NeoclaWdsm in Music 0-ondon: UMI ResearchPressý 1988), 75. 106 jbig 77.
52 The term 'neoclassicism'began to be appliedto all art forms demonstratingthis new simplicity. In music the conceptgrew from an aestheticidea to a specific musical 107 style through its adoption by the Russian,Igor Stravinsky. Stravinsky, a great admirer of Satie's music, began to display elementsof the neo-classicalaesthetic within his compositionalstyle from the early 1920s. EugeneGoossens described the new style with referenceto Stravinsky'smusic as early asNovember 1919:
The main featuresof this newestpath in musicalexpression, of which we cite Stravinsky as the shining example, are firstly, a forcible directnessof both colour and form; secondly, a rigid economy of meanswhich eliminatesall but essentials;and thirdly, a conciseand intense objectivenessof emotion which relegatestraditional practice 108 and dull introspectionto the background.
One of his first neo-classicalworks, Pulcinella (1919-20),is basedon music by a numberof eighteenth-centurycomposers including Pergolesi. In Stravinsky'swords,
'This is a new genreof music, a simplemusic with an orchestralconception different from my other works."09 In the year precedingBacewicz's arrival in Paris, two major works for violin were completedby Stravinsky:the Concertoin D for Violin
and Orchestra (1931) and the Duo Concertante (1931-2). Both works were
performed by Dushkin throughout Europe; he retained the sole rights to the
performanceof the concertofor two years. It is quite possiblethat Bacewiczattended
one of theseperformances, therefore acquiring a model for her own use of the solo
instrument.
Stravinsky was undoubtedlyone of the greatestmusical innovators at this
time; his responseto the changing aesthetic of the early twentieth century was
107SeeRichard Taruskin, Stravinsky and the Russian Tra&fions (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1996 5 3. toke=g, op.cit., 102. 109Mid, 112. personaland decisive.110 A number of other composers,including 'Lev Ar', soon followed him, adoptingthe musical characteristicsassociated with this new musical language. Boulanger's friendship with many of these composerscreated a close musical circle into which each of her pupils was welcomed. Poulenc'sConcerto for
Two Pianosin D minor, written in 1932,and Honegger'sSymphony for Orchesftu, written in 1930,for example,capture well the Parisianaesthetic and can be tracedin
Bacewicz's early neo-classicalstyle. Both are three-movementworks featuring sonata-formouter movementsbased on stereotypicalfirst and secondsubjects. In eachcase, alterations are madeto the classicalmodel, resultingin the unconventional treatment and placementof principal themes. The harmonic language,although, tonal, is often expandedby the use of consecutivenotes in parallel lines (see for example,Poulenc, 3 bars before figure 11, and Honegger,Mvt. 114fig. 2). Parallel fourths also permeateboth works (see for example,Poulenc, b. 2, and Honegger, three bars after fig. 1). In both cases,sections of classical,concertante and unison writing are interspersedwith classical devices and figurations, such as repetitive accompanyingfigures, pedals, scale-wisemovement and sequences,all featuresof
Bacewicz'sneo-classical writing.
The heavyneo-classical influence revealed in Bacewicz'searly violin concerti is found in the music of most Boulanger pupils, though to varying degrees.
Copland's First Symphony for Large Orchestra, written just one year before
Bacewiczarrived in Paris, for example,-is clearly similar in both approachand detail to the early concertos. Textures, including classical orchestra],i. e. those which contrastthe string and wind sections,unison passagesand concertantewriting are
110Schoenberg was of course the other great innovator, but his work is not considered here as he was not particularly influential in Paris. -
54 intercut, sometimesquite abruptly. The scaleof the work is generallymuch smaller than its title suggests.The opening,for example,scored for solo flute, violin 11,solo viola and muted cellos, Tesemblesthe scaleof the opening of many of Bacewicz's concertomovements. The writing is similarly contrapuntal,featuring a number of classicaldevices including pedalsand string crossings(see Mvt. 11,fig. 12 and Mvt.,
III fig. 51 respectively). The work also contains a large number of parallel fourths and fifths (see for example Mvt. 1, figs. 7 and 3), one of the main hallmarks of
Baccwicz'stonal languagc.
The early works of another of Boulanger's American pupils, Elliott Carter, again bear hallmarks of this common musical style. Symphony No. 1, written later, in 1942,is less contrapuntal;however the scaleof the writing, as well as the use of concertante groups, unison textures and parallel fifths, betrays his training with
Boulanger.
One of the most significant and revealingtrends in the composingcareers of
Boulanger'spupils, such as thosementioned above, is the extentto which they were able to breakaway from their commonneo-classical roots. Boulangerguided pupils through a series of exercisesdesigned to develop a. basic working knowledge of formal devices,harmony, rhythmic phrasing,etc. Her intention was, however,that when 'committed to memory,they would form a foundation upon which we could then be free throw the keys the to Boulanger - out window, so speak... could make "" one freer and stronger. It is not the case,however, that all of her pupils were able to do this; it could be claimedthat Lennox Berkeley, for example,was not ever able to developa truly independentcompositional style. Bacewicztook a little longerthan
111Shawn, op. cit., 84.
55 someto throw off the influence,but was of courseconsiderably more constrainedin her seconddecade as a professionalcomposer than other Boulangerpupils due to the political situation in Polan(L
56 v 4: An Historical Introduction to the Violin Concerti
The series of seven violin concertos,composed at regular intervals throughout
Bacewicz's career, provides an accurateaccount of Bacewiczs changing musical
languageand reflects the personal,political and historical circumstancesdetailed in
the biography. Through the series the composer's initially neoclassical style,
informed by the time spent with Boulanger in Paris, undergoesan enormousand
intenselypersonal development, embracing changes in tonality and later drawing on
avant-garde techniques. The importance of this process to the simultaneous and
subsequent development of twentieth-century Polish music should not be
underestimated.
Violin Concerto No. 1 (1937)
Mvt. I- Allegro
Mvt. II - Andante (molto espressivo)
Mvt III - Vivace
Bacewiczundertook the compositionof her First Violin Concertoduring her two-year
period as leader of the Polish Radio Orchestra (PRO). It is a relatively early
orchestralwork, written for a fairly small ensemble(1122 - 2210 - perc - harp - 112 strings) and lasts only 14 minutes. Bacewicz's only previousattempts at writing
for full orchestraare the following: YhreeCaricatures (1932), Sinfonietta(1932), De
Profundisclamavi ad te, Domine(Cantata for soloists,chorus and orchestra)(1932),,
112See Fig. 6 for full details of each concerto's instrumentation.
57 Convol de joie (1933) and Symphony (1933). Of these works, only the Three
Caricaturesand Convoi dejoie were performed,none was published,the Symphony went 'missing' andthe manuscriptof the Sinfoniettawas destroyed.
This was thereforea time of greatpersonal development and experimentation for the composer.Bacewicz's position with the PRO exposedher to a new repertoire, allowed her the opportunity to gain a real understandingof the workings of a symphony,orchestra and introducedher to a numberof greatartists, such as Fitelberg, with whom shebuilt valuablefriendships. It also provideda platform upon which she was able to present her early compositions and effectively launch herself as a composer upon the musical scene in Warsaw. The premieres of the Three
Caricatures,Convoi de Joie and the Violin ConcertoNo. I were given by the PRO in
Warsaw, conductedby Grzegorz Fitelberg, the Violin Concerto in 1938 featuring
Bacewiczas soloist.
The first concerto, like the vast majority of works written at this stage in
Bacewicz's career,was not published,although the orchestralscore and parts have now been made availablefor hire by PWM in Krak6w. It seemsthat this concerto receivedfew if any performancesfollowing its initial presentationin 1938,due to the composer'sdissatisfaction with it However,a performancewas given at the Gra2yna
BacewiczAnniversary Concerts, held in 1999,celebrating the ninetiethanniversary of her birth, and thirtieth anniversaryof her death. The concert, held at the Witold
Lutoslawski Concert Studio, Warsawon 5 February,was given by the Polish Radio
Orchestra, conducted by Jacek Rogala.' 13 The soloist was a Polish violinist,
Krzysztof Bqkowski, currently a Violin Professorat the WarsawConservatory. The
113This is a different orchestrafrom the pre-warPRO formedand conducted by Grzegorz Fitelberg.
58 same performersmade a recording of the work shortly afterwards,described as its
'premiere recording'.114 'Me autographmanuscript for this and all of the other concertosin the series is held at the Biblioteka Narodowa (National Library) in
Warsaw and may be copied at the discretion of the composer's sister, Wanda ,
Bacewicz. 115
Violin Concerto No. 2 (1945)
Mvt. I- Allegro ma non troppo
Mvt. 11- Andante mvt. III - vivo
The Second Violin Concerto (1945) was written during a very busy year: a total of eleven works were completed,in comparisonto just six in the previous six years.
These were: Symphony No. 1, Pod strzechq (Under the Thatch, for chwnber orchestra);Easy Duets on Folk Themes(for violin and piano); Legenda(for violin and piano); Sonata da Camara (for violin and piano); Scherzo (for solo violin);
Concertino in First to Third Positions; Andante sostenuto(for cello and organ);
Farfarello (Musical accompanimentfor a radio play) and 0 Janku co psom &Udbuty
(Musical accompaniment for a radio play).
The work, at about20 minutesin duration,is slightly longer than the first, and has a substantiallyenlarged instrumentation(2232 - 4331 - perc - strings). Its prcmicre was given on 18 October, 1946,by the L6di Philhannonic Orchestrawith conductorTomasz Kiesewetter and Bacewiczas soloist. Again, the concertowas not
Gratyna Bacewicz (1909 - 1969) (Warsaw: Polish Radio PRCD 126,18-19 March 1999). Biblioteka Narodowa, Al. Niepodleglo§ci 213,02086 Warszawa, Poland.
59 publishedat this time, althoughthe concertojoins the first on the list of full scoresand partscurrently available for hire by PWNL
Violin Concerto No. 3 (1948)
Mvt. I- Allegro molto moderato
Mvt. II - Andante
Mvt. III - Vivo
The Third Violin Concertowas Bacewicz!s first 'successful' work of the series. It was again written at a particularly productive time for the composer 1948 saw the composition of Szkice ludowe (Folk Sketches,for orchestra); Taniec Ix)Lvki na skrzypce i orkiestrC, (Polish Dance for violin and orchestra); WaIc (Waltz, for orchestra);Concerto for String Orchestra; Trio for Oboe, Clarinet and Bamoon;
Polish Dance (for Violin and Piano),- Easy Piecesfor Clarinet and Piano, Smuga cienia (Trail ofShadow);Olympic Cantata(for mixed choir and orchestra)written for the LondonOlympics and perhapsSonata No. 3 (for violin and piano). This was also a particularly busy time for Bacewicz the violinist; the post-war years were spent concertizingboth at home and abroad. She spent 1946 preparingfor a high profile I engagementas soloist in Szymanowski'sFirst Violin Concertowith the Orchestredes
Concerts Lamoureux, conducted by Paul Kletzki at the Salle Pleyel in Paris.
Subsequentconcerts included a recital in the Salle Gaveaufeaturing Szymanowski's
Nocturne and Tarantella, Szalowski'sSuite and her own Sonata da Camera, an appearanceat the Franco-SlaveFestival at the Sorbonneand a recital at the tcole
Normale de Musique in Paris. Shortly before the completion of the Third Violin
Concerto,Gratyna gavea perfonnanceof the MendelssohnViolin Concertowith the
60 Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra in Warsaw. At this time she clearly received tremendousexposure to the music of her former teacher Szymanowski. In fact,
Adrian Thomasdescribes the Third Violin Concertoas possessinga 'Szymanowskian hue':
For the most part the Szymanowskian influence is harmonic, with a preponderance of bitonal triadic writing, richly scored. There are to both Szymanowski's melodic allusions of violin concertos ... paying homage to the French provenance of Szymanowski's middle 116 period style ....
He clearly links Bacewicz'sperformance of 'Szymanowski'sorchestral masterpiece' in 1946to the musicallanguage of her third concerto.117
1948was also the year of the announcementof the state'snew cultural policy.
The processof 'creative realignment'had, however,begun soon after the end of the war, thus it is possiblethat, in drawingso heavily upon Polish folk music for thematic material in the third concerto,Bacewicz could be seento be respondingpragmatically to political pressures.' 18
The third movementof this concertois basedon identical material to the first of the Easy Piecesfor Clarinet and Piano, written in the sameyear. It would, of course,be possiblethat the folk-inspiredtheme is in both casesa settingof a genuine folk melody.
At about 24 minutes' duration this concertois again slightly longer than its predecessorsand is again slightly larger in scale; its instrumentationis given as follows: 3322 - 4331 - perc, harp - strings. The first perýonnance of the Violin
Concerto No. 3 was given by the Baltic Philharmonic with conductor Stefan
116 Thomas, Gra:!ý, na Bacewicz., Chamber and OrchestralMusic op. ck, 3 1. 117jbid "'Thomas, Polish Music since Szymanowski op. ciL. 4 1.
61 ýIedziftski, in Gdaftskon 4 March, 1949. Bacewiczappeared as soloist in this and many subsequentperformances. On 19 Februaryin the following year, shepresented the work at the PhilharmonicHA, L6di and, for the first time, proceededto take the concertoon tour, giving performanceswith the RumanianState Symphony Orchestra and the BudapestRadio Orchestraunder a contact from her days with the Polish
Radio Orchestra,Grzegorz Fitelberg. Upon her return, the work was acceptedfor publication by newly-nationalizedPWM, which went on to publish all of Bacewicz's publishedworks. A piano reductionwas releasedshortly afterwards in 1950.
The successof the concertowas acknowledgedwhen in 1955 it receivedthe award of the Minister of Culture and Fine Arts (the FMP prize) along with. Symphony
No. 4. There are two available recordingsof this work, both held at the office of
Polish Radio in Warsaw. The first was made by Bacewicz herself with Grzegorz
Fitelberg and the Great SymphonyOrchestra of Polish Radio (WOSPR)in 1949,119 and the other by BarbaraG6rzyfiska with Krzysztof Missona and the Polish Radio
Orchestra.120
Violin Concerto No. 4 (1951)
Mvt I- Allegro non troppo
Mvt. Il -Andante Tranquillo
Mvt. 111- Vivace
Following the hectic scheduleof performing engagementsdetailed above, Bacewicz spentmost of her time in Warsawin the early 1950sconcentrating once again on her
119Recorded in Katowice. 120Recorded in Krak6w.
62 composingcareer. Her Mazur, SymphonyNo. 2, Nocturne(for violin and orchestra),
Cello ConcertoNo. 1, Taniecmazowiecki (Mazovian Dance for cello and orchestra),
Taniecmazowiecki (Mazovian Dance for violin and piano), SonataNo. 5 (for violin and piano) and possibly the String QuartetNo. 4 and Oberek No. 2 (for violin and piano) wereall composedin the sameyear asthe Fourth Violin Concerto.
This is the only concerto in the series to carry a dedication, although interestinglythe identity of the dedicateeis unclear,a different nameis given on the autographmanuscript and the publishededition. On the title pageof the manuscripL
'KazimierzowiSikorskiemu pofwiqcam Koncert IV na skrypcez orkiestrq' (I dedicate the Fourth Concertofor Violin and Orchestrato Kazimierz Sikorski) is clearly written in Bacewicz's handwriting. She dedicatedat least two other works to Sikorski; the earlier Three Caricatures for Orchestra (1932) and the Polish Overture (1954). The dedicationthat appearsabove the title of the pianoreduction of the concerto,however, is to violinist J6zefJarzqbski ('Profesorowi J6zefowi Jarzqbskiemu). Bacewiczcame into contactwith both of thesePolish musiciansat exactlythe sametime, as they were her tutors at the WarsawConservatory; however, as to which of them was intendedto receivethe dedication,and for what reasonit may have been changed,I have yet to discover.
Two of Bacewicz!s major biographers appear to differ regarding the folk content of this work. Maciejewski states that although 'Polish folklore is not
here. tracethe in Rondo lyrical predominant .. one can peasantmelodies the and the Andante.121 Jarocifiski, in contrast, specifically cites Bacewic2s Fourth Violin
Concerto as an example of a work that draws little or no influence from Polish
121B. Maciejewski, 7WelvePolish Composers (London:Allegro Press,1976). 64.
63 folklore. As this is the only one of Bacewicz's works to appear on Jarocifiskis
relatively short list of works by Polish composerssuch as Lutoslawski, Panufnik,
Szabelski and Turski, we can assumethat the author felt this concerto to be a particularly clear-cutexample. 122
The scaleand length of the concertois almostidentical to its predecessor,the duration is given as 25 minutesand the instrumentation,3322 - 4331 - perc- strings, is missing only a harp. The premierewas given in February 1952 by the Krak6w
Philharmonic Orchestra. Maciejewski recounts,rather strangely,thaL 'the eminent
Belgian conductorFernand Quinet gave a masterlyperformance and so inspired the composer,who was the soloist,as to receivea standingovation from the audience!123
During the same year Bacewicz was awardedthe Polish National Prize, with the fourth concertocited as one of three contributingworks, the othersbeing her String
QuartetNo. 4 and Violin SonataNo. 4.124The concertoand its piano reductionwere publishedin 1953;the latter can now be obtainedfrom PWK but only in the form of an authorizedphotocopy of the original publication.
One recording of the work is held at Polish Radio, again made by the composerwith the WOSPR,conducted by BohdanWodiczk-o. 125
122Ed. StefanJarocifisId. Polish Music (Warsaw-Pafistwowe Wydawnictwo Nabkowe, 1965), 249. 123Maciejews1d, op. cit., 64. 124Listed as suchby WandaBacewicz in PHnc4)ajP? jzes of GratynaBace%jcz (unpublished) Rosen 45. 125 and op. cit., Recordedin Katowice.
64 Violin Concerto No. 5 (1954)
Mvt. I- Deciso
Mvt. II - Andante
Mvt. III - Vivo
Bacewicz's decision to retire from the concert platform in 1952 affected boChthe compositionand premiereof the fifth concerto. The work is slightly shorter,of only about 22 minutesduration, and is smallerin scalethan the previoustwo in the series
(2222-4331 -perc, harp- strings). It was written in 1954,a very quiet year intenns of compositionaloutput due to an extendedhospitalization following her seriouscar accident. Only the Polish Overlure for orchestraand Tryplyk for choir and orchestra were comp ete in e same year.
The Fifth Violin Concertois one of a numberof Bacewicz'sworks discussed at somelength by Adrian Thomas. He writes,
The most unduly neglected work of the early 1950s is the Fifth Violin Concerto. Like the dynamic SecondPiano Sonata, it willingly acknowledges the influence of Szymanowski. Both are indebted to his Drawing in the folk idiom middle period. ... part on gaunt of Szymanowski's late works, Bacewicz,abandons the sanitized diatonic basis of some of her recent music in favor of a harmonic idiom governed less by intervallic consistency than by percussive considerations. There are plentiful examples of bitonal triadic harmony, bittersweet drones and primitive ostinati, all suggestingthat Bacewicz had come full circle to the earlier Third Violin Concerto. But the prevailing tone is considerably more abrasive, complemented by solo writing that is angular, highly virtuosic and with an element of aggression that recalls the music of the war years. [Musical example given] Despite the folk origins of the finale and the maintenance of standard formal structures, the Fifth Violin Concerto signals the end of this period of stylistic duress, with Bacewicz straining if not breaking the bonds that had held Polish composers in check since 1950.126
126 Thomas, Gra:tyw Bacewicz.,Chamber and Orchestral Music op. cit. 40-4 1.
65 Bacewicz's fiiend and colleagueWanda Wilkomirska gavethe premiereof the work with the National Philharmonic Orchestraconducted by Witold Rowicki on 17
January,1955. A year later it waspublished along with a pianoreduction.
Violin Concerto No. 6 (1957)
Mvt. I- Allegro leggiero
Mvt. 11- Largo
Mvt. III - Giocoso
The Sixth Concertois somethingof an enigma. Its existenceis rarely acknowledged in studiesof Bacewicis works, a situationyet to be challenged. The work was not publishedor performed,but unlike the First and SecondViolin Concertos,for which this is also the case,the work has not been madeavailable retrospectively. PWM do not hold a copy of the work, thereforecannot even supply an authorizedcopy. The manuscriptis held with the othersin the National Library, Warsaw,and a hand-copied versionalso exists,supplied by WandaBacewicz. ' Wandaexplains, 'Gra2yna deleted is in her 127 it - shedi(Mt publish or perform it sincethe music used other works'.
The work was completed at a very busy time for the composer.she was
fulfilling engagementsto appearon competitionjuries at the sametime as holding the
post of vice-chairmanfor the Polish ComposersUnion. It is noteworthythat only one
in 1957,the SymphonicVariations. otherwork waswritten I The work is the longestof the series,of about26 minutesduration. Its scoring
is significantly lighter than its immediatepredecessors, with reducedwind and brass
127Written in a letter to the author, 12 February 1999.
66 sections (2232 - 4221 - timp, cymbals, tambourine,bass drum - celesta,harp - strings).
Violin Concerto No. 7 (1965)
Mvt., I -Allegro
Mvt. II - Largo
Mvt. III -Allegro
It is interesting that follovving her dissatisfactionwith the Sixth Violin Concerto,
Bacewiczwrote only one more work for solo violin and orchestra. The seventhand final concertoin the serieswas the result of a particularly productive year, one that also saw the composition of Musica Sinfonica in Tre Movimenti for orchestra,
Diverlimento for string orchestra,Incyuviatiorkv for horn and chamber ensemble,
String QuartetNo. 7, PianoQuintet No. 2, Trio for Oboe,Harp and Percussion,Small
Triptych for the piano andthe musicalaccompaniment for two plays.
Some of the musical material incorporatedinto this concerto was originally intendedfor the viola. As StefanKamasa, founder memberof the Warsaw Quintet, recalls,
I asked Gratyna to write a concerto, a virtuoso work which would explore the noble tone qualities of the much neglectedviola. To my intensejoy 'the first lady of Polish musie agreed immediately. But, unfortunately, the first sketchesof my concerto she very naughtily incorporatedinto her SeventhViolin Concerto.128
Bacewiczdid go on to write a viola concertoin 1968,premiered by StefanKamasa with Witold Rowicki andthe NationalPhilharmonic Orchestra on 20 June 1969.
128MaciejewskL op. ciL, 75.
67 Bacewicz!s strong links with Belgium following her successin the Concours
International de Compositionpour Quatuor6 Cordeswere crucial to the premiereof the seventh concerto. Its first perforinancewas given on 14 January, 1966 in
Brussels. The Belgian violinist Augustin Leon Am was accompaniedby the Belgian
Radio and Television Orchestraconducted by Daniel Sternefeld. The concertowas also highly honoured within the country; it received the Prize of the Belgian
Governmentand the Gold Medal in the QueenElizabeth International Competition in
Brussels. The work was publishedtwo yearsafter its completionby PWM.
At least three recordingshave beenmade of the seventhconcerto. The first is by Piotr Janowski,made at the 1969Warsaw Autumn Festival;the second,by Roman
Lasocki in 1988 with the Polish Radio Orchestra,and the most recent, by violinist
Daniel Stabrawa.with Krzystof Penderecki, as part of the 1999 Gratyna Bacewicz anniversaryconcerts organized by Polish Radio.129
The seriesof violin concertosclearly includes works from all stagesof Bacewiczs career. Some received critical successwhereas others remainedunpublished. An I analysis of these works could therefore help assessthe changingcharacter of her output as a whole.
'29Karol Stryja, co,% Centre of Arts, Katowice; Andrzej Markowski com National Philharmonic Orchestra; Sinfonia Varsovia, Witold Lutoslawski Concerto Studio, Polish Radio, Warsaw, 17 January 1999.
68 PART TWO
The analytical study of the violin concertosis divided into a number of different topics. Musical issuesare dealt with in turn, drawing on relevant passagesin the concertosand where necessary,other works by Bacewicz and her contemporaries.
The study commenceswith a discussionof the most basicmusical elements:mclody and harmony,then moveson to larger-scaleissues: form, texture and orchestration.
The study concludesby looking at specific topics relating to Bacewicz's musical style: firstly her writing for solo violin, then her use of common material or 'self- quotation'.
1: Melodic Writing
Melody is historically a fundamentalaspect of the violin concerto. The genre has evolvedto exploit the lyrical qualitiesof the instrumentand its ability to sustainlong melodic lines. The melodicwriting in Bacewicz'sseries of violin concertos,however, reflects its twentieth-centurycontext. The early works are littered with neo-classical features and figurations, notably scale-wise movement, arpcggiated patterns, sequencesand bariolage,and melodic lines tend to move in a linear fashion, being real or chromaticsequences rather than tonal ones. Although string writing is highly detailed and at first glance rather repetitive,the persistentsemiquavers form larger- scale sequencesarticulated by the slightly different tone colour of certain pitches within bariolagefigurations. Thesecontribute to the textural effect and virtuosity of the line in much the samemanner as in, for example,Vivaldi's string writing. Such
69 neo-classicalfeatures accord with contemporarytrends: scalesare essentialto the
lines Stravinsky'sSymphony in ThreeMovements, for melodic and accompanying of - example,written in the sameyear as Bacewicz'sSecond Concerto (see Ex. 1).
Ex. 1 Stravinsky: Symphony in Three Movements, Mvt. 1, b. 62
Bma Cladnet in Bb
Ba40m
conummuonn
Vlcdmwdlo
DoubleBau if 6
B. Ci.
Cbm
Vht 1
Vin. 11
VIAL
Dvbc».
The middle period works reveal a political influence; BacewicZs melodic language
adoptsa modal characterdue both to the use of direct quotationsfrom existing folk
materialand a subtleassimilation of its essenceinto her own style.
In later concertosthere is considerablyless emphasison melody as lines becomemore fragmentedand textural issuesare given more profile.
70 (a) Stepsvs. Leaps
In direct contrastto the rather predictablestepwise melodic writing of most of the passagework,much larger intervals are often introducedquite abruptly in the early concertos;see for exampleConcerto No. 1, Mvt. 1,b. 115(see Ex. 2). 130
Ex. 2 Conc. 1, Mvt. 1, b. 115 (Solo Violin)
sob VIDTI,
j subito
Vh
The two typesof writing only occasionallyexist within the samemelodic line, seefor examplethe openingthemes of both the first and third movementsof this concerto.
Suchcombinations hint briefly at future developmentsin Bacewicz!s melodic style.
In the fourth and fifth concertosthe two types appearside by side. There are instancesof quite simple writing, particularly in the third movementof the fourth concertowhere the fastertempo demandsrepetitive or sequentialpatterns that can be followed at speed,see for examplethe arpeggiotheme at the opening(Ex. 3). The regular use of larger intervals,however, creates quite angular melodic phrases. The themeat b. 52 in the first movementof the fourth concerto,for example,incorporates a minor sixth, a major sixth and a major seventh(see Ex. 4).
130The musicalanalysis and indeed all the musicalexamples featured in this studyare based on the autographmanuscripts of the violin concertos.This decisionwas taken as discrepanciesexist betweenthe manuscriptsand the pianoreductions and both PWM andsources close to the composer wereunable to confirmthat Bacewiczhad been involved with the productionof the publishedversions.
71 Ex. 3 Conc. 4, Mvt 111,b. I (Reduction)
2-1 rl-- 1
iI-. C--
Ex. 4 Cone. 4, Mvt. 1, b. 52 (Solo Violin)
SOb VIDlin
j energico W--
Much of the stepwisematerial in the secondmovement of this concertois basedon the semitone,see for examplebb. 25 and 63 (seeEx. 5).
The first movementof the fifth concertoagain maintainsa balancebetween thesetwo typesof melodic writing. The openingof the first movement,for example, contrastsa seeminglyrandom combination of wide intervals with a stepwisemusical answer(see Ex. 6). The semitoneremains essential to much of the stepwise,writing, seefor examplebb. 4,54 and 281 in the third movement(Ex. 7).
The sixth and seventhconcertos demonstrate a rather different approach. In contrastto the unpredictablemoves betweenthe two t)Ws of writing of the earlier concertos,these works show a more organisedapproach and often a greaterreliance on patternsand sequences. The techniqueof 'interval filling' associatedwith the works of Bart6k.and, later, Lutoslawski, can be detectedintermittently in the sixth concerto.
72 Ex. 5 Conc. 4, Mvt. H, b. 25
Fitto
Obod
cbrind in %
BOBOM
Ham in P
Tnumd in c
Tfoubm
TW*
Timpad
cymbdds
viou I
vldm If
vicla
Vidoncedo
DoubleBw
29
Ob.
CL ,-E C Tpt,
TbiL
Tba
TUT.
CYOL
VbL
VbLI
VhL11
ML
V06
Db.
73 Ex. 6 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1, b. I (Reduction)
I-ail T%-I. -
Ex. 7 Conc. 5, Mvt. HI, b. 4 (Reduction)
A I-- KI -
'kt 41Ir- v IWI- q4ltv' IR TIP,
Interestingly,the techniquecan also be seen to operateto some extent in some of
Stravinsky's works at this time. Its beginnings, appear, for example, in the Concerto in D (1931) at b. 161, and are then developedin the secondmovement ofAgon (1957) and b. 76 in the secondmovement of the Symphonyin ThreeMovements (1946) (see
Ex. 8,9 and 10). Bacewicz introducesthe techniquefor the first time in the first movement of the sixth concerto. The second subject theme contains a three-bar passage(bb. 30-32) drawing on intervalsfalling within the rangeof a major third (see
Ex. 11). In suchexamples, melody has been given a more structuralobjective.
Interval-filling appearswith even greaterintensity in the seventhconcerto. In the passagebeginning at the end of b. 103 in the secondmovement for example,each note lies within the interval'of a minor third (see Ex. 12). The most common manifestationof this techniquein the final concerto, however, is a closely-spaced three-notecell. In all three movements,such a cell is usedrepetitively to ornament sequences,see Mvt. 1,b. 19,Mvt. Il b. 74 andMvt. 111,b. 22 (Exx 13,14 and 15).
74 Ex. 8 Stravinsky: Agon, Mvt. 11, b. I (Reduced Score)
isý ...... I
Oboe
Bassoon
Violin I
Violin 11
04
Ob.
Ban.
Mm I
Vin. 11
POOd
Ob.
Ban.
Vin. I
Mn. Il
Ex. 9 Stravinsky: Violin Concerto in D, b. 161 (Solo Violin)
SoloViolin
subito nimof dolce ca"L
75 Ex. 10 Stravinsky: Symphony in Three Movements, Mvt. H, b. 76 (Oboes)
dolm espmu.
Ex. 11 Conc. 6, Mvt. 1, b. 28 (Solo Violin)
J-98 Poco meno mosso 28 0 SoloViolin pp dolce
Ex. 12 Conc. 7, Mvt. H, b. 103 (Solo Violin)
SOJOViDfin
-F Pinf rit ...... e pordeitd(W
Ex. 13 Conc. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 19 (Solo Violin)
mollo catuabik 19 m------ý3ý -V SOIO ViDfia
Fifths
Ex. 14 Conc. 7, Mvt. 11,b. 74 (Solo Violin)
SoloWin
76 Ex. 15 Conc. 7, Mvt. M, b. 20 (Solo Violin)
'-' V ri
SOIO ViDba
i f---=--
Although other fragmentsof melodic materialrefer back to more than one movement of previous concertos, the sharing of material and structures to this extent is unparalleled. Moreover, the samepatterns can be identified in other works of this period. The descendingpattern of three-notecells that characterisesthe first sub ect themeof the seventhconcerto's first movementreappears, for example,in three other works composedin the sameyear. The Divertimentofor String Orchestraand String
QuartetNo. 7, both contain direct quotationsof this motif, at almostexactly the same pitch, and at about the same point; bb. 38 and 39 respectively of their third movements(see Ex. 16 and 17), and the Piano Quintet No. 2 includes exactly the samematerial at figure nine in its first movement(see Ex. 18).
Ex. 16 Divertimento for String Orchestra, Mvt. HT, b. 39
Molitil
Violin H
Viola
VIDIMIM]b
i
77 Ex. 17 String Quartet No. 7, Mvt. HL b. 39 (Violin I and Cello)
vl)hrll
Viobricello
F
Ex. 18 Piano Quintet No. 2, Mvt. 1, Fig. 9
R
VX)rm H
ViDbnr,cBo
pim
Linda D. Dickson identifies a number of vanations on this basic pattern presentin works dating from 1958,some including an openstring and somecombining different
131 registers.
(b) Characteristic Intervals
The melodic lines of the third and fourth concertosfeature, quite noticeably,a far greaternumber of perfect fourths and fifths. The intervals are incorporated,often quite prominently,into the main themesof theseconcertos and are then assimilated
131Dickson, op. cit., 63. Dicksondiscusses the useof this motif at lengtIL
78 into the passagework.In the first movementof the third concerto,for example,the
secondsubject theme opens with a descendingperfect fourth, emphasisedslightly by
132 the lengthening of the lower note (Ex. 19).
Ex. 19 Cone. 3, Mvt. 1, b. 46 (Reduction)
SOiD VK)%
VbL
In addition to a numberof repetitionsof the whole themein both solo and tutti lines,
the descendingperfect fourth appearsin other contexts,see for exampleb. 278 (Ex.
20).
Ex. 20 Cone. 3, Mvt. 1, b. 278 (Solo Violin)
27R
sob VIA,
132 Note that the figure numbers on the autograph manuscript of this concerto movement are consistently one bar later than they should be.
79 Perfectfourths and fifths are prominentin the melodic lines of all works written by
Bacewiczduring the late forties and early fifties. The themeintroduced at b. 35 in the
Concertofor String Orchestra'sfirst movement,for example,opens and closeswith a perfectfourth (seeEx. 21).133
Ex. 21 Concerto for String Orchestra, Mvt. 1, b. 35
vistesso tml" enerrico v ViDla
f eneqico v Vvbtir.elb
f energipo v DoubleBass
Subsequentpassagework draws frequently on the interval, seebb. 73-80.
The secondpiano sonata,written in a few yearslater in 1953,opens with a seriesof ascendingfourths: A, D, G. The seriescan be extendedeven further if the following notes(C, F, Bb, Eb and Ab) are rearranged(see Ex. 22).
Ex. 22 Piano Sonata No. 2, Mvt. 1, b. 1
Pi
ChainofFourft
The Concertofor StringOrchestra was written a yearlater thanthe third violin concerto (1949).
80 Althoughthe patternis not immediatelyapparent, it certainlycolours the melodic line, and could be considereda rather sophisticateddevelopment of previous melodic writing.
The timing of the appearanceof perfectfourths and fifths in such numbersis perhapsnot surprising consideringtheir associationwith Polish folk music. The cultural policy encouragingcomposers to seek inspiration from folk music was announcedin the year that the third concertowas composed. A similar interest in
Polish folk music could also explain the high numbersof perfect fourths and fifths in manyof Szymanowski'sworks and accountin part for '[T]he Szymanowskian.hue of the [Bacewiczs] Third Violin Concerto'.134
In the later concertos,melodic lines are often structuredaround specific intervals;the range of intervals chosen expandsas the series progresses. The fourth and fifth concertos,for example,demonstrate a clear relianceon the interval of a minor second
(semitone) leading to the abundantuse of chromatic scales. Furthermore,in the secondmovement of the fifth concerto,a diminishedninth, introducedat b. 7, can be identified at a numberof points in the movementand could evenbe consideredto play a quasi-thematic role (see Ex. 23).
Ex. 23 Conc. 5, MvL H, b. 7 (Flute)
dim 9th
got Flute
p
134'nomas, Gm4)m Bacewicz.- Ownber and OtchestmlMusic op. ciL, 3 1.
81 This interval hasalready been established as significantin the first movementwhere it appearsprominently at the beginningof the secondsubject (see Ex 24).
Ex. 24 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1, b. 87 (Solo Violin)
I ------
Fk"
Cbrind in 5
RIM in F
rffnpaui
sow vuhn
volin I
vwku
vW18
Vwkx"lo
The third movementof this concerto,in contrast,relies heavily on major,and minor thirds, seebb. 75 and 124(see Ex. 25).
Ex. 25 Conc. 5, Mvt. III, b. 75 (Solo Violin)
hkgor TWfds r--q 75 A Solo Violin 3ga: -m #,P- Or P. r: I-I -F .I II L-JL-j L-TýL-j -i WnorThirds
(c) Modality
The abundanceof perfect fourths and fifths in the melodic writing of the third and fourth concertosseems to reveal at leastto someextent the influence of Polish folk
82 music. Theseworks were certainlyaccepted by the Stateat a time when the presence of folk music was encouraged,indicating that they were deemedto fulfil this criterion.
This folk characterstems not only from the intervallic structureof the melodic line, but also from its senseof modality. Bacewiczoften introducesaccidentals that hint at the presenceof a modewhilst neverquite losing sight of the host major or minor key.
The first themeof the third concertois one suchexample (see Ex. 26).
Ex. 26 Conc. 3, Mvt. 1, b. 1 (Woodwind and Strings)
Allegro mol to moderato
Woodwind
Strings
Ww.
Str.
-i
Accordingto Bacewicz'sbiographer, Malgorzata. Gqsiorowska., the themeis basedon 135 a well-known Polish folk tune from the Zakopaneregion. Its simple monophonic melody seemsto move to G minor for its secondphrase, yet featuresaB natural, underminingthe minor key and lending the phrase a modal flavour. The effect, althoughsubtle, combines with other characteristicsto suggesta folk influence. The melody,for example,also drawsheavily on a two quaver,crotchet figure, a traditional
Polish dancerhythm. 136 In addition, the theme's 'question and answer' form is the essenceof Polish dance song, a type of short song which encouragesdialogue
133Conversation with Malgorzata, Gqýiorow" May 2000. 136Anna Czekanowska, Po&h Folk Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 19901 131.
83 betweendifferent groupsor individuals whilst accompanyingdance activitieS. 137 The form is, of course,similar in shapeto the bi-partite thematic structuresfavoured by
Bacewicz(see Form), but could perhapsbe consideredmore of a continuationof a singlemelodic line than the more abrupttwo-part constructions seen in manycases.
These concertos contain few direct quotations of folk material. Instead,
Bacewiczworks subtly, and indeedquite cleverly,characteristics of Polish folk music into her own melodic style. The overall effect is a discreet,yet somehowdiscernible, folk influence.
137 ibid p. 130.
84 2: Harmony and Tonality
Bacewicz'svery distinctive harmoniclanguage developed very gradually throughout
the courseof her career,in parallel with, thoughnot necessarilyfollowing, that of her
contemporaries. Her early works are entirely typical of the neo-classical style of the
early twentieth century,although greater experimentation can be seenin the works of
the 1950sand 60s. Bacewicz'sreduced perfonning scheduleallowed her to devote
more time to composition;according to Wandashe spent hours searchingfor unusual
harmonic combinations. She was also able to maintain contact with Western
Europeandevelopments due to invitations to serveupon the juries of International
Violin Competitions,providing an important link to the West for Polish composers
138As JadwigaPaja-Stach '[Bacewicz] introducedFrench unableto travel. states, ... neo-classicalstyle into Polish musical life both before and after the SecondWorld
War.' 139*1 suggestthat this link continuedwell into the 1950s. Some features,
however,remain throughout the seriesand could be consideredhallmarks of her style.
(a) Vertical Intervals of the Fourth and Fifth
Fourth and fifth dyads, symbolizing fundamental aspects of harmony, are
understandablycommon in neo-classicalworks. Puldnella by Stravinsky,Symphony
No. I for Large Orchestraby Aaron Copland (1931); Symphonyfor Orchestraby 0 Honegger(1930) and SymphonyNo. 1 (1942) by Elliott Carter all elevatethe sound
of the' fourth and fifth dyad. Such sounds also appear throughout works by
138Disclosed to the authorduring an interviewwith WandaBacewicz (Warsaw,June 2001). 139Ed. Zbigniew Skowron, LutoslawskiStudies (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2001). 270.
85 Szymanowski,see for example the third movementof his Stabat Maier, Op. 53
(1925-26). The intervals are as fundamentalto his musical languageas they are to
Bacewicz'sand of coursetheir usedates back far further: a clear examplecan be seen in the Tarantella,Op. 28 for violin and piano, written in only 1915. Szymanowski's useof the fourth and fifth dyad could be attributedin part to his interestin Polish folk music. He made detailed studiesof Polish folk songs,using them to generatenew types of harmonic and rhythmic proceduresin an attempt to distill some timeless extractof the Slay spirit 140At the sametime, his harmoniclanguage was not entirely unconnectedto developmentsin Paris. He followed new developmentsin French music closely, even writing articles on Stravinsky, Satie and Les Six in the early ", twenties and openly acknowledgedtheir influence upon his own style. it is not surprising, consideringthe prevalenceof these intervals both in her contemporary classicalsoundworld of the 1920sand her native folk music, that Bacewicz should haveincorporated them into her own utterance.
The presenceof perfect fourths or fifths either within discrete chords, or betweentwo or more parallel lines characterizesthe harmoniesof Bacewicz'shighly contrapuntalfirst and secondconcertos. At b. 87 in the third movementof the second concerto,for example,the solo violin's double-stoppingincludes a combinationof perfect fourths and fifths (see Ex. 27). Thesedyads naturally occur throughoutthe concertos,but their useseems to diminish slightly in the fourth concerto,then declines quite considerablyin later works.
140Jim Samson, MeMusic ofSzynuviowski (Norfolk: Kahn and Averill, 1980), 156,158. 141ibid, 84.
86 Ex. 27 Conc. 2, Mvt. 1114b. 87 (Solo Violin)
87
Sob VjDfm
5dis 5d, Sdis 4di 4di 4di
Fourthsand fifths are of courseimportant to manyof Bacewicz'sother works too, see for examplethe compositeof perfect fourths at b. 41 of the third movementof Piano
SonataNo. 2 (Ex. 28).
Ex. 28 Piano Sonata No. 2, MvL HI, b. 41
11
lek Piano
11- #ip -# "tl
The late works dating forward from about 1960 seemgenerally to exhibit fewer of thesecharacteristic intervals, in tandemwith their gradualabandonment of traditional tonalstructures.
Interestingly, the augmented fourth or tritone is not a regular feature in BacewicZs violin concertosdespite its appearancein works by Szymanowskidating from as early as 1909,see Mvt. 11,b. 92 of his SymphonyNo. 2 (1909-10)(Ex. 29).
87 Ex. 29 Szymanowski:Symphony No. 2, Mvt- 11,b. 91
dw
Viobn 11 div
viols
DoubWSon
Jim Samsonmakes this connection:
The special importance of the tritonc in confirming the non- hierarchical characterof the whole-tone scale is clear enough and Szymanowskigives increasingprominence to it, both melodically and I. harmonicallyin the works of this period. 42
It is interesting,though, that an increasein Bacewicz's use of the interval can be detectedin the folk-inspired Violin ConcertoNo. 3, the work that most draws on the two composers'common roots.
(b) Dissonance
Bacewicz usually introducesnew featuresinto her musical-language gradually over the courseof a few works. The move from the folk-inspired third concerto(1948) to
142 ibid, 84.
88 the fourth (1951), however,represents a suddenand quite dramatic changein style, fully reflecting contempomrytrends.
In the middle concertos Bacewicz becomes increasingly occupied with harmonic colour, adding notes from outsideof the triad, creating dissonance. This tendencyemerges to someextent in the third concerto. Here, tensionsare createdby the addition of adjacenttones or semitones;see for examplethe addition of aB to the
C major chord at the end of the openingphrase and the combinationof pitchesat b. 13 in the third movement(see Exx 30 and 31).
Ex. 30 Cone. 3, Mvt. 1, b. 12 (ReducedScore)
12 AII Brass 16 =& ILI
Strings
Ex. 31 Conc. 3, Mvt. U14b. 13 (ReducedScore)
Woodwird
Homs
Thmpets
Tubs& Timp.,
Striv
Similar examplescan be seenin throughoutthe threemovements, see for instancethe additionsto the F# major chord in b. 13 of the Vivo.
89 From the outset of the fourth concerto,however, the harmonic writing is distinctly more complex. Despitereferences to the tonic (G) in the openingbars, the key centre is, for the first time, difficult to determine.Dissonance is createdat crucial points by the combinationof a numberof pitch classesin a singlechord, often forming clusters, seefor exampleMvt. L b. 84 (Ex. 32).
Ex. 32 Conc. 4, MvL 1, b. 84 (Reductioý)
wýM picb chms :ge ti , Uf - 1.ffl.
In fact, Bacewiczseems to make a featureof harmonycombining consecutivetones and/orsemitones, see for exampleb. 155(Ex. 33).
Ex. 33 Cone. 4, MvL 1, b. 155 (Reduction)
155
Hom in F
ViDbn 11
concertpitch
In particular,the regularappearance of perfect fourths, augmentedfourths and perfect
90 fifths in the harmoniesof the middle concertosoften leadsto the formation of two or three-notesernitone clusters.
The useof clustersincreases substantially in the fifth concerto. They regularly contain eight or nine pitch classes,usually spreadacross several octaves, see for exampleb. 116in the secondmovement (Ex. 34).
Ex. 34 Cone. 5, Mvt. H, b. 115 (Reduction)
In the sixth concerto,however, the level of dissonanceis reduced,opposing the trend, and offering chordscomposed mostly of only four to six pitch classes.The densestchord occurs on the fourth beat of b. 100 in the third movementincluding eight pitch-classes:C, C#, D, D#, E, F, A, B. It is important to keep in mind, however,that this concertowas not offeredfor publicationby Bacewiczso shouldnot carry the samelevel of significanceas other works. Outside of the seriesof violin concertosthe trend continues. String QuartetNo. 5, publishedjust one year later, for example,regularly combinesseven or eight pitch classeswithin one chord; seeMvL
IV, b. 18, which, allowing for the limitations of the instrumentation,fits the overall trend perfectly(see Ex. 35).
The level of dissonanceincreases again in the seventhconcerto due to a more intensedeployment of chromaticcombinations, particularly in tutti sections.
91 Ex. 35 String Quartet No. 5, Mvt. IV, b. 18
violin I
Violin H
Viols
Violoncello
Harmonies utilising nine or ten different pitch-classes are now commonplace and 11, occasional;see Mvt. L b. 69 and Mvt. IIL b. III respectively(Exx 36 & 37).
Dissonanceis also createdhomophonicaHy through the combination of lines often separatedby only a tone or sernitone. At b. 55, Mvt. 1, for example,three parallel lines, eacha semitoneapatt are combined(see Ex. 38).
(c) Bitonality
Bitonality featuresheavily in the writing of many mid-twentiethcentury composers; its use, for example,can be detectedin much of Lutoslawski's catalogueof works.
The techniquewas developedmost extensivelyin the early part of the century by
Stravinsky;several passages in TheRite ofVpring, for example,can be separatedinto two distinct tonal areas(see Ex. 39). The fifth concertocontains some of Bacewicz's earliest examplesof bitonality; see for example Mvt. III, b. 104 (Ex. 40). Such passagesthen appearregularly in the sixth and seventhconcertos, and other later works suchas the SecondPiano Sonata(1953) (see Ex 4 1).
92 Ex. 36 Cone. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 69
Me
Oboe
Ckwiwt hBý
Bassoon
Ilarp I
lum H
Cebsta
ýhsws SOID ViDfin
Violin I
ViDlin H
DoubleBass
(d) Characteristic Features in Bacewicz's use of Tonality
Although Bacewicz'shannonic languageundergoes a continuingevolution, a nwnber of characteristicsremain constant,providing the basis of a personalstyle. One such common feature of the first six concertos,i. e. those remaining within a tonal framework, is the oscillation betweena major and minor chord. Examplesoccur throughoutthe first, secondand fourth concertosin particular(see Ex. 42).
93 Ex. 37 Cone. 7, Mvt. Hl, b. 111
B&sgoon
lkwn in F
HwpI
11UP]I
/E4 9 Celesta
SOID VIDEM
ViDlir, I
Violoncello
DoubleBass
Mf
Ex. 38 Conc. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 55 (Reduction)
n
violin I
violin 11
Viola
94 Ex. 39 Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, Fig. 13
r. "; j J-50 -LWTempogulsto !- (Tn kv. ) A ----- Violin 11 ft , X a i0 OWN womw 1= amo(non div. ) IRnm mmmm Viola amo(nm div.) mmmm mmmm r-I Violoncello am (" div.)
DoubleBass
Ex. 40 Conc. 5, Mvt. IH, b. 104 (Reduction)
solo MAß
Ex. 41 Piano Sonata No. 2, Mvt. 1, b. 120
120 Andante =
Piano pp, tli: ý. ý
Ex. 42 Conc. 2, MvL Ifl, b. 208
A najor A ninor 208
Sob MoEn
95 The third movementof the secondconcerto and the first movementof the fourth concertoeven incorporatea move from the major to the minor within the repetitionof their opening themes (see Exx. 43 and 44). This technique is prevalent in Bacewicz's catalogue,and indeedthe works of other neoclassicists.
Another interestingfeature of many of the concertomovements is the choice of tonic. The main key centre, often that of the first subject theme, regularly correspondsto an openstring. Of the fifteen concertomovements with a clear feeling of a tonic key, sevenare basedin A major or minor, two in D major or minor, two in
E major or minor and two in G (see Fig. 1). This is not a trend reflected by other works in Bacewiez'scatalogue, thus implying that the choice relatesto the medium.
The use of such a key centre,holds a number of benefitsfor string writing. Firstly there lies a greateropportunity for the use of open strings and harmonics,both of which are drawn upon heavily and will be discussedlater (see Wrifingfor Strings).
Secondly,the resonancesformed by the useof notescorresponding to openstrings are clearly advantageous to a soloist attempting to project a line above a symphony orchestra. It also allows a natural emphasisto be placed upon both the tonic and dominant.
I
96 Ex. 43 Conc. 2, Mvt. H4 b. I
ViD&l
Vkftu
' 'A. b Bi l l
pl. VbbwAb
IT-1 .7E Do*bbo. 0f
CL
am
Ha
70
Vbl
Vb,LB
vi.
Du
97 Ex. 44 Cone. 4, Mvt. 1, b. I (ReducedScore)
j Mitgro nom troppe A Woodwind Jeýý -- nr iv
Bmss . -z- i w ,mf.
cyrmw zui-
ww.
Dr.
C>-
Str.
Fig. 1 Tonic Keys
Concerto Movement Tonic
No. I I A major 11 F minor III A major No. 2 1 A major H A minor III D major No. 3 1 Bb major II E minor III A major No. 4 1 Gmajor
11 D minor III G major No. 5 1 E/B major 11 Unclear III Unclear
98 No. 6 1 A major 11 Unclear III A minor No. 7 1 Unclear if Unclear III Unclear
(e) Use of Keys
Strangelyperhaps, in contrastto its influence on thematic construction,sonata form has only an intermittent influence on Bacewicz's tonal schemes. Even the first concertodisplays an immediatedisregard for convention. The tonic (A) is established in the openingfew barsof themeA; however,its authorityis immediatelyundermined by a Bb major scaleat the sulponticello andthe feeling of C major two barslater (see
Ex. 45). The tonic is weakened further in the following bars by the repetition of the openingbars in the key of Bb major. The lack of assertionof the tonic at the opening of the movement effectively frees the remainder from any tonal constraints. A flexible approach to tonality is immediately apparent: the key centre changes continually, sometimeson a bar by bar basis. The passageat b. 18, for example, appearsto passthrough C major, B major, Bb major, Eb major, and Eb minor before reaching E major at b. 24 (see Ex. 46).
99 Ex. 45 Conc. 1, Mvt. 1, b. I I
Fird Stdcnimt r Allegro I=p-F99. jig 9V 61;. p=mF! . SOIDViDin Pq 1' ------or - IP W-P 'Allegro LJ L-J LJ LJ pp AI
POld 06
vim ý
0
Vkl
Ex. 46 Cone. 1, Mvt. 1, b. 18 (ReducedScore)
ViDin j% -111iij Solo ýj 111 w ff
VS)IR
Bb asim Eb xa*vr/mixt r- --I " .1--I
VkL ID w-
Interestinglythe secondsubject at b. 65 is not introducedin the key of the dominant,but in the key of the flatted supertonic,referring back to the opening, One of the only concessionsto the classical tradition is the recapitulation of the first subject theme in the tonic key, although this tends to happen less as the series progresses(see Fig. 2).
100 Fig. 2 Key of Recapitulation of Theme A
Concerto Movement Key of Recap.of ThemeA
No. I I Tonic III Ofllcr No. 2 1 No recap III Tonic No. 3 1 No recap III Tonic No. 4 1 other III Odler No. 5 1 Tonic III Othcr No. 6 1 Odiff III Othcr No. 7 1 Offier III 01her
As the seriesprogresses, key centresbecome increasingly unstable. The tonic is often obscuredby the use of chromaticnotes and diminished seventhchords (see
Ex. 47).
Ex. 47 Cone. 4, Mvt. 1, b. 12 (Reduction)
w ...... I
din 7th
By the seventhconcerto a key centre is always difficult to pinpoint; tonality playsalmost no part in structuringthe woflL Vertical sonoritiesare usedfor colouring
101 the melodic line rather than ordering it This lack of structuraltonal organizationis replacedby a greateremphasis on individual intervalsand pitch combinations.
102 3: Form
Bacewiczrarely spokeabout the detailsof her scoresor her musical intentions. It is
significant, therefore,that she openly discussedher use of forin in correspondence betweenherself and her brother Vytautasdating from the 1940s. it startedwith the
following statement:
In my compositions, I mostly pay attention to the form. If you are building something, you will not pile stones randomly on each other. It's the same as a musical work. The principles of construction donl have to be old fashioned.143
On the sametopic a few dayslater shewrote:
I walk quite alone, because I mainly care about the form in my compositions. It is becauseI believethat if you place things randomly or throw rocks on a pile, that pile will alwayscollapse. So in music there must be rules of constructionthat will allow the work to standon its feet. Naturally, the laws need not be old - God forbid. The music may be simpler or more constructed it's unimportant, it depends on the - 144 languageof a particularcomposer - but it must be well constructed.
A concern for form and structurecan be seenthroughout the seriesof sevenviolin concertos. A common approachto this aspect of her writing createsa senseof cohesionboth within and betweenworks and is responsiblefor shapingmany other aspectsof her writing. Changesalso can be detectedin her use of form. Early concertosdemonstrate a strong reliance on classical structureswhereas later works experimentwith a largevariety of patternsand forms.
143Maria Anna Harley, 'Gratyna Bacewiczin Her Own Words', www.usc. edu /dcpt/ polish musictcomposer/bacewicz. htmL II April 2000, accessed2000. VytautasBaceviaius, I March 1947.- 144ibid VytautasBaceviaius, 21 March 1947.
103 (a) Overall Formal Structure of the Concertos
A brief glanceat the titles of Bacewicz'slisted works (seethe Appendix) revealsthe extent of the composer'sadherence to establishedclassical or folk forms and genres.
Her adoption of the concertogenre, in particular, remainsremarkably faithful to the classicalmodel: eachconcerto is presentedin three movementsand fits perfectly the fast-slow-fastmodel traditionally associatedwith concertowriting. This is not always the case within other of Bacewicz's standard-fonnworks; the chamberworks, for example,demonstrate a more varied approach. Of the sevenstring quartets(1939-
1965), a series that quite naturally invites comparison with the violin concertos, nos.
1,2,3,4 and 7 are written in just threemovements, whereas nos. 5 and 6 are written in the more typical four. Similarly, the two piano quintcts are written in four and three movementsrespectively. It is, of course, not unusual at this time to find chamberworks written in any number of movements;however, any departurefrom the standardmodel in theseworks heightensthe significanceof Baccwic;es strong adherenceto the norm within the violin concertos.
The overall shapeof Bacewicz's concerto movementsremains remarkably similar despitethe useof a numberof different, establishedforms. They all follow a roughly symmetrical design. The two outer movements are in most casessonata-form movements,the only exception being the third movementof the secondconcerto, marked'Vivd. Ilis movementappears to be relatedto theme-and-variationform, yet the overall structureis comparableto a sonataform movement. The openingtheme and the first variation are in position and characterentirely typical of the main themes of Bacewicz'ssonata form movementsand return in the secondhalf of the movement in the mannerof a recapitulation.
104 Despitethese striking structuralsimilarities, each concerto manages to maintain an individual approachdue to the fitfulness of Bacewicz's adherenceto various conventions,which indicatesnot so much an inexperiencedcomposer tr)ing to come to terms with a complex large-scale structure but a young woman composer attemptingto asserther uniquemusical personalityupon a tried and trusted classical model. The first concerto(1937), for example,is one of Bacewiczs earliestexercises in sonataform, yet even at this stageher manipulation of it is highly pcrsonal; a numberof subversivefeatures are introducedthat continueto be seenin later works.
The conventionsin concertowriting againstwhich theseworks are being tested, were establishedby composerssuch as Mozart and Haydn in the eighteenthcentury.
Typically, concertoswould open with an introductory section played by the tutti instrumentsleading into the first statementof theme A, usually coinciding with the appearanceof the solo instrument. it would then be expected that the entire expositionsection be repeated.The soloist is fully involved in the thematicactivity of the developmentsection, before presentingan improvised cadenzaon route to or during the recapitulation.
A typical sonataform first movementof a Bacewicz concertoopens with an immediate statementof the first theme; the classical tutti introduction is usually absent. This omission,first remarkablein Beethoven'sFourth Piano Concerto,is of course common to violin concertoswritten during the first half of the twentieth century, see,for example,those by Bart6k, Shostakovich,Barber and Khachaturian.
In Bacewicz'sseries, opening tuttis occur only in the first movementof the second concerto,the third movementof the third concertoand the first and third movements of the seventhconcerto.
105 In the first three concertos the first subject theme is presentedwithout exception by the solo instrument. A gradual relaxation of t1fis regimen can be detectedlater in the series, although the material continues to be presentedby a stringedinstrument
A repeatof the expositionhas all but disappearedfrom classicalsonata form in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. This has converteda structureoriginally in binary form, with repeats of both the exposition and the development and recapitulationsections, into one essentiallyin ternaryfonn. The contrastbetween the more stable outer sections and a less predictable developmentsection, is eagerly embracedby Bacewicz given her distinct preferencefor symmetrical patterns and structures,and indeed,tripartite form.
The cadenzacan either contributeto a stable structure,or destabilizeit, and
Bacewicz's inclusion of cadenzasin the closing stagesof the concertomovements is fitful. Extensive,fully-notated cadenzasare included in the first movementsof most of the concertos;in third movementsthey are rare, and only one of theseis of any length (in the sixth concerto). A few movementsfeature a far shorterunaccompanied bridge passagebetween the developmentand recapitulationsections; see for example the first movementof the sixth concertoand the third movementof the third, fourth and seventhconcertos.
The form of second movements is generally less predictable. Symmetry, however, remainsa preoccupation,with the central movementfunctioning as an axis around which the rest of the concertois arranged.The vast majority of the slow movements
106 consideredhere unify throughtheir formal imitation of the outer movements:most are presentedin ternaryform; evenmore canbe divided into threeroughly equalparts.
Significantly, experimental writing proliferates in the central sections of concerto movemefits. Here, the exploration of thematic and motivic material is frequently accompanied,often quite abruptly, by changesin other aspectsof the writing. As a result thesesections often displaya more individual approachand here it is possibleto identify the early signsof Bacewicz'smature style.
The first concerto!s centralAndante is one such example;the overall form of the movement is reasonablysymmetrical and bears a strong resemblanceto the precedingmovement. The first themeis combinedjust two bars after its presentation with a contrapuntalsecond theme (see Ex. 48).
Ex. 48 Conc. 1, Mvt. H, b. 1
AWWft (-Wto I, ) 4
fka-I
l i Aadode (WAtt* SgprO@d-) p A 973=A h-: "ViDhk :W g -= -- II
I pw-
W" bw
107 V
The first theme is soon establishedas the submissivepartner, appearing only in part or by rhythmical implication during this openingsection. A completechange in mood and material accompaniesa move at b. 47 to a centralRubato, its character and strategicposition recalling a developmentsection (see Ex. 49).
Ex. 49 Conc. 1, Mvt. H, b. 47
Bw
CYI
sob I
v
vs
MAN
Doth6
I -"- p
108 The writing is intensely colourful, employing a far greater variety of orchestraltimbres and instrumentaleffects. Time signaturechanges, for example,are common, alternating between 2/4,3/4,4/4 and 514 five times in the space of eight bars. Dynamic changesare abrupt; a large emphasisis placed on the secondbeat of eachbar followed by a rapid diminuendo,and the flutes punctuatethis effect with an ornamentplaced just before the beat. Triplet quavers,a prominent featureof theme
B, play a key role in the developmentalsolo line. The recapitulationis marked by a return to cantabilewriting, followed quickly by a completerepetition of the opening theme. Notably, this themeis now combinedwith a seriesof harmonicsin the solo line, drawing togetheraspects of both sectionsof the movementand demonstrating the progressof the musicalmaterial (see Ex. 50).
Ex. 50 Conc. 1, Mvt. H, b. 59
Fkta
Oboe
Cbfkmt in a
Bonoon
Hom in F
HMP
V'JDfiO
ViDlOnDellO
DDuble Bass
I
109 The opening theme, although relatively insignificant to the development of the movement,is still usedto provide closure.
Similarly structuredmovements appear in the third, fifth and sixth concertos.
The remainderseem to recall other establishedformal types, yet adhereto tripartite structures. Elementsof rondo form can be seenin the slow movementof the second concerto. The movementfollows the basicplan, AD ABB C AB C& where the lettersA and B representthe two halvesof the openingtheme (see Ex. 5 1).
Ex. 51 Conc. 2, Mvt. H, b. 7 (Solo Violin)
Solo Violin
14 LO-A- Mn.
Mn.
As before, the movementcan be split into three well-balancedsections, with strong connectionsbetween the first and third sectionsand a contrastingcentral section(see
Fig 3).
Fig. 3 Rondo Form: Conc. 2, Mvt. H
AB ABB 1 AB CA
110 The form of the fourth concerto's middle movementbears referenceto theme and variation form, but with thematicmaterial in the openingand closing sectionsframing a centralsection of highly imaginativethematic development.
The centralmovement of the seventhconcerto, Largo, is the first in the series to employ arch form. The openingsection introduces three main themesat bb. 3,34 and 54, followed by a central sectionwith little thematicactivity. The third and final sectionreflects the first with the three themesreappearing in reverseorder at bb. 103,
109and 116.
The only feature of these central movementswhich might be consideredto upset the structural apple-cart is the cadenza. A lengthy cadenza precedesthe recapitulationin the slow movementof the sixth concerto,and short unaccompanied passagesappear in thoseof the fourth and seventhconcertos. The cadenzais perhaps the only structural feature that does not support the general trend for balanced, symmetrical central movements.
(b) Structure and Character of Main Themes
Bacewicz'sstrong allegiance to controlledstructures is carriedthrough into the layout of the themes themselves. A standardizedmethod of thematic presentation,for example,clearly helps identify her compositionalstyle (seeBi-parlite Structureofthe
Main Theme).Her useof this thematicmaterial, however, is lessorganised and tends to vary from concertoto concerto.
III (i) Use of Themes
Despitetaking a fairly regimentedapproach to the constructionof theinatic material, the use of this materialvaries from movementto movement. There is only a gradual increasethen decreasein the numberof direct repetitionsof thematicmaterial driven by generalchanges in Bacewiczs melodic writing (seeNeo-Classical Influences on
Concerto Yhemesand Rhythm).
(ii) Bi-partite Structure of the Main Theme
A large number of Bacewicz's main themesare organisedaccording to a standard model. The material is organisedin two parts, each with further subdivisions. The openingof the fifth concerto'sslow movement,for example,can first be split into two parts, A, B, each of which contains two contrastinghalves, W, X and Y, Z. A balancedfour-part structure is thus created(see Fig. 4, alsoEx. 52).
Fig. 4 Structure of Opening Tutti: Conc. 5, Mvt. 11
A B t\ /\ wx YZ bb. 14 5-7 7-11 11-14
At the lowest level of subdivision,the two pairs of phrasesshow similarities, i. c. Y reflects W and Z reflectsX. The secondpair may repeatthe melodic material of the first, but will sometimesjust draw on other featuresassociated with its presentation.
In the above example this is the case: the changein dynamic accompanyingthe movement'sopening theme returns rather than specific melodicmaterial.
112 Ex. 52 Cone. 5, Mvt. 11,b. I (Reduction)
Andante J- 63 r-Q-k
04
The model, althoughquite standard,is remarkableonly for its regularity of use: it can be seen to operateat some level in the first subject themesof no fewer than ten
145 concertomovements.
(iii) Immediate Repetition of Themes
Bacewicz's thematic material is commonly followed by an immediate repetition, creating a higher order two-part division. The themes of the first concerto's first movement provide early examples. At the opening, the statement of the first subject is followed by an immediate repetition of the entire phrase (see Ex- 45). In this examplethe repetition appearsin the key of the flattenedsupertonic; however, most other details remain the same. This use of immediate repetition informs the presentationof no fewer than 19 main themesin the seriesof concertosand appears regularly in her other works.146 In some,direct repetitionsare offered, whilst others
145Conc. 1, Mvt. 1; Conc.2, Mvt. 111;Cone. 3, Mvt. s I and11; Conc. 4, Mvt. s I and111; Conc. 5, Mvt. s I andII; Conc.6, Mvt. s 11and III. 146This model can be seento operate,for example,within the first subjectthemes of Trio for Oboe,Violin and Cello, Mvt. 111(1935); Violin SonataNo. 3, Mvt. s 1,111& IV (1947/8); Sonatada Camera,Mvt. s 1,111&V (1945); Concertofor String Orchestra,Mvt. s I& 111(1948); Violin Sonata
113 developthe material within the broad shapeof the repetitive structure. A persistent featurehowever is that the repetitionat least beginswith an exact melodic repetition of the original phrase.
While such repetition continuesto appearin later concertos,more unusual designsalso emerge. In the secondmovement of the fifth concerto,for example,the openingtutti introducesthematic material later shown to be part of the first subject theme,as well as other discretemelodic materialto be heardlater in the movement,as in the flute melodyat bb. 7,50 and 98.
(iv) The Balanced Design of Themes
The composer'sconcern for symmetrygoverns the formation of thematicmaterial as well as larger-scalc structure. The melodic contour of Bacewicz's thematic constructionsis often symmetrical;see for examplethe opening theme of the third movementof the sixth concerto(see Ex. 53). 147
Ex. 53 Conc. 6, Myt. IH, b. I (Reduction)
Gloco» j- 100
P -: M- n :0- 9N OF 1,9
: :: ý FE OFE . eiNýA We .Z MEIJý- ý--. --o> C.89 V..
A vastnumbcr of thcmeswithin Baccwicz'sothcr works supportthis trcnd.
No. 4, Mvts. L III & IV (1949); Violin SonataNo. 5, Mvts. I& 11(195 1); Piano SonataNo. 2, Mvt. 1 (1953); SymphonyNo. 3, MvL I& 111(1952); String QuartetNo. 5, Mvt 111(1955) andDivertimento for String Orchestra,Mvt. I& 11(1965), and the secondsubject of Violin SonataNo. 3, Mvt. III (1947/8)'147 ConC.1, Mvt. II, b. 3; Conc.2, MvL H, b. 7; Conc.2, Mvt. III, b. 1; Conc.3, Mvt. II, b. 2; Conc.4, Mvt. HL b. 1; Conc.6, Mvt. III, b. 1; Conc.7. Mvt. III, b. 5.
114 (v) The Characterization of Themes
In true classicalstyle, first subjectthemes in the early concertostypically start with material featuring a number of the following: a loud dynamic, a moderate-to-fast tempo- dotted 'military' rhythms, accents,detached or staccato articulations and 148 shortenednote values. The openingtheme of the fourth concerto'sfirst movement
Allegro, for example, is marked energico,with a fortissimo dynamic and a dotted quaver,serniquaver rhythm (seeEx. 44). The secondsubject theme, in contrast,often features a quiet dynamic, a reduction in tempo, legato phrasing, ties, and a lengthening of note values.149 The theme at b. 46 of the third concerto's first movement,for example,is markedpiano, with slurring and a numberof ties (seeEx.
19f. The ties function as a meansof shiffing the emphasisfrom the first beat of the bar, a strongbeat, to the following quaver,a weakbeat.
The usualcharacteristics of the main themesin sonataform movementsin turn filter into the main themesof non-sonataform movements. As would be expected, the central movementsalways open with a theme stylistically similar to the second subject theme of a sonataform movement,providing the greatestcontrast with the first subjectmaterial at the end of the precedingmovement and start of the next. Ile first themeof the secondmovement of the secondconcerto, for example,combines a piano marking with slurred articulationand a weak-beatentry. In this casea quaver rest is usedat the beginningof the bar to delaythe entry (seeEx. 42).
The main themes of non-sonataform outer movementsalso share these characteristics,see for examplethe secondconcerto's Vivo. Only the openingtheme
149 The descriptionsince the mid-19thcentury of suchcharacteristics as'masculine will be discussedlater. 149 In parallelwith the characteristicsdescribed above as 'masculine'these are commonly referredto as'feminine'.
115 of the sixth concertoand the first and secondsubjects of the outer movementsof the seventhconcerto depart from thesestereotypes, intimating a slight changein approach towardsthe end of the series.
In most of the concertos,the two main themesact as roughly equal partners; only four movementsbreak this trend: Conc. 1, Mvts. I and 11;Conc. 2, Mvt. L and
Conc. 3, Mvt. 1. Amongst these, a large proportion of the first three works, the phenomenonis generally due to a dominant first subject theme whose material accordswith the solo-ledneo-classical passagework of theseearly concertos. As the series progressesand the themes become less characteristic, their power and significanceinevitably shrinks.
Consideringthe lack of a thematic hierarchy in the passageworkof a large numberof the concertomovements, it is perhapssurprising that the first subjecttheme is usedin the vast majority of theseas a meansof providing closureat the end of the recapitulation. In the first five concertos,theme A is usedin this role a total of eleven times and themeB twice.150 Most occurrencesare in the earlier concertos,supporting the abovetrend.
(A) Neo-classical Influences on Concerto Themes
The early violin concertos are deeply indebted to the French neo-classical style which is revealed, in part, by a strong reliance on neo-classical figurations such as scales, sequences,string crossings, pedals and canon for the formation of thematic material.
In these concertos, the main themes themselves are rarely presented in their entirety; their components provide most of the material for the movements and dictate the
150Theme A: Concerto No. 1, Mvt. s 1, R and M; Concerto No. 2, MvL M; Concerto No. 3, Mvt. s Il and IH; Concerto No. 4, Mvts LH and III and Concerto No. 5, Mvt. 1. Theme B: Concerto No. 2, Mvt. I and Concerto No. 3, MvL I
116 pattern of use. Pedalnotes, scalar movement and bariolageare ideasutilized by the composerin much the sameway as the melodic aspectof a theme was employed classically. The neo-classicalopening theme of the first movement of the second concerto, for example,comprises scale-wise sequential movement and bariolage in the upper voices with a basspedal-note in the bassoons.Much of this movement's musical material is basedon one or more of theseinterrelated features. Melodic lines tend to move in a linear fashion, following sWewise or chromatic sequencesrather than complementingclassical harmonic progressions. Although the writing is highly detailed and at first glancerather repetitive,the persistentsemiquavers form larger- scale sequencesdue to the slightly different tone colour of certain pitcheswithin the bariolage figurations. The vast majority of the semiquavers,however, arc purely decorative,contributing only to the textural effect and virtuosity of the line. The specific theme is almost entirely disregarded:it receives no cxact or even close repetitions,even in the recapitulationsection.
(vii) Rhythm
The gradual loss of neo-classicalfiguration in the later concertosis offset by the emancipationof other aspectsof the writing. Individual rhythms,textures and even intervals are given a greaterthematic role, replacing the linear material of previous concertos. This gradualchange in approachcan be discernedin both the concertos and Bacewicz'swider catalogueof works, The Musica Sinfonica in Tre Movimenti,
for example, written in the same year as the final concerto (1965), opens with a numberof accentedchords; Sustainedblock chordscontrast with staccatofligurations, presentedin turn by individual sectionsof the orchestra. Here it is almost impossible
117 to isolate any melodic thematic material; insteadcharacteristic textures are formed and then drawn upon at later stagesin the movement. The final violin concerto,in contrastto many of Bacewicz's works of the mid-sixties,retains vestiges of melodic thematic material. This is perhapsbecause the solo instrumentinvites such melodic writing. Exact repetitions of thematic material, however, become gradually less common with every concerto. In the first movement of the fifth concerto, for example,the main themesare absentfrom the developmentsection and return for only six bars in total in the recapitulation. The situation is perhapsrelated to the movement'sconstant reliance on specificintervals, particularly major and minor 3rds, seefor examplethe passagestarting at b. 74 (Ex. 54). The intervallic structureof the material, therefore,demonstrates a new complexity and a thematic importance. This is a trend which continuesthrough to the third movementof the seventhconcerto where there are absolutelyno close, partial or direct repetitionsof the main thematic material. There is no trace of the main themesin the developmentsection and only materialloosely inspired by them in the recapitulation.
An emancipationof rhythmical material in themesis evident in a number of later concertomovements, including Conc. 4, MA 111;Conc. 5, MVL 111;Conc. 6, Mvt. 1, and Conc. 7, Mvt. 11. In the first example, for instance,the opening theme (A) combines a number of different rhythmical elementsin a rapidly ascendingthen descendingline (seeEx. 3). The dottedrhythm of the openingrhythm (a), is followed by a staccatoquaver arpeggio (b), a legatoquaver-two semiquaver figure (c), and then a crotchet-quaverfigure incorporatinga large interval leap to a harmonic in each string part (d).
118 Ex. 54 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1, b. 74
74 1
clar
Trur
Ti
&
VI
Dot i
Themes combining contrastingmaterial or figurations can be identified in earlier concertomovements, therefore it is not surprisingthat Bacewicz has continuedthis trendby forming a themefrom four completelydifferent rhythmical figurations.
119 These figures function independentlythroughout the movement, penetratingboth further themesand developmentalmaterial. In the barsfollowing the statementof the main theme, its rhythmical elements begin to separate and form different combinations.
The early concertosdemonstrate a far greater degreeof flexibility in both phrase length and time signature than Bacewicz's contemporaneousworks. The first concertostarts with a themebuilt aroundsix-bar phrases, immediately breaking away from classicalfour-bar groupings(see Ex. 45). The end of each phnýseis extended slightly by a pauseover the barline, creatinga slightly iffegular phraselength. 17his techniquecan be seenagain in the secondmovement, where a move from 2/4 to 3/4 for the final bar of the phraseextends it by just onebeat (see Ex. 55).
Ex. 55 Cone. 1, Mvt. II, b. 12 (Solo Violin)
12 r-3--n A SoloViolin f-
I The first concertois in fact characterizedby its regular time signaturechanges. An eleven-barpassage at b. 59 in the first movement,for example,contains no fewer than nine (seeEx. 56).
Ex. 56 Conc. 1, Mvt L b. 59
23323232323 44444444444
120 This againleads to the formationof a numberof irregularphrase lengths.
A high profile exampleappears at the openingof the third concerto. The folk- inspired theme introducedby a bassoonand oboe is written in two parts in question and answerformat (seeEx. 26). The first part is presentedin 2/4 time, but closeswith a 3/4 bar, creatingan irregular sevenbar-and-one-beat phrase. The answeringphrase is a bar shorterand againsustains its final notefor an extra beatwithin a 3/4 bar. This irregularity is mirrored by the first subjecttheme of the concerto'sthird movement, which is written in a combinationof two, four, five and six-barphrases (see Ex. 57).
Ex. 57 Com 3, Mvt. III, b. 21 (Solo Violin)
4 bar pbrase 2 bar plimse 4 bw
21 yy AV -dp d- a-#. Oýqw *. L 41L SOID VIDIn
29
Vkl
z Day pwam ---I
vin ft 4 IV v 11 43
The four + two bar combinationis a classicfolk phrasing,thus reflecting the melody's I possibleorigins.
Interestingly, the passagework in the central parts of early concerto movementsoften containsa greaterconcentration of regularphrase groups. It is more usually at this point in the movement that Bacewiczs writing becomes more experimental.As the seriesprogresses, however, irregular phrasegroups appear more
121 frequently in this section. By the fourth concerto, for example, time signature
changesand irregular phrasegroups can be seento some extent in all parts of the
work.
In the final concerto,phrase groups become quite difficult to identify due to a
less classicaluse of melody, althoughparticularly long phrasescan occasionallybe
seen..Theme B in the first movement,for example,could be consideredas a single
phraselasting thirteen bars (see Ex. 58).
Ex. 58 Cone. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 43
Poco Ineno mosso 88 43 17-m Solo ViDfin
48 A Vln "09 logo- ow
The phrase consists of a number of short and often irregular independentunits,
althougheach leads directly into the next without reachingclosure, thus creatinga far longer cumulativemelodic line.
(viii) Introduction of Additional Thematic Material
In most of Bacewicz's violin concertos,additional melodic material supplementsthe melodic line, and occasionallyis elevatedto a thematic role. This material can, on occasion,be seen to take the place of the main themes, significantly altering the balanceof the sonataform movement The most usual patternof presentationis not atypical; a 'secondarytheme is introduced at some stage in the exposition, often following the initial statementof theme & This model appearsin no fewer than
122 151 eleven concerto movements. Further themes are included intermittently-, see for examplc Cone. 1, Mvt. III; Cone. 4, Mvt. 1; Cone. 6, Mvt. III and Cone. 7, Mvt. 1.
The introductionof new thematicmaterial occurs in almostall casesin the exposition and returns in the recapitulation,confirming its identity as a theme. In the first movementsof the sixth and seventhconcertos, however, new material is introduced during the developmentsection also. In the sixth, a new themeis introducedat b. 141 towardsthe middle of the developmentsection (see Ex. 59).
Ex. 59 Cone. 6, Mvt. 1, b. 141
141J- 114
J-114
SoloVorn
ww
VJDFnI
ViDin H
VJDJA
145
lip
VbL
VIL I
VbL if
VIL
151See Concerto No. 1, Mvt. s I and M; Concerto No. 2, Mvt. 1; Concerto No. 3, Mvt. IIL Concerto No. 4, Mvt. s I and E[I; Concerto No. 5. Mvt. Ifl; Concerto No. 6, MvLs I and III and Concerto No. 7, Mvt. s L 11and 111.
123 Marked cantahile,the themeis stylistically very similar to the secondsubject, which interestinglyis left absentfrom this section. The impact of the additional material is felt most, however,in the recapitulationsection. Here, each of the themesreturns, including the secondarytheme which appearstwice (bb. 236 and 299). As the main themes are both stereotypicalconstructions, the inclusion of a third creates an automaticimbalance, impacting quite significantlythe overall characterof the section.
124 4: Texture
Contrastsin texture form the very basisof the concertogenre. Solo and tutti groups are traditionally set up as opposingforces, creating an enormousmnge of possibilities for the density of textural writing. Bacewicz's use of texture, like several other aspectsof her style, changesfundamentally over the course of her career. Early works show a classical approach,moving from 'melody-plus-accompaniment'to contrapuntaltextures in the central parts of movements. As the series progresses,
Bacewicz begins to employ textures less predictably, with a greater range in the numberof accompanyinglines and the level of complexity. The latter could perhaps be considereda significantcontribution to the developmentof Polish music.
(a) Solo/Tutti Relationship
The solo instrumentis understandablyhighlighted in the first two concertoswhere melody-plus-accompanimenttextures dominate. From here on in the solo violin part becomesprogressively more integratedinto the tutti line. In the fourth concerto,the solo violin entersinto partnershipswith tutti instrtunents,see for exampleMviL 1, bb.
78 (Ex. 60), and evenassumes a quasi-accompanimentatrole, seeMvt. IIL b. 78 (Ex.
61). In the fifth concerto, the solo line is frequently doubled rhythmically and melodically by other instruments,see for exampleMvt. 1, bb. 101,148,187 and 203
CEx.62). In this concerto also, the solo instrument occasionallyassumes a more decorativerole while thematicmaterial is presentedby a tutti instrument;see Mvt. I b.
59 (Ex. 63).,
125 Ex. 60 Conc. 4, Mvt. 14b. 78
va
ChAnd
lion
Tin
gob I
V,
ME
ViDiDr
DDublo
By the seventh concerto the. solo/tutti relationship is one of almost equal partners, creatingfar more varied writing in both solo and tutti sections.
(b) Functions of Texture
Although in the early concertos texture is not used to articulate the beginnings of large sections, whole movements remain clearly shapedby texture. The f irst two concertos, both neo-classical works, move regularly between contrapuntal and 'melody-and- accompaniment'-style textures, sometimesquite abruptly.
126 Ex. 61 Cone. 4, Mvt. 1114b. 78
7N .,e AfýE I ftili f1- -ý- Fit& p
iF-- I ýw I&I Oboe
Chrie in D
SOb VIDfM
PU,2 VIDIOMCBO at p
Most movementsin theseconcertos open with an extendedsection of 'mclody-plus- accompaniment'writing, anticipating the first subject solo theme; the writing then becomesmore contrapuntal.The introductionof the secondsubject material initiates a momentaryreturn to the melody-plus-accompanimenttexture, but then the number of lines increasesagain.
Counterpointreaches its greatestdensity in the developmentsection, before the recapitulationreturns to the textural patternsof the exposition. Thus, the first and secondconcertos are linked by their use of texture to reinforcea symmetricaldesign.
There is even a slight senseof progressiondue to an increasein the number of contrapuntallines acrossthe two concertos. Significantly, passagesof homophonic writing appeartowards the end of the secondconcerto, anticipating a greateruse of this texturein subsequentworks.
127 Ex. 62 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1, b. 101
Horr
solo
VIAN
Double
Ex. 63 Cone. 5, Mvt. 1, b. 58 (ReducedScore)
Eromb. 56
Fk4c
Clarinctin M
Solo Mohn IJ-- -I
The middle concertosfeature a numberof changesto the trendsestablished in
ConcertosI and 2. The new approacI4described below, is also displayedin a number
128 of Bacewicz'sother works of the late 40s and early 50s, including, for example,the first movementof the Concertofor String Orchestra(1948). Perhapscoincidentally, a similar use of texture can be seen in Stravinsky's 5ymphony in Yhree Movements (in particularthe first movement)written just threeyears earlier.
In most of the middle group of Bacewicz'sviolin concertos,movements open with a unison or at least a homophonicstatement of the first subject During the course of the movement, the writing becomes increasingly contrapuntal, again returningquite symmetricallyfrom the climax to a more homophonicrecapitulation or closing section. The introduction of homophony to areas previously reserved for melody-and-accompanimentis a quite fundamentalchange in Bacewicz's style. It can be linked to more general developments:accompanimental writing in the two previousconcertos was frequentlyconjunct, supporting scales and passageworkin the melodic line, whereasin following concertosthe accompanimentis emancipatedto hold melodic interest in its own right This emancipationis related to a greater preoccupationwith texture. In the first movementof the third concerto,for instance, the openingtheme is presentedin unisonby a combinationof different instrumental groupings. With each repetition of this openingtheme, the accompanyingmaterial becomesslightly more complex and melodically more independent. The C major repetitionof the first part of the melodyat b. 14,for example,is accompaniedby both a pedalnote and a counter-melody.By b. 33 a total of five different partsare present within the divisi string lines. This progresscontinues: throughout the development section a growing number of lines are presentedsimultaneously beneath the solo violin. The tuttis, however,often resortto theforlissimo unisonlines of the opening, creatinga far greatercontrast between sections.
129 By the late concertos, these structural, textural trends disintegrate. For instance,the level of counterpointtends to increasemore dramatically at a much earlier stage in the work. The unison writing of the fifth concerto's first subject theme, for example,is abandonedfor counterpointwithin six bars. Also, a return to the useof unisonor homophonicwriting at the end of the movementis more sporadic.
By the seventhconcerto, a patterncannot be found to Bacewices use of texture; the movementsare no longer structured by her selection of textural type. The first movement,for example,is contrapuntalfrom the outset. Counterpointdominates; whilst homophony,in comparison,is rare.
(c) Textural Juxtaposition
Textural juxtaposition is a technique which had already been exploited by Stravinsky and other modernist composers for a number of years. In the third, fourth and fifth concertos, it is given primacy. Block textures in the central part of each movement now create contrasting sections, often coinciding with the use of the solo and tutti groups. At b. 68 of the second movement of the fourth concerto, for example, sudden changesto the texture, orchestration and dynamic occur every few bars. This type of writing is kept almost exclusively within the passageworkof the development section at this stage in the series, extending to all parts of the movement by the seventh concerto. The effect of such juxtaposition'depends on the creation of considerable contrast between the textures involved and invokes considerable ingenuity on
Bacewicz's part.
In the fourth and fifth concertos the textural writing evolves; layered textures, combining different instrumental effects with a number of contrapuntal lines, begin to
130 appear. Occasionalpassages of particularlycomplex textural writing appearin these concertos,see for examplethe suddenfour-bar tutti interjectionat b. 335 of the fourth concerto'sthird movement(Ex. 64). Here,fast-moving semiquaver runs are scoredat five different pitchesfor divisi upper strings,lower stringsand woodwind, punctuated on eachquaver beat by variousbrass and percussion.The doubling of so many fast- moving lines with slurring and a loud dynamic createsa complex sound effect in which it is difficult for the listenerto separateindividual lines.
This type of writing reappearsin the fifth concerto; at b. 26 of the first movement a large number of moving lines in the string section combine with the tremolo in the oboesand clarinets (seeEx. 65). Such passagesreveal an increased interestin the useof textureto createeffect and to blur the listener's perceptionof the line. In the seventhconcerto, Bacewicz uses glissandos notated without noteheadsto create much the same effect. The passageat b. 134 in the third movement, for example,requires each performer in both the secondviolin and double bass sections to traversethe pitch rangeat their own pace(see Ex. 67). This obscuresthe clarity of each individual line, thus deliberately muddying the texture. In this concerto
Bacewicz demonstratesfar greater courageof conviction; the more interesting and experimental textural writing previously reserved for the central parts of each movementis presentthroughout.
131 Ex. 64 Conc. 4, Mvt IU4 b. 335
Fue
Pww&o
Oboo
Mnnd in Bý
Hom in F
Tnumat in C
Tmnd)om
Tan4m
Bm Drum
Timped
solo Violin
Violin I
Viohn H
viols
VioLonoelb
DoubleBau
132 Ex. 65 Conc. 5, Mvt 14b. 26
Flute
Oboe
amind in M
Bassoon
flarn in F
TmmM in C
Tiumbone
Tubs
Timpaii
Cymbds
Violin I
Violin ff
Viola
Malonocilo
DoubleBase
Ex. 66 Music for Strings, Trumpets and Percussion, Mvt. 11, b. 74
Vni div a 2p.
Viols
133 (d) Textural Density
In combinationwith the introductionof a greatervariety of textural writing, Bacewicz also beginsto experimentwith the densityof textures. The range in the numberof lines includedin texturesof any type can be seento increaseas the seriesprogresses, ' creatingthe potentialfor enormouscontrast
The early concertosmake little use of thesetwo extremes,with much of the writing in both solo and tutti sectionsremaining within quite tight parameters. A changeoccurs within the third concerto:the level of scoring increasesgradually to createdense textures. This can be seenalso in the fourth concerto,aligned with a dramaticreduction in others.
134 Ex. 67 Conc. 7, Mvt. IH, b. 133
H.
Týpd i
Twl
CYN
TI
Ho
Viol
Vieb
v
VW-
DMN* I
At b. 105 in the third movement,for example,the orchestralaccompaniment all but disappears(see Ex. 68). The trend continues:the fifth concerto containsa numberof lightly scoredsections resembling chamber music, seefor exampleMvt. 1, b. 87 (Ex. 24). The texture here is controlled to a fine degreeby the composer:a divisi is includedat b. 136to reducethe numberof lower stringsby half (seeEx. 69).
The developmentculminates in the seventhconcerto, where simple duets contrast with passagesof intenselycomplex contrapuntal writing.
135 Ex. 68 Cone. 4, Mvt M b. 105
pkw
Fki
Chrind ii I
Bmoc
Hofn in
Tnnq* in
Tmrdjm
TAMAbor
SCID viol
ViDin
ViDilk
VID
Vs)kXwcl
DoubbBw
fCra&t
136 Ex. 69 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 136
HM
SoloV
Violon
Doublo
137 5: Orchestration
Issues of orchestration cannot be completely separated from issues of texture. Ile impact of the complex textural writing of later concertos, for example, relies entirely upon the composer's clever use of orchestration to separate the component lines, while of course, orchestral groups have to be varied to produce the textural patterns described in the previous section. In these works, Bacewicz also has to take care to maintain a good balance between the solo and tutti groups.
A fundamental change in approach can be seen in both the textural and timbral writing as the series progresses as BacewiC*Zbegins to focus on their potential for expressive use.
(a) Useof Timbre
Initially, the composeesuseofthe orchestral group is entirely classical. The first concerto rejects nineteenth-century developments, returning instead to the eighteenth century for inspiration. The string and woodwind sections, independent forces, usually present their own material, sometimes combining to form simple, blended textures, yet more often working in opposition as contrasting groups. Interaction is limited to brief moments of neo-classical imitation, and the formation of relationships across these groups is exceptionally rare, even in passagesof contrapuntal writing.
The brass and percussion sections play a limited role througboutý providing emphasis and volume only as required. This very classical use of the orchestra is a clear feature of Bacewicz's early style and vestiges of it remain in later works.
138 The orchestrationof the secondand third concertosdemonstrates a similar
approach,particularly in the outer sectionsof movements;however, more interesting
writing beginsto appearin the centralparts, where unusual instrumental (concertante)
groupingsare formed by crossingsectional boundaries. An early exampleoccurs in the developmentsection of ConcertoNo. 2, Mvt. I at b. 197. Here, a lightly-scored
passageof contrapuntalwriting combinesa flute, clarinet,timpan4 solo violin and the
viola section. It is particularly unusualfor the composerto draw upon individual
membersof the string sectionat this stage,as the blendedstring soundcreated by the presenceof the entire sectionforms the basisof BacewicZsorchestra] sound.
In the third movementof the third concertothe use of concertantegroups grows and diversifies. Thereis certainlylittle or no interactionbetween the string and wind sectionsin the openingsection; however, the situationreverses as the movement progresses.These, and even brassand percussionsections, slowly begin to interact, so that, for example,three trombonescombine with lower stringsfrom bb. 293-8 and with solo violin, timpani and clarinets in the passagefrom bb. 383-390. In this concerto, instrumentalgroupings begin to be used to create structure,as blocks -of contrastingtimbral materialare juxtaposed, for exampleat b. 117(see Ex. 70).
The orchestrationbecomes less experimentalat the recapitulation,restoring once againthe classicalinstrumental groupings. The symmetricalpattern created by the gradual introduction of more experimentalwriting to the central sectionsof the movementsis intimately relatedto Bacewicz'suse of texture. As the numberof I incs, increasesin the more contrapuntalcentral sections,there are more opportunitiesfor relationshipsto developbetween different groupsof instruments.
139 Ex. 70 Conc. 3, Mvt. IM b. 117
pi"Clo
But
H. n In P
Trumpotin C
Tymbone
Th)l rzr)1
.p Dos Dnm
T. I..
HWP
Sob Mob
VIAM I
MDbl It
vou
vialmmelio
DoubbBw
In the fourth concerto, incidences of this type of writing appear earlier in the exposition and later in the recapitulation,as in, for example, the solo violin and timpani duet from bb. 31-36 in the first movement. Increasingly imaginative combinations of instruments occur in this concerto's central sections; see, for example, the opening of the second movement, where muted upper strings and pizzicatolower stringsare combinedwith a tam-tam.
140 Thesedevelopments continue in the fifth concerto. Different sectionsof the orchestrainteract at a much earlier stage;concertante writing can be seenat b. 13 of the first movement. The earlier classical string/wind opposition is not forgotten however;see, for example,the more classicaluse of the orchestragroup at b. 136.
In the seventhconcerto, such trendsreach their height. Conccrtantegroups pervadeand the combinationsdemonstrate great imagination. See,for example,b. 73 in the third movement,which is scoredfor two homs, bongos,harp, first violins and double basses. The writing demonstratesfor the first time a genuineequality in the instrumentation;the string sectionis no longer the backboneof the orchestralsound.
The solo passageftorn bb. 2842 in the first movement, for example, completely omits the string sectionwhile the percussiongains more profile. The openingof the secondmovement, for example,features a tam-tam,vibraphone, xylophone, timpani, celesta and strings. Brass instruments too appear with great regularity in the concertantegroups.
Instrumentaltechniques also expandconsiderably the rangeof availablesounds; see, for examplethe combinationof two bassoons,third and fourth horns,muted trmpets, solo violin and pizzicato double bass at b. 268, Mvt. IL Their use can be seento escalatein later works. At b. 90 in the third movementof the sixth concerto, for example, the combination of clarinets, bass clarinet, horns, celesta and sul pont harmonicsin the violins is just one of a series of interesting soundscapes.Fig. 5 chartsthe useof suchtechniques in the series.
141 Fig. 5 Use of Instrumental Techniques
Concerto Instrumental Techniques No. I Pizzicato,sul ponticello, No. 2 Pizz.,sul pont No. 3 Pizz.,trill glissando,tremolo, so] pont,con soW,flutter-tongue No. 4 Pizz.,sul pont, glissando,con sord, tremolo No. 5 Pizz.,sul pont, con sord,sul pont, tremolo,sul tasto No. 6 PizL, tremologlissando, sul pont,con sord,glissando, tremolo, sul tasto,'quasi gliss' No. 7 Pizz.,vibrato ghssando, sul tasto,trill glissando,con sord,sul pont, col legno,tremolo glissando,tremolo, 'comme, pcrcussione', saltando
While the table does not indicate regularity of use, it does reveal a clear increasein
range of techniques. In the seventhconcerto an even wider palette of orchestral
colours emerges;see, for example, the glissandomarked sul tavlo at b. 98 in the
second movement. Glissandi are of course particularly prevalent in works by
Bacewicz'scontemporary Panufnik, see for examplehis Lullaby (t947).
The generalmove towardsa varied orchestra]sound also affects the instrw-nentation
of the melodic line. In the first two concertos,an entire melodic phraseis usually presentedby a single instrument,obviously in many casesthe solo violin. In later concertos,however, melodic lines begin to be passedfrom one instrumentto another.
The simple writing in the second movement of the fourth concerto, for example, is transformedby the scoring(see Ex. 71). The quaver,dotted crotchetmotif is passed from the solo violin to the horns and bassoons,back to the solo violin, then on to the clarinet. This completelytransforms a lengthyand otherwiseuneventful melodic line.
142 Ex. 71 Cone. 4, Mvt. M b. 15 (ReducedScore)
Clarina in Bý
Bassoon
Horn in F
Solo Mob
In sections of concertantewriting, this technique can alter the dynamic of the instrumentalgroupings every few bars. This constantlychanging substructure helps to createa fluid style with greatadaptability.
(b) Scaleof Orchestration
Variations in the scale of the writing can be related to the developmentsdiscussed above. Bacewicz's orchestra can be seen to change significantly, moving from a small almost chamberorchestra with single upper woodwind and limited percussion to one of almostRomantic proportions in the third and fourth concertos.Interestingly, the final threeworks are scoredfor an orchestraof a slightly different shape:the wind sectionis slightly reduced,while the percussionsection grows enormously. SeeFig.
6 for the specificinstrumentation.
in practice,the level of scoring,although related to the size of the orchestra, proves rather more complex. The early concertos generally follow the pattern suggestedby the instrumentation:the scoringis light with few large-scaletuttis, and in particular,little useof the brasssection.
143 Fig. 6 Instrumentation
Concerto Woodwind Brass Percussion No. 1 1-1-2-2 2-2-1-0 Harp,xylophone, timpani, cymbals No. 2 2-2-3-2 4-3-3-1 Timpani,cymbals, tambourine No. 3 3-3-2-2 4-3-3-1 Harp,tirnpaniý cymbals tambourine, bass drum No. 4 3-3-2-2 4-3-3-1 Cymbals,timpani, bass drurn, tambourine No. 5 2-2-2-2 4-3-3-1 Harp,cymbals, timpaniý bass drum, glockenspiel,tambourine No. 6 2-2-3-2 4-2-2-1 Harp,celesta. fimparL4 cymbals, tambourine, bassdnun No. 7 2-2-2-2 4-3-3-0 2 Harps,celesta, xylophone, cymbalsý tinqmni, tambourine.,tam-tam, vibraphone, bongos
The openingof the first concertois particularly striking due to the small scaleof the writing. The movementopens with a unisonstring chord, but then offers little elsein the way of accompanimentto the solo violin line for the next 25 bars. Although the writing increasesin scale as the movementprogresses, instrumental groups remain small. Even orchestraltuttis rarely draw upon the full forces.
The level of scoring yet again reflects the pattern previously identified in relation to the useof texture and appearanceof concertantewriting. The link is clear, as the texture becomesmore contrapuntalin the central parts of the movements,the level of scoring responds. Generally, the scale of the orchestration increases throughoutthe next two works, reachingits full extremein the fifth conccrto. At b.
26 in the first movementfull brass,woodwind and divisi stringscombine to createa tutti force unseenat suchan early stagein previousmovements (see Ex. 65). Herethe divisi is usedas a meansof creatinga dense,busy texture with a greaternumber of lines.
144 By the seventh concerto the approachis freer. In tutti sections a larger orchestrais used, including full brass,celesta and two harps. The scoring of solo passages,however, is reducedfurther, creatingan enormouscontrast between the two extremes. A ten-barpassage at b. 124 in the first movement,for example,is scored for solo violin and two harpsonly. Suchpassages are often tightly controlled by the useof divisi and string solos;see for examplethe openingof the secondmovement.
(c) Range
The tessitura of Bacewicz's melodic writing gradually expands as the series progresses.The early works rarely usethe extremesof registers;in the first concerto, for example,the solo violin doesnot venturefar abovethe A an eleventhabove the open E (135). This is effectively the upper end of the pitch range as the woodwind instrumentsalso do not entertheir upperoctave.
The use of the upperregister in particular increasesenonnously as the series progresses.The fourth concertoespecially demonstrates an enormousexpansion in rangeacross the wbole orcbestra.As a generalnde, the string sectiontends to follow the lead of the solo instrument. Here, its melodic rangeis extendedto C7, and indeed the tutti strings follow suit. The woodwind parts also demonstratea significant expansionin range, particularly in their upper 'registers. At b. 215 in the first movement,for example,the tenor clef appearsfor the first time in the bassoonpart due to the extension of its range to an A (see Ex. 72).
145 Ex. 72 Conc. 4, Mvt. L b. 215 (Bassoon)
215 I'A Bassoon cmw-
The flutes also move very close to their upper limit in the third movementof this concerto;the writing reachesan A6 by only the eleventhbar. While the writing for brass at this stagein the seriesis quite restrictedin range,the hom writing is more closely relatedto the string and woodwind parts; at b. 105 in the first movement,for example,a G5 is scoredfor the first hom.
Thesetrends continue in later works; the seventhconcerto quite predictably demonstratesthe greatesttessitura, and the enormousglissandi that characterizethis concerto's string writing provide the ideal opportunity for the exploitation of the instruments'upper registers. The solo violin, for example,can be seento extendits range even further to D7. written at this time also demonstratea greater lWorks melodic rangein the lower string lines. In the seventhstring quartetfor example,the viola player is commonlyexpected to play in fdurth or. fifth position on the A string, and the.cellist reachesas high as a Gb an octaveand a sixth aboveits open A (Gb5)
(see Ex. 73).
Ex. 73 String Quartet No. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 122 (Cello)
122 lasto rl_ -- --Sid Violoncello --- aeJc f -Iy,
The woodwind and hom parts in the seventhconcerto develop the use of their upper registersslightly; the flutes reacha C7 at b. 247 in the first movementand the
146 homs an Ab5 at b. 35. Bacewicz also extendsthe hom's lower register in this concerto,scoring a F3 at b. 149 in the first movementfor the fourth horn.
(d) Use of the String Section
Bacewicz'svery sophisticatedtreatment of individual string lines is complementedby an intelligent managementof the sectionas a whole. Generally,the string sectionin the earlier concertostends to function as a single unit, forming the backboneof
Bacewicz's orchestralsound. As the seriesprogresses, the string instrumentsgain greater independence,fonning concertantegroups.
The first two concertosgenerally contrast a full string soundwith writing for wind and brass,but the seedsof later developmentsare sown. The instrumentsof the string section are often granted a greater degree of independencethan in much classical writing. Melodic material is, on occasion,presented in isolation by the secondviolin, viola or doublebass sections, see for example,Mvt I bb. 29 and 56 and
Mvt. 111,b. 32 in the first concerto (seeEx. 74).
In someof the movementsof later works, the writing for strings reflects the trendsobserved in form, texture and orchestration,i. e. the individual instnmnentsgain more independence;see for examplethe secondmovement of the fourth concerto.
By the seventhconcerto, each string part is treatedmore autonomously. The secondviolin part achievesindependence on a numberof occasions,for exampleat b.
31 in the secondmovement (see Ex. 75).
147 Ex. 74 Conc. 1, Mvt 1, b. 29
29
Bassoon
limp
Solo Violin
Violin H
Viola
Violoncello
The doublebasses in particularare given far greaterimportance, for exampleat bb. 75 and 76 in the secondmovement (see Ex 76) and bb. 83-93 in the third movement where only the doublebasses, trombone, horn and harp provide an accompanimentto thesolo line.
As the series progresses,the concertoscontain not only a greater range of timbral.combinations drawing on individual membersof the string family, but also a greaterdiversity in the string writing. The lighter textures prevalentin the central sectionsof the movementsrequire the sectionto be reducedin sizequite considerably, which Bacewicz managesto do without restricting the timbral palate. In the first movement of the fifth concerto, for example, she manipulatesthe delivery of the string lines with her useof divisi indications.
148 Ex. 75 Cone. 7, Mvt. IL b. 31
solol
v
vc
I
VIDIOnIX
DDubleBe
-1
This device both increasesthe densityof the string texture by adding twice as many lines, for exampleat b. 193 (see Ex. 77), and is used to remove half the players in order to control the dynamic, for example at b. 210 (see Ex. 78). A violin solo emanatingfrom the orchestrais scoredfor the first time in the sixth concertofor the same purpose.
The useof both string solosand divisi increasesin the seventhconcerto. At b.
67 in the first movementýfor example,the first violins are split betweentwo lines requiring only half the secondviolins to provide the third in order to maintain the correctbalance (see Ex. 79). A passageat b. 16 in the first movementof the seventh concertois scoredfor two solo cellos and doublebasses, combining the specific tone colour of the different instrumentswith a reductionin volume (seeEx. 80).
149 Ex. 76 Conc. 7, Mvt. H, b. 75
75
Tirrui
Hmp I;
Harp11
SoloViolin
VIDb=UO
Doublebass
I,
This high regard for tone colour is also highlighted at b. 58 in the first movement wherea viola line is passedto the secondviolins for no apparentreason other than to changcthe aural quality of the sound(scc Ex. 81).
150 Ex. 77 Conc. 5, Mvt. 1, b. 193 (Strings)
193
Arco 195
Vh
Vh I
Vb
vc
Db
151 Ex. 78 Conc. 5, Mvt. L b. 210 (Strings)
11
Ex. 79 Cone. 7, Mvt. L b. 67
1. le----b
SoloVIOL
Violin
Violin
Violoncell
152 Ex. 80 Conc. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 16 (Strings)
Ex. 81 Conc. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 58
r--l-
SoloViolin
violimI
ViolinH
Viola
Violoncello
Doubleban
153 6: Writing for Solo Violin
Bacewicz's extensivetraining as a string player, particularly at the hand of the great
technician Carl Flesch, informs much of her writing for strings. Her meticulous
approachto the compositionof the solo line allows Bacewiczto exert control over its
perfonnanceand enrich its delivery. It is particularly interestingto track changesin the writing for the solo instrment, consideringthat the early concertoswere to be
performedby the composerherself, yet the later works were not.
(a) Virtuosity
In the earlier concertosthe writing for the solo violin, althoughnot simplistic, is rarely
virtuosic; it remains,on the whole, in the four lowest positionsand the useof double-
stoppingis limited. In addition, there are few cadenzas;the longestunaccompanied
passagefor the solo violin in the first movementof the first concerto,for example,is
in fact at the opening. This certainly demonstratesthat the early concertoswere not
intendedpurely as vehicles for Bacewicz's performing career. Despite the lack of
technical difficulty, the energeticmoto perpeluo-like third movementscreate quite a
display and they remain effective concertpieces nonetheless. (Theseconcertos are
used regularly as teaching material at the WarsawConservatory for these reasons.)
As the seriesprogresses, the technicaldemands made of the soloist grow. Passagesof
double-stopping,for example,appear for the first time in the third concerto. By the
later concertos such passagesare commonplace,often incorporating three-notc
chords;see for exampleConcerto 6, Mvt. L b. 280 and Concerto7, Mvt. 1,b. 206 (Ex.
82 and 83).
154 Ex. 82 Cone. 6, Mvt. 14b. 280 (Solo Violin)
SoloViolin
Ex. 83 Conc. 7, Mvt. 14b. 206 (Solo Violin)
SoloVIA,
The technical demandsof such writing exceedthose of the earlier concertoswhich were performedby the composerherself
The above trend is supportedalso by the gradual inclusion of less conspicuous momentsof difficulty. The early concertosare obviously written by a violinist for a violinist. The fingering patternsrequired for the scale-wisepassages fit Cheusual lcft hand positions,see for exampleConcerto 1, Mvt. L b. 39 and Concerto3, Mvt. 1, b.
130 (Exx. 84 and 85), and string crossingsallow the intuitive useof open strings,see for example,Concerto 1, Mvt. III, b. 3 (Ex. 86).
Ex. 84 Conc. 1, MvL 1, b. 39 (Solo Violin)
Sob ViDEa
155 Ex. 85 Cone. 3, Mvt. 1, b. 130 (Solo Violin)
Ell J30 3! 91.2 it Ja r- 0"' Solo Violin
Ex. 86 Conc. 1, Mvt. M, b. 3 (Solo Violin)
i 09
SoloViAn
It is very commonfor a patternof intervalsto be repeatedup or down a fifth, allowing the samepattern of fingeringsto be applied repetitively. A numberof examplescan be seen in the neo-classicalpassagework of the earlier concertos. The feature reappears,surprisingly, in the seventhconcerto, where due to the structure of the melodic line, passageworkoften falls tidily into one hand position; see for example the passageat b. 114 in the third movement(Ex. 87).
Ex. 87 Conc. 7, Mvt. M4 b. 114 (Solo Violin)
I In n soloVIDEn
I ju aI IV 3 IV Piuf m TI f IV I 117 17---l I -.-' Vin spi--gim IV
It is difficult t6ascertainwhether such passages were designedwith the comfort of the violinist in mind, or for the shapeof the melodic line. A lack of concern for the
156 practicality of the writing on a numberof other occasionsin this concerto,however, would tend to point towardsthe latter. Instancesof such writing begin to appearin
the fifth concerto. The phraseat b. 210 for examplecontains a numberof unwieldy position changes.The first, at the very openingof the phraserequires a move from first to third position but is difficult to disguisedue to a slur (seeEx. 78). The only alternativefingering requiring a stretchfrom secondto third position is difficult to placeand still leavesthe violinist on the weakerfourth finger for the higher note.
The choiceof key can also createproblems with intonationand projection; see for examplethe passageat b. 112 in the secondmovement marked with severalflats
(Ex. 88).
Ex. 88 Conc. 5, MvL 11, b. 112 (Solo Violin)
Tanpo I 112 6d;,
Solo Violin p
A greaterconcern for the musicalline ratherthan the specificsof its performancemay
have contributedto the successof this work as a whole. Such writing, however,is
particularly disadvantageousfor the soloist as the difficulties are not obvious to the
audience. It is interestingthat Bacewiczappears to have createdmore performance
difficulties in the first concertothat shedid not perfonn herself
The virtuosity of the solo line in each concertois reflected in the tutti writing Ile third concerto demonstratesoccasional moments of difficulty; see for examplethe
sweepingscales in the violin and cello partsat b. 198 in the first movement(Ex. 89).
157 Ex. 89 Cone. 3, Mvt. 1, b. 198 (Strings)
sob vlofin
Vjohnl
WWI
viola
viokx=uo
DDubkDam
By the sixth concertosuch writing is more commonplace,and the typesof difficulties more varied. The use of a high position at b. 191, fast passageworkat b. 213 in the first movementand stoppedharmonics in the secondmovement at b. 37, for example, helpsto createmore challengingtutti parts(see Exx 90,91 and 92).
Ex. 90 Cone. 6, MvL 1, b. 191 (Violin 1)
...... I
Vjofinl pp
Ex. 91 Conc. 6, Mvt. 1, b. 213 (Upper Strings)
Mob 1.11
Viola
I
158 Ex. 92 Cone. 6, Mvt. It b. 37 (Strings)
Violin 4 11
Viola
(b) Open Strings
The most characteristicfeature of Bacewicz'sstring writing is her exploitation of the openstring. The composerdeliberatdly scores open strings in a numberof contextsin order to create effect and facilitate performance. Their use can be divided into a numberof categories.
(i) Double Stopping/Bariolage
Passagesof double stoppingand bariolagerely on the use of openstrings to augment the rangeof notesavailable for use,and to provide an easy-to-executesecond, third or fourth line. The semiquaverbariolage in the secondconcerto"s first movement,for example,demands the useof an openE string at b. 87, an openA at b. 91, an openD at b. 117 and finally an open G string at b. 123 (seeEx. 93). Shortly afterwardsat b.
138 it movesto combinethe E, D and G strings. Such writing allows more freedom in the stoppedline(s), althoughthe tonality is clearly affected.
159 Ex. 93 Cone. 2, Mvt 1, b. 87 (Solo Violin)
Solo Violin
92 117 laý Vill ý d9 MýP. -F -P, -1Pii 1% W ......
118 124 Vim 6. i 6. i
p
This is a residual feature of Bacewicz's string writing; examplescan also be seen throughoutthe later concertos,see for examplebb. 72 and 192 in the fifth concerto's first movement.
(ii) Doubling Stopped/Open Notes
The purposeof combining an open string with an identical stoppednote is entirely different from that of double stopping as found in the examplesdiscussed above.
Here, Bacewicz exploits the resonantqualities of the open string in order to project the pitch of the stoppednote. By doing this, she is demonstratingan awarenessof performanceissues and preventingpotential problems. At b. 52 in the first movement of the fourth concerto,for example,a stoppedA is combinedwith an openA in order to place an emphasison the note (seeEx. 4). It is clear that this was the intention of the writing as an accentis also markedabove the note.
(iii) Timbral Effect
Openstrings are also markedon singlenotes as a meansof providing accentuafion.A clear-cut exampleappears in the first movementof the secondconcerto, see b. 157
(seeEx. 94).
160 Ex. 94 Cone. 2, Mvt. 1, b. 157 (Violin 1)
157 Violin I ff
Here,a clashon the first note of the bar formedby the combinationof an E in the first violins and aD in the secondsis emphasisedby the marking of an open string on the
E. As this requiresa string crossingboth to and from the note, the use of an open string is highly inconvenient The composermust have thought, therefore,that the effect would makea significantdifference to the audience'sperception of the line.
The uniquetimbral quality of the openstring is not only usedfor accentuation, but also for its brightnessand clarity. At b. 125 of the fourth concerto's first movementBacewicz combinesdouble-stop harmonics and open strings in order to createa very specific soundeffect (seeEx 95).
Ex. 95 Cone. 4, Mvt. 1, b. 125 (Solo Violin)
POCOPiLl Ljým J-I
Solo ViDin
Marked leggierp, they are chosenhere for their light, resonantsound quality. The timbre createdby the use of open stringsis also a prominentfeature of string playing in most folk traditions,perhaps explaining their heavy use within the folk-influenced third and fourth concertos. The passageat b. 215 in the third movementof the third concertodraws almost exclusivelyon open strings,enhancing the suggestionof folk music (seeEx. 96).
161 Ex. 96 Cone. 3, Mvt. 11114b. 215 (Strings)
Solo Violin
Violin I
Violin ff
Viola
violoncello
Double Bass
This concept could possibly extend to the less apparentexploitation of the violin's most resonantnotes. It is noticeablethat a silmificant proportion of the sustained notes in the solo line happen to be pitches that correspondto the open strings.
Examplesoccur at bb. 4,11 and 32 of the secondmovement of the fourth concerto,all at the beginningor end of a phrase(see Exx. 97,98 and 5). Consciouslyor not, these particularly resonantnotes are placed in prominent positions in order to create a natural emphasis. This effect is also applied to longer passagesof writing; see for exampleb. 150in the first movementof the third concerto(Ex. 99).
Ex. 97 Cone. 4, Mvt. 11,L4 (Solo Violin)
4AA f- f- . i*- sob vvfill p
162 Ex. 98 Conc. 4, Mvt. M b. 11 (Solo Violin)
Solo viorn
f cresc
Ex. 99 Cone. 3, MvL 1, b. 150
1 150 Oboe A 10
Chuiriefinm r- - a
116miriF cresc
crew
2 Tanibourirm
S010MDfin
Molin I
P creje Molin 11 4ýý creic
Viola
P,
VID1101=110 -ýF' if 1
cresc
Double Bass -ip- FE F
p crew
Here, a four-barpassage draws exclusively upon the notesE, A, D and G. It is highly unlikely that a violinist would be able to construct such a passagewithout giving thought to the connection. It is more likely that these pitches were selected specificallyto set up a seriesof overtonesand createa very individual sound,though
163 this theory would, of course, be difficult to prove without the testimony of the composer.
(iv) Extension of Range
In addition to instanceswhere the use of open strings is obvious or even notatedby the composer,much useof open stringsis implied only by the writing. At b. 155 of the first moyernentof the secondconcerto, for example,a repetitive four-notepattern with a large tessiturarequires an intennediaryopen string in order to be playable(see
Ex. 100).
Ex. 100 Cone. 2, Mvt. 1, b. 155 (Violin 11)
Violin 11
Mn. 17
Playing the secondand fourth noteson an openstring allows the position changefrom
A to G stringsto be inaudible.
Similar writing is also seenwithin the tutti lines; a simple exampleoccurs at b.
14 of the fourth concertoin the first violin part (seeEx. 101).
Ex. 101 Conc. 4, Mvt. 1, b. 14 (Violin 1)
------
VIA II 3
164 Here, the writing ascendsrapidly to aC three octavesabove middle C. An open string double stop, indicated on the score,follows this note, allowing a change in position to be madein preparationfor the lower octaveC at the end of the bar. Open stringsare usedrepeatedly in this way, allowing the clean executionof passagework, and extendingthe rangeof the melodicline both ways.
(c) Harmonics
Harmonicsare often used by the composerin much the sameway as open strings.
Their unique tone colour is again used selectively,even on occasionas a meansof directing phrasing. At b. 17 in the secondmovement of the fourth concerto,the end of a slow, legatophrase is accompaniedby a largedecrescendo (see Ex. 102).
Ex. 102 Conc. 4, Mvt. It b. 17 (Solo Violin)
soloViDfift
The last three notesof the phraseare all harmonics,softening the tone, and forcing a reductionin dynamic. The useof harmonicsalso aids the performanceof the melodic line. The threenotes cover over an octave,moving from the first A on the E string via the secondE, to the B. Each of these intervals demandsa large position change, which to high notes, centredin small physical spaceson the fingerboard,can cause intonation problems. A harmonic is much easier to find as the centre of the note remains the same over a much larger space. An extreme example, moving two octavesfrom an open E to a harmonicE occursin the sameconcerto at b. 162 in the third movement(see Ex. 103).
165 Ex. 103 Cone. 4,,Mvt. M b. 162 (Violin 1)
162 A ViDfinI
Harmonics often appear in passages featuring open strings due to their similar tone colour. The clear, resonant quality of both is drawn upon, for example at b. 125 of the fourth concerto'sfirst movementin a passageof folk-inspired writing (seeEy.
95). Here the harmonicsare effectively mimicking the soundquality of open strings in orderto strengthenthe connectionwith the folk tradition.
(d) Fingerings
Although Bacewicz's profound knowledge of string technique can be seen to infonn every aspectof her writing, it is difficult to determinewhich decisionswere made consciously. The instructionsto the playersmarked on the autographmanuscripts provide the only reliable insight into the composer's thoughts and methodology.
Basic fingeringsare rarely includedin the scores;instead fingerings are usedas a tool for moulding the soundto her requirements.At b. 127 in the first movementof the seventhconcerto, for example,a chain of alternatingmajor and minor thirds is formed
(seeEx. 104).
Ex. 104 Conc. 7, Mvt. L b. 127 (Solo Violin)
Solovlofia
pp
166 As the musical exampleshows, each note is played once only except for the open string noteswhich receivean immediaterepetition. Bacewicz marks fingeringsover the first three notes,indicating that the passageshould be played in secondposition, with a stopped note for the first D, followed by an open string for the second.
Different fingerings, when used on consecutive repeated notes, create a subtle differencein tone colour and maintainthe flow of the passagework.
Differencesin tone colour generatedby the useof the different stringsarc also exploitedby the composerthrough fingering indications;the higher positionson the G string are ideally suitedto the characterof the writing at b. 51 of the third movement of the fifth concerto,for example(see Ex. 105).152
Ex. 105 Cone. 5, Mvt. HI, b. 51 (Solo Violin)
SOID Win
r
As the seriesprogresses, the numberof articulation marldngsincreases enormously.
The solo violin part at b. 56 in the first movementof the fifth concerto,for example,is markedvery specifically(see Ex. 106). The first two crotchetbeats are markedwith a slur and line indicating that the notesshould be joined yet with separation. 'Me last rhythmic group, however, is marked with a slur and a staccatomark, therefore requiringthe last threenotes to bejoined, but the last one shortened.
152 Further examples of Bacewiez's manipulation of timbre are given in Dickson's study, op. cit.
167 Ex. 106 Cone. 5, Mvt L b. 56 (Reduced Score)
56
Fito
cbxiwt ill M
SOIDVIOn
0 1.
.9FA n
A CL
mr Vh
The attentionto detail demonstratedby this examplegives an indication at least of the degree of thought given by the composer to the specifics of her writing. BovAng styles are also dictatedto a greaterextent as the seriesprogresses. Markings such as sul tasto, col legno and saltandoare commonin the later concertos. It is interesting that the composer"sexertion of control over the finer musical details in the later concertosis accompaniedby an increasein the rangeand diversity of the writing.
(e) Contemporary Techniques
The greater variety of articulations and bowing styles in the later concertos is complementedby a number of extendedtechniques scored for both solo and tutti instruments.In the seventhconcerto, for example,g1h. vandi are commonplace,being usedas both a meansof addingexpression to the melodic line and addingeffect The concerto'Osopening solo, for example,contains a total of twelve glissandi within the spaceof only 37 bars,each emphasising and addingprominence to important intervals in the line. In contrast,glissandi are addedto the final phraseof each movementto
168 createdisplay. Theseare often combinedwith other devices such as trills, tremolo and saltando, see for example b. 77 in the first movement,b. 71 in the second movementand b. 43 in the third movementrespectively (see Exx. 107,108 and 109).
In thesecases the techniquesare appliedpurely for effect and are included at highly conspicuousmoments. I
Ex. 107 Conc. 7, Mvt. 1, b. 77 (Solo Violin)
77
soloviorla S
Ex. 108 Conc. 7, Mvt. IL b. 71 (Solo Violin)
A
Sob Viofia
Ex. 109 Cone. 70Mvt. M, b. 42 (Solo Violin)
Sob Violn
169 7: Common Material
Adrian Thomasand SteffenWittig haveboth written on the issueof self-quotationin
Bacewicz'smusic. Wittig's article 'Shallowness,Self-plagiarisniý Inconsistencies
Concemingthe criticism surroundingGra2yna Bacewicz's output from 1960-1969',
discussesthe reappcaraýceof materialat a numberof levels.
levels ... she usesmusical material alreadyemployed, and on all of composition - beginning with the microform (in harmony, counterpoint,in thematic work, rhythm and treatmentof timbres), in which severaltypes of chords are applied again and again, in which unchangingtypes of interval scalesare automatically conjugated,in which a characteristicmotif or rhythm has its comebackin nearly each work, in which severalsound structures are often repeated- up to the macroform,in which single units of a movementare adoptedin a new compositionor whole movementsare set for different instrumentsbut otherwiseremain completely unvaried. 153
Most composersrepeat themselves to someextent; a consistencyof language,after
all, forms the basis of a composer'sindividual style. Bacewic7, a case in point,
commonly and consciouslydrew on earlier works when creating new ones. At all
stages in her career she took a very dismissive attitude to her past catalogue,
destroyinga numberof her early works and forbidding publication of those that she
felt were lesssuccessful. She said in an interview for Polish Radio that,
I do not agreewith a statementthat I hearquite often that if a composer discoveredhis own musicallanguage he shouldadhere to this language and write in his own style. Such an approach to this matter is completely foreign to me, it is identical with the resignation from
153Steffen Wittig, 'Oberj7achfichkeft,Selbstplagial, UAvfiMmigkeftej1... Zu Vorwfirfen gegenoberdem4EuvreGratynaBacewicz]960-1969'(Shallowness, Self-plagiarism, Inconsistencies. Concerning Gra-+ynaBacewicz's from 1960-1969).Unpublished, .. the criticism surrounding output 29.
170 progress,from development.Each work completedtoday becomesthe pasttomorrow. 'm
It is quite apparentthat large portions of borrowed musical material appearin the works written in the last decadeof Bacewicz'slife, althoughthe trend actually begins much earlier. In the first and secondconcertos, much of the material has a common basisin neo-classical.figuration, without much emphasison melodic formation. As a result much of the material is similar, but there are few direct quotationsfrom one concerto to the other. One such example is an accompanyingfigure based on alternating semitonesat b. 39 in the first movement of the first concerto which reappearsin the last movement,see for examplebb. 9 (Exx. 110 and I 11),and then a numberof times in the next, seeb. 16 in the secondmovement and b. 47 in the third
(Exx. 112and 113).
Ex. 110 Cone. 1, Mvt. 1, b. 39 (Viola and Cello)
39
ViDla
Vii)lDneelb
Ex. III Cone. 1, Mvt 11Lb. 9 (ReducedScore)
Bassooa
V"Ola
154Gratyna Bacewicz, Statementfrom an Interview for PolishRadio, 1964, Publishedin RuchMuzyczny, Trans. Maja Trochimczyk, 33 No. 3,1989.
171 Ex. 112 Conc. 2, Mvt. IL b. 16 (Solo Violiq)
16
SOb VJDfn
Ex. 113 Cone. 2, Mvt. HI, b. 47 (Reduced Score)
Oboe
Ckiiet irk5
The third concertodisplays a far greaterconcentration of recurringmelodic material.
The first exampleoccurs at b. 24 in the secondmovement, wbere the flute and cMnet partsare clearly relatedto the first movement'sopening'theme, more a referencethan a direct quotation.
A similar instanceappears in the third movementat b. 102. The melodic contour and rhythmic structureof this short melodic motif are reminiscentof the openingtheme of the secondmovement.
The three movementsof the fifth concertoare closely related on a numberof levels. There are, however, no overt examplesof shared material. The sixth, in contrast,contains a direct repetition of material from the first movementin the third; for instance,the themeintroduced at b. 20 in the third movementis clearly relatedto the accompanyingline at b. 86 in the first movement(see Exx. 114and 115).
172 Ex. 114 Cone. 6, Mvt 1, b. 86 (Solo Violin)
86 PIwZ vi'lins aF w L-. W pp # ViDk
pp
Ex. 115 Conc. 6, Mvt. IH, b. 20 (Solo Violin)
Sob ViDliri
inf===-
The material thenreappears a nwnber of timesin the third movement(see bb. 50,122 and 305) reinforcingthe link.
The seventhconcerto provides the setting for the greatestconcentration of sharedmaterial, due to the composer'svirtual abandonmentand cannibalisationof the sixth concerto. The two works, for example,share an almostidentical openingsecond subject. The themeintroduced at b. 43 in the first movementof the seventhconcerto is originally usedat b. 86 in the first movementof the sixth; the openingtwo bars are almost identical. Another prominent example is the first theme of the third movement,presented by the solo violin at b. 6 and based entirely on a series of alternatingmajor and minor thirds, ascendingthen descending.This recallsthe major and minor thirds of the fifth concertobut also, and more specificafly,a triad from the openingtheme of the third movementof the sixth concerto. Due to its thematic role this material pervadesthe entire movement Theseclear examplesof self-quotation demonstratethe extent to which Bacewicz had dismissedthe sixth concerto as a functionalpart of the series.
173 In the seventhconcerto, the outer movementsin particular sharea large amount of melodic material. A melodic pattern introduced at b. 36 in the first movement reappearsat b. 115 in the third movementwith only a minor adjustment. Similar patterns,using groups of three consecutivesemitones separated in each case by a perfect fifth, havealready been identified in a numberof Bacewicz's later works (see
Melodic Writing). Such a melodic motif is present in no fewer than four works written in 1965while the secondpart of this themealso occursin profusion in works written contemporaneously.The contourof the melodic line can be found at b. 14 in the secondmovement of the Viola Concerto(1968), b. 4 of the third movementof the
Piano QuintetNo. 2 (1965) and b. 5 in the first movementof Partita No. 2 for Violin and Piano (1955). This intimatesthe scaleof borrowing at this stagein her career.
Thomas describesBacewiczs late progressas follows, '[H]er adventurousad hoe
in is displacedby explorationof new techniques the early sixties self-plagiarism ... in the latter part of the decade'.155
It is difficult to unravel the intention behind Bacewicz's use of self-quotation although it does appear to develop quite naturally ftom. the use of common patterns, structures, intervals and motifs in the earlier works. Some writers bavejudgcd its use a sign of 'hesitation or insecurity about her own abilities and perspectives as a 156 composer" the result of a 'struggle with her material"57 or 'uncertainty about 158 where she was headingin this new musicalworld'. The importanceof the origins
153Adrian Thomas,Sey-Quotation in theMusic of Gra:;Uaia Bacewicz, Paper read at a Polish Composers'Union (ZPK) Symposiumin Warsawin January1989; MS. 156 Witti gy Op.Cit. 157B. Schaeffer in Witfig, 'Oberl7achfichhek Selbstplagiat, Unstimmigkilen-24 Vorwarfen gegenaberdem (Euvre Gra#w Bacewicz 1960-1969. ibid 15gAdrian Thomas, 'Bacewicz', in Julie Anne Sadie and Rhian Samuel, 7be New Grow Dictionary of WomenCompovers' (London: Macmillan, 1994) 29-30.
174 of this musical material should not be exaggerated. However, it should be rememberedthat theseworks were someof Bacewiczs most successful.
175 PART THREE
Violin Concerto No. 5, Mvt. 1: A Detailed Discussion of Style and
Compositional Technique
In this concerto,the significanceof classicalelements is much reduced.its harmonic languagehas been substantially'modemised'; rhythmic materialsdemonstrate a new complexityand occasionallya thematicimportance; the balanceof power betweenthe solo and tutti groups has changeddramatically and a less predictableapproach to texture and orchestrationis apparent. Writing associatedonly with the development or central sectionsof previous movementscan be seento have spreadto the outer parts of the movements,establishing the beginningsof a mature compositionalstyle.
The first movementprovides the best opportunityfor the discussionof a sonataform movementwith a profusionof thematicactivity.
The movement,Dedso, is written with a lengthy exposition section,a development sectionwithout a delineatedbeginning, a recapitulationand a coda. The first subject is presentedimmediately, in typical Bacewiczmanner, in two contrastingparts (see
Ex. 116,themes la and lb). 159Theme la, presentedby the string section,is markedf with accentsand staccatosand featureslarge ascending leaps.
159 Note that an extra bar appearsin the piano reduction between the manuscript's bars 9 and 10, creating a discrepancy between the bar numbers for the rest of the movement. For the sake of this study, the convention of referring to information supplied by the manuscript will be followed. I
176 Ex. 116 Conc. 5, Mvt L b. 1
117cmIb
Flute
Clarinetin 11
Bassom
V,Ok I
violin ff
viola
ViDloamlio,
DoubleBass II 6
n
CL
BwL
VII, I
Mn. U
VIIL
vc.
Db.
177 The slurred dolce answering phrase,played by flutes, clarinets and bassoons,is markedmp and featuresmostly stepwisewriting. In eachpart of the theme,the focus is entirely on the melody: the accompanying lines are presented by a single section of the orchestrain nearrhythmic unison. At b. 4, theme la receives,quite typically, an immediaterepetition with a two-bar extensionbased on its openingcontour, featuring some syncopation. Theme lb begins a repetition at b. 6 but, more quickly than in previous concerto movements,begins to depart from the original material. The melody develops,drawing heavily on the minor third featured in both parts of the opening theme, again with syncopatedrhythms (b. 9) and even a referenceto the major seventh ftorn the concerto's opening (b. 12). Interaction, including counterpoint,now beginsamongst the accompanyinglines in strings and woodwind and, in line with the generaltrend for such writing to move to the outer parts of the concertomovements, at an earlier stagethan in previousconcertos.
At b. 6a countermelodyin the upper strings, heavily slurred and again featuring a syncopatedrhythm, reinforces the 'feminine' approach of theme lb.
Based on a falling major third, it illustrates Bacewiczs fondness for switching between the major and minor versions of the same interval.161 This additional materialis takenup by the first oboeat the end of the passageat b. 16, the major third switchingback to the minor just threebars later.
A changeof characteroccurs at the piu mosso(b. 23) with the reintroduction of material from theme Ia. Its different elementsare separatedout here and used contrapuntallyby variouswind instruments(see Ex. 117).
160 See p. 13 1. "' Seeprevious discussion, p. 95-96.
178 Ex. 117 Conc. 5, Mvt 4 b. 23
23 Plu mosso 92 A Fkib
Oboe
cbxhd in Bk
Bessocd
Homin F
Tmnlm ill c
ba:
Tmnixm 6
J PluMosso -92
vioun1
vormii le %F w»r
91 #F 99 -r6" %e Fý=#Mc viola qv
V , f.
DaubleBass
Such writing, although seen occasionallyin earlier concerto movements(see for exampleConcerto No. 4, b. 159), was more typically a feature of the development scction.
179 The complexity and scaleof the writing grows abruptly (b. 26 was discussed previouslyas an exampleof texturaljuxtaposition; see p. 131), but only momentarily, creating an anticipation that will only be assuagedby the arrival of the solo instrument. At b. 30 the forces are reducedfrom an almost full orchestrato a small ensembleof two trumpets,cymbals, second violins and lower strings (seeEx. 118).
The appearanceof concertantewriting at suchan early stageagain breaks new ground within the seriesof concertos.
The final few barsof this openingorchestml tutti draw heavily on the existing melodic material,a fairly typical way of announcingthe completionof a scction:the trumpet duet is based on the syncopatedcountermelody from b. 6, the string accompanimenton the omnipresentminor third and the cello and double bassline at b. 32 on the first part of the opening theme (1a) (see Ex. 118). None of these referencesis a direct quotation; instead,they presentsome aspectsof the material, suchas the generalmelodic contourand dialectic,unaltered, while making changesto others,for instancethe rhythmic structureand melodic detail.
The openingline for the solo instnnnentat b. 41 is a direct quotationof b. 5, part of the first repetition of theine la (seeEx. 119),now transposedup a perfect 4th. This confirmstheme la, as the dominantthematic material for the movement,following the exampleof manyof the earlier concertomovements.
180 Ex. 118 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 30
Poco (ma troppo) 30 mew non 91- -A
TnwWd in Bb 11
Tninpet in Bý M
cytg"
vinfin n
vom
V&iuwcllo
Du" Bau
The solo entry marks the usual change to a solo-led texture although the accompanimentshows rather more melodic strength than in previous concertos:a countermelodyin the strings combineswith wind intedections,alternating each bar betweenflutes and clarinets,and clarinetsand hom. This level of interactionbetween solo and accompanyinglines is unusualat such an early stagein the movement;the introduction of the solo instrument is usuafly given prominence by orchestral instrumentsreverting to simple,unobtrusive accompanying material.
Theme2, the secondsubject theme, marked molto sonore,is introducedat b.
49, as expected,by the solo violin (see Ex. 120). The writing is characteristically legato, but with a heavily accentedorchestra] accompaniment centred on C. It is striking that this themeand, in particular,its accompanimentis not as stereotypically
'feminine' as many other secondsubject themes,especially given (though perhaps becauseof) the characterof theme lb, mentionedabove. This also anticipatesa trend
181 seenin the sixth and seventhconcertos for an increasingnumber of main themesto depart from previous stereotypes. The theme begins with a syncopatedthree-bar phrasefocussing on its upper top note, A. 162The rhythm and contour of the second half of its first bar is reminiscentof the latter part of the countermelodyto the opening theme (see b. 9), but whereasthe countermelodyfeatured the minor third, a quite typical switch back to the major third of the openingmaterial can be seenhere.
Ex. 119 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 41
c4mtaml* J- 41
cimilot
HOE
ScioI
V,
VK
V"Cv
Double
162This notecould be consideredto play a role similar to the pivotal notesFighlighted by Adrian Thomasas a characteristicof manyof BacewicZsthematic constructions. See, 'Pivotal Bacewicz:some Aspects of the Natureand Function of her Lyrical Impulse', in Ro&wfistwo Bacewicz6w(The Bacewiczsiblings) (LZU: AkademiaMuzyczna w Lodzi: 1996), 101.
182 43
FL
i Ob.
ci
VL vkL 1
VL li
VL
v, -
The fact that the countennelodyto the first theme is so clearly connectedto the second theme is a strong indication of Bacewicz's near-obsessionwith thematic integration.
Typically, repetition and immediatedevelopment follow, the phrasemoves away from its original melodic contour,but reachesthe pivotal A at the samemetrical point: the beginningof the secondbar.
Following the example of theme I the wziting extends into solo-led passagework,but loses its connectionwith the thematic material far more quickly.
The characterof the writing soon has more in common with theme la; see for exampleb. 61, where both the rhythm and use of gracenotes is reminiscentof b. 5
(sceEx. 121).
183 The distinction betweenthe roles of the solo and tutti groups becomesless marked during this passage:interaction is common,and roles are even reversedon occasions.
For example, a melodic dotted-rhythmfigure (supported by a distinctive, twice- repeatedchord) is introducedby the soloistat b. 56 but is transferredto the flute then clarinet while the violin is presentinga countennelody(see Ex. 122).
Ex. 120 Cone. 5, Mvt 1, b. 49
40 14 .
cwnnotin aw
S Hom in F nV'V'V''
solomchn
V1.6
Molmodb
Do" Bm
1
184 Ob.
cl
Bla
IV KP ft 7 #f HM pr 7V7F '2 7 7P7P7
Vkt
via 1
Vh ir
Vkt
Ve.
m
pim
Ex. 121 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 61 (Solo Violin)
y 61 3y 1 OF solo aIm "M mI vl)bil qu . 10 62J , -.,
185 Ex. 122 Cone. 5, Mvt 1, b. 56 (Solo Violin, Flute, Clarinet)
FbAa
ckrklet in a
sob Morn
A Fl
Af CL
M
VIM.
The beginningsof this new relationship can be seen in the fourth concerto (see examplescited in the earlier discussionof the solo/tutti relationship,p. 126), but can really be seento take hold here, with frequentexamples of such writing throughout the movement.
At the end of this passagethe scoringis reducedto just the solo violin, violas and cellos (b. 63). Each line drawson a melodic patternintroduced originally at b. 17 featuring a chromaticline interspersedwith repeatednotes, all in quavers(see Exx.
123and 124). The phraserecafls the neoclassicalbariolage of the first two concertos, but is alsohighly reminiscentof Stravinsky(for instance,in DumbartonOaks).
While the string passagedescribed above marks a return to the classical-style orchestrationof the opening, and is reminiscent of Bacewicz's earlier style, the movementas a whole alternatesbetween the two t)Ws of orchestrationfeatured in the concertosto date: classicalwriting with little interactionbetween the sectionsof the orchestra,and concertante writing, a morerecent development.
186 Ex. 123 Conc. 5, Mvt L b. 17
17 a tempo = Oboe jým =4
' A-V VIDIn I 4W .1 ý=P A Wi zw, - 44Z = 10 pp W& H 5t
PLM
Bass
P62Z
Ex. 124 Conc. 5, Mvt 14b. 63
Vm P
SOID Vlofm
4L) -0 -040w--4p PiufWw VIDIS 39
wm Mf rl mImmm ýi 40 op b-ý VIDIDnoe IDI alroormf
The passagestands in marked contrast, for example, with the preceding material where concertantegroups are fonned as the result of interaction between various woodwindinstruments and the soloviolin.
At b. 67, again illustrating Bacewicz's devotion to coherenceand integrity of language,the solo violin presentsmaterial combining the rhythmic structureof theme
2 with the melodic shapeof the countermelodyfrom b. 6. Yet, illustrating her equal devotion to variation of instrumental colour, the accompanimentmoves from
187 woodwind at b. 67 to stringsat b. 68 to brassand stringsat b. 69.then stringsat b. 72
(see Ex. 125). The melodic material continuesthrough to a tutti at b. 74, also featuringa semiquaverfigure in the viola and cello lines alternatingbetween a major and minor third (another Bacewicz hallmark) and a syncopated figure in the woodwindagain reminiscent of the rhythm of theme2.
Ex. 125- Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 67
67 0
Fkft
Oboe
Clsrrkot ilk Eý
h
Buloon
Mm kF
Tnmpet in c
Trombone
Tia4mmi
SObVJDFM
Vx)bnI
V"Gln11
I iDiR v I
v,*. a. 9
rb" Bus IN
188 :0
Fl
CL
Bin.
w
C Tpt
TbcL
Tinp.
VhL
VIL I
VbL 11
VIL
Vc.
Db.
Both of these accompanyingfigurations remain as the music slows and reducesin volume for a meno,mosso section at b. 87 (see Ex 126). The melodic material presentedby the solo violin now combinescharacteristics of all previous themes.
Perhapssignificantly, it uses'feminine' material,marked piano with slurs, occasional harmonicsand is playedusing the softertimbre of the higher positionsof the D string.
By converting elements of the 'masculine' first theme into 'feminine' material,
Bacewiczis maldnga point of challengingthe movement'sthematic hierarchy.
189 Ex. 126 Conc. 5, Mvt 14b. 87
J-" 17 MCI" mss* AIA r- r- A Fkft
clwkw in aI
4' t AFiR, V19 0- 1 1.4 -- .9 4: comsord 12ý lbra In F
T-PXd 10, -, --iI t o I pp J-68 A Mono mosse sola vem
viormI w
pizz Win U 4VP
Vwb
vwbmcllo
The melody opensin the sameway as much of this movement'sthematic material, with a large ascendinginterval, in this casea minor ninth. The contour of the line is at first similar to theme 1b, moving down a step,up a minor third and then gradually downwardsagain. The rhythm and contourof the secondhalf of the phrase,however, stronglyresemble that of the secondsubject
The solo-led passageworkthat follows draws on the syncopatedrhythms associatedwith eachof the previousthemes. A short melodic gesturecharacterised by a rising seriesof intervals with a sustainedtop note emergesduring the second phraseof the melody and is repeatedseveral times in this 28-barpassage. It appears at least four times, at bb. 95,99,109 and 112,with a hint of it also at b. 102 (seeEx.
127).
190 Ex. 127 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 95 (Solo Violin)
95 sob
The passagecontinues with a strong rhythmic drive. At b. 101 the melodic line is accompaniedby a fragmentaryrising scalein the bass,G-Ab-Bb, with additionaloi'f- beatserniquavers to give it a motoric punch(see Ex. 128).
Ex. 128 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 101 (Reduction)
Sob Win
The menomosso section closes with a fairly faithful quotation of the secondsubject material.
Apiu mossofollows at b. 115 (seeEx. 129). The materialis familiar both its melodic contour and presentationare reminiscentof theme la, but the move to 6/8 changesthe characterof the writing dramatically. A new level of interactionbetween the solo and orchestm]instruments can be seenat this point: from bb. 1] 6 to 119 and
123 to 124, quaversin the woodwind fill in gaps in the solo violin line. A short sectionof concertantewriting follows at b. 125. The accompanimentalternates quite abruptly betweenthe oboe, horns, violins and violas and the flutes, oboe, clarinet, trumpets,trombones, tuba, violins andcellos.
191 Ex. 129 Cone. 5, Mvt 1, b. 115
RAO
Ckind in %
SOb ViDin
Win I
ViDFn 11
viDiff
Vii)br«lb
D"le BUS f
The exchangebetween the two groups works to build the tension and dynamic, leadinginto yet more contrastingmaterial at b. 136(see Ex. 130).
Ex. 130 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 136
Hom imF
Sob ViAll
Vi(Ykx=lb
DoubloBan
Marked molto espressivo,the solo violin presentsthe descendingsernitone figure from b. 17 with augmentationand a changeof pitch. The alternationof the chromatic quaver-line with a stable pitch is, as previously at b. 63, a clearly Stravinskyan
192 technique. Two-note motives in the accompanimentemphasise, in the bass, the descendingminor third, and aboveit, the ascendingmajor third.
It is difficult to say with certainty where the development section begins: developmentalwriting can be seento infiltrate the passageworkfollowing the first statementof both of the main themes,blurring the usual distinction betweenthe two sections. This indicatesthe lesserextent to which someof the fonnal distinctionsof the classical concerto, at least, wield influence on Bacewicz in this work. If an attemptwere to be madeto identify the beginningof the developmentsection, b. 143 would be a likely suggestion.In any case,a new sectionis clearly announcedhere by a loud 'tutti' chord and a clear statementof the initial thematic material (b. 142),at the original pitch withiust slight changesmade to its rhythm (seeEx. 131).
Ex. 131 Cone. 5, Mvt 1, b. 143 (Reduction)
. 1.1-1 SOb VIDIn
This indicatesa serendipitousapproach to the marldng out of fonnal structuresand heraldsBacewicz's new independencefrom tradition. Yet, this clear punctuationis followed by more ambiguity. The secondpart of theme lb is presented,much altered; the writing then departsquite rapidly from that of the expositionuntil the appearance of a large-scaletutti at b. 154, which draws quite heavily on carlier material. For
193 instance,the descendingsemitone figure from b. 17 appears,more brieflY, at bb. 154, then at b. 156 the violin and viola lines presenta combinationof melodic ideas(see
Ex. 132).
Ex. 132 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 156
ý,. A It- a IW! a- .- IV N -j .---
-;ap- i #Uf p LY
161
%ýd=täd 1- - L-- ==mm= iv 6-393
-
The intervallic structure of the three upbeat quavers matchesthe series of rising intervals from b. 95, and leads directly into material, echoing b. 67 which amalgamatesthe rhythmic structureof the secondsubject theme with the mclodic structureof the countermelodyfrom b. 6. The orchestralviolins also introduce an almost-directquotation of the dotted-rhythmfigure, togetherwith the accompanying lines from b. 56, now transposedup a 5th (or down a 4th) (b. 162). 11cre,in a novel sleight of hand,the orchestralviolins are elevatedto the role of soloist; at b. 167, for instance,there is a clearreference to the soloviolin line at b. 63 (Ex. 10), itself related to the rising sernitonefigure at b. 17 (see Ex. 133). Indicating the complexity of relationshipsat work here, this is combinedwith a reworking of the countermelody from b. 6 in the horns.
194 Ex. 133 Cone. 5, Mvt L b. 167
a tempo 167
flum in F
7h. i.
f--- sob Vi)kk
VormH
VX)la
VIDIonDelb
DXklo lkss
The violins continueto replacethe soloist in the following piu mossosection.
The rhythmic structureof their melodicline is drawn from the passageworkfollowing the secondsubject theme (b. 54) (seeEx. 134).
Ex. 134 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 172 (Violin 1)
VIDlin I
The accompanimentis characterised.by a particularly full string sound,created by much divisi writing. 'Me accompanyingmaterial features the descending chromaticserniquavers seen previously at b. 48.
The solo instrumentreturns shortly afterwardsat b. 184 with an extended, written-out,cadenza, whose opening phrase unusuafly combines both parts of the first theme. This 'vertical compression'may be comparedwith Bacewicz's piling up of
195 thematic materials at the end of the first orchestraltutti, where it anticipatedthe
introductionof the solo instrument(see Ex. 135).
Ex. 135 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 184
Moderato J-72 184 UA A sob violia
R-orp - VIPMP - amekm7mio
Much of the cadenza,as is traditional, bearsthe influence of previousmaterial. Few
direct quotations appear, however; reference is usually made to just a short pattern of
intervals or a characteristic rhythm. The contour of the beginning of theme la forms the basis of the first few phrases;what follows is a display of the most basic features of much of the previous writing: minor and major thirds, chromatic scales and slurred semiquaver couplets. The molto sonore indication, originally associated with the second subject theme, unsurprisingly, accompanies other references to it (see Ey-
136), while, at the grandioso,the rising seriesof intervals matchesthose from b. 95p againresting on a sustainedtop note.
Ex. 136 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 184
A Sostcmito SOb V]Dha F
v qvý#- 44; *- " - molto sonore-op. -ý -t*--==-p -, ==-
As soon as the cadenzais over at b. 187, the secondsubject appears(at b. 191), offering, for the first time, an exactrepetition, which lastsuntil b. 197, with an almost identical accompaniment This conflicts with tradition, for the second subject is normally 'restored' to the tonic, having beenintroduced, in the exposition,in a related
196 key; presentationin this way reinforcesthe notion that it is the secondsubject that prevails.
The pressingquestion for the listener,now that the secondsubject material has appearedin such a faithful rendition, is exactly where the recapitulationhas bcgun.
Whereverit was, it was surelyan ambiguousmoment, not least becauseof Bacewicz' predeliction for combinationand variation of thematic material, but also becauseof her whimsical treatment of formal elements:indeed, one of two locations which contend for title of 'beginning of the recaptitulation' is the beginning of the cadenza itself 163 The two possible points of return to the first subject are at b. 141 and 183; the proportions of the movement, and comparison of the material which follows immediately after the two moments, suggestthat the latter is more convincing. This simply serves to underline Bacewicz's unconventional, and subversive, attitude to sonata form. 164
The next few bars are drawn from the passageat b. 64 although direct repetitionnow ceases(b. 198-200). The counternielodyfrom b. 6 reappearsat b. 203, its contours suggestedby the upper woodwind and solo violin parts, while a syncopatedaccompanying figure is providedby the strings.
The following menomosso section (b. 207) seesa return of the themefrom b.
87 transposedup a fifth. The twelve-barmelodic line is a direct copy of its original
statement,with a similar yet not identical accompaniment,now with the addition of a two-bar descendingostinato figure, C#-D-C#-G#. The rising intervals at b. 226
163That the first subjectreturns ambiguously, whereas the secondis clearly delineated,is not a new approach,Mozart, for instance,having indulged in this samemanouevre in the D major sonata(k. 284). 164It shouldbe notedthat this is an attitudeshared, in particular,by womencomposers in the 20th century,from Chaminadeto Ustvolskaya.
197 match those introducedat b. 95 althoughthe rhythmic structure of the line and its resolutionis changed(see Ex 137).
Ex. 137 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 226 (Violin 1)
mf poco accekrando e arse 226 Std A AV 44- OL VaDrn i
The minor third incorporatedinto this rendition becomesa feature of the next few bars(bb. 228-232)(see Ex. 138).
Ex. 138 Cone. 5, Mvt 1, b. 228 (Reduction)
Apiu mossosection in 6/8 time (b. 233) drawson material from the secondhalf of the b. 115 piu mosso (b. 125) (see Ex. 139). The writing here returns to the more homophonic textural composition of the movement's opening. At b. 241 the descendingsemitone figure from b. 17 appearsin the oboe and string parts, leading into a new referenceto theme la, markingthe beginningof a coda.
The distinctive intervallic structure of its first bar is reproduced quite expectedlyin the key of the subdominanttwice in the spaceof the next few bars (bb.
245 and252), but Cherest of the first subjectis not offered (seeExx. 140and 141).
198 Ex. 139 Conc. 5, Mvt 1, b. 233
PlummsoJ-126
Flute
Oboe
Clarind in M
Bassoon
Hornin F
Tmmpd in C
ViolinI
Violinu
viola
violoncello
DoubleBass
Ex. 140 Cone. 5, Mvt L b. 245 (Solo Violin)
f cresc SO A 245 vv E- A1 .1 .11 sob viorn
199 Ex. 141 Cone. 5, Mvt 14b. 252 (SoloViolin)
sob VIDEft
mohocrese
The movementcloses with an exact repetitionof bb. 120-124,with the distinctive G major arpeggioin the violin, of the passageworkfollowing the earlier 6/8 piu momo section,leading into a final statementof the concerto'sopening bar, inevitably (even at this stageof Bacewicz's development)in the key of the tonic: the fundamental, zigzaggingthematic gesture, chromatically rising and falling, is supportedby aD bass note, and resolves,with a suitablydramatic flourish onto a unisonG.
Despite the presence of a number of the usual stylistic features, most notably in the constructionof its main themes,this concertomovement does not fit the patternof its predecessors.The level of thematicactivity obscuresthe usual clarity of the formal structureto the extentthat sectionalboundaries are completelyobscured. This does, however,give the movementa real senseof identity and cohesionwithout becoming repetitivedue to the imaginativereworking of the materialby the composer.
200 PARTFOUR
Bacewicz's Musical Development
Specific musicaldetails revealed in the analysisof the violin concertosallow not only the identification of musical influences,but also changesin Bacewicz's own musical language.In orderto discoverthe reasonsfor thesechanges, it is essentialto look not only at the notes on the page, but also to consider extra-musical factors. The discussionis thereforeorganised in two parts; firstly a summaryof the main trends revealedin previouschapters and then a considerationof the impact of Bacewicz's position as a womancomposer on her writing, developmentand success.
(a) A General Consideration of Bacewiez'sOeuvre
The analytical study of the violin concertosreveals two basic patterns. Firstly, a numberof aspectsof the writing remainfairly constantwithin the seriesand could be consideredthe basis of Bacewicz!s personalstyle. Secondly,a number of gradual changescan be detected,representing a significant musical development. In the wordsof MalgorzatitGqsiorowska,
Bacewicz's music underwent a deep evolution over more than four decadesof her compositionalactivity. It was surely a deeperevolution than that of Poland's leadingNeo-classicists; Antoni Szalowski,Michal Spisakand evenAleksander Tansman. 165
The extent of this development,however, has been contested by somemusicologists.
Adrian Thomasstates that,
165Malgornta G4siorowska,Gra#na BacewiczDays. AnniversaryConceris (Wamw, 1999), 22.
201 Bacewiczs has to that her ... any assessmentof ceuvre recogize compositional aesthetic remained remarkably stable. Only the last is defined through her to her period ... clearly attempts square establishedstyle with the avant-gardesounds and techniquesthat were beguilingso manyof her youngercolleagues. 166
The composer'sown thoughtson this issuewere madevery clear during an interview for Polish Radio in 1964:
It seemsto me, that for instancein my music, though I do not consider myself an innovator,one can noticea continuousline of development.167
The findings of the study supportthis view, suggestinga gradual developmentin a number of closely-relatedareas that reflect contemporarytrends and the composer's searchfor an independentvoice. The processof changecan be seen to take place evenwithin the seriesof sevenworks, often accordingto a pattern.
Bacewicz tends to introduce new ideas in the central parts of concerto movements,for example'in the developmentsection of a sonataform movement.
Theseideas may then be seento progressto other parts of the movementand become an establishedpart of her musicallanguage. A principal aspectof Bacewicz'swriting to undergo substantialchange is her use of harmony, which can be seen to grow graduallymore complexthroughout the seriesof works. At first chromatic notesarc introduced in increasing numbers to the harmony and obscure key centres are explored. Simple clustersare often found in the accompanyinglines, particularly in the developmentsections of the outer movements.As the seriesprogresses, the key centrebecomes more difficult to determinedue to the presenceof diminishedseventh chords and the absenceof the tonic. The level of dissonancerises steadilr, by the
166Thomasý Graipja Bacewicz Chamberatid OrchestralMusic op. cit. 25. 167 Gratyna Bacewic2ý 'Bacewiez, Statementfrom an Interview for Polish Radio', op. cit.
202 seventhconcerto it is commonto seecombinations of eight, nine or eventen different
pitch classes.
Bacewicz's use of texture and orchestration,similarly, changesenormously
during the courseof her career. The earliestconcertos are almost entirely solo-led,
providing little respitefor the soloist duringthe long solo sections. The solo and tutti
parts rarely interact, thus creating a far greater contrast between the solo and tutti
sections. The solo sections are written on the scale of a chamber work and
orchestratedin the manner of a Mozart concerto. It is extremely unusual for
Bacewiczto make full use of the orchestralgroup; even the tuttis are usually scored
for small groupingsof instruments. The brass,section is usedon the whole to create texturerather than provide force and the only percussioninstruments to appeararc the timpani and xylophone. There is generallylittle interactionbetween the string and
wind sections;the composeruses the two as contrastinggroups. The texture builds up
graduallythroughout the first part of eachmovement, at no stagebecoming cluttercd,
with a returnto the textural patternsof the openingsection in the recapitulation.
As the series progresses,abrupt changesin texture become commonplace.
The solo sections continue to be solo4ed with only a skeletal accompaniment provided by the orchestra. During the developmentor central section, however,
interactionsbetween the different sectionsof the orchestrabegin to develop,and a far greaternumber of musicallines are presentedin combination. In later concertosless conventionalcombinations of instrumentsbegin to form concertantegroups which interactto createblock textures. In thesesections Bacewicz experiments with unusual timbral combinations,string effectsand increasinglycomplex, layered textures. Some are so complex that all senseof rhythmic and melodic stability is lost, creating a
203 unique, but quite chaotic sound effect. The solo instrument,often included in the scoring of these sections,becomes a more integral part of the orchestral sound, balancedby the increasedindependence of eachtutti part. Thesetrends culminate in the seventhconcerto, with extremecontrasts forming due to the increasedsize of the forces available and the movementof the concertantewriting to all parts of the movement. These textural formations can even behave thematically, facilitating a move away from traditional melodic writing. Bacewicz characteriseslater concerto movementswith individual intervalsand short melodic patterns,often demonstmting the use of interval-filling.
The changesoutlined abovereveal a significant transformationand affirm that some critics have understated the extent and significance of Bacewicz's musical development.
Thomas refers to 'the customarydivision of Bacewicz's 'music into four periods
(193244; 1945-54;1955-60 and 1961-69)'.168 He goeson to assert,however, that,
[I]t is more accurate to regard Bacewicz's career as consisting of broad, closely-related spans of which the first (1932-44) is largely preparatory to the second (1945-59), with the third (1960-69) being a distinct I- 169 more entity .
Maria Anna Harley (also known as Maja Trochimczyk) swnmarizesBacewicz's developmentaccording to muchthe sametimescale as Thomas:
Bacewicz!s music underwenta discerniblestylistic evolution from an early influence of Szymanowskiand assimilation of French neo- classicism (Boulanger), to her own mature "neo-classical style"
168Thomas, Gra*w Bacewicz.- Chamber and Orchestral Music op. ca, 25. 169ibid, 25.
204 created in her second period, 1944-1958,permeated with folk- influences,and to a period of stylistic experimentationwith sonorism, 12-tone techniques,aleatoricism, collage and quotation that lasted until her deathin 1969.
The composerherself even madecomment on the issue,appropriately enough in the final year of her career
I divide my music into three periods - (1) youth - very experimental, (2) - inappropriately called here neo-classical and being really atonal, and (3) the period in which I'm still located. I arrived at this period by way of evolution (not revolution), through the Music for 5trings, Trumpets and Percussion, the 61h String Quartet (partly serialized), the 2nd Sonata for Violin Solo, and the Concerto for large symphony orchestra.170
Although thesequotations offer differing opinionsregarding the specific dates of the divisions, it is generally acknowledgedthat Bacewicz's musical language graduallymoved away from her Frenchneo-classicism roots, enteringa folk-inspircd middle periodbefore reaching a maturemodem style.
If Thomas' 'customary' divisionswere to be adoptedand relatedto the series of sevenviolin concerti, each time period would be represented,although the main bulk would fit into the middle period. Certainly the most abrupt change occurs betweenthe sixth (1957) and seventhconcertos (1965), coinciding with the move from the 'second' to 'third' period. The first five concertos,however, show such a gradualand consistentdevelopment that it is difficult to apply broad divisions. Any division is, perhaps, misleading. The trends outlined above develop steadily throughoutBacewicz's catalogue. In addition, a numberof enduringfeatures can be found. Often relatedto the composer'scontinuing neo-classical outlook, thesecould
170Gra23= Bacewic4 'A Draft Answer to an Unknown Questionnaire', Ruch Muzycviy, No. 7.1969.
205 be consideredto form the basis of her personalvoice, the most distinctive being her useof form and stringwriting.
Bacewicz'senthusiasm for classicalforms and genresremains throughout her career. She adoptssonata form for the vast majority of outer concertomovements, adheringto someconventions but ignoringothers. A numberof alternativepatterns is establishedas a result, the most potent being her model for the presentationof thematic material. The internal organisationof thesemovements is governedby a concern for balance. This can be seento operateon a number of levels, from the melodic design of the thematic material to the use of concertante writing.
Bacewicz's highly-developeduse of the string section also distinguishesher writing. The composer'sdeep understandingof the violin enablesher to exploit the instrumentto the full. Openstrings, harmonics and fingeringsare usedthroughout to facilitate position changes,provide emphasis,extend the range and create timbral diversity. The use of key centres correspondingto the open strings of stringed instruments in a large proportion of the concerto movements supports a particularly high incidence of these and places a natural emphasison the tonic and dominant. The composer's use of the section as a whole is exceptionally complex and quite unique; her careful attention to detail and clever manipulation of timbre contribute to the creation of a hugely diverse and very colourful string sound.
(b) Bacewiez's Music: Gendered Music?
In order to gain a thorough understandingof all the factors affecting Bacewiczs developmentas a composerit is essentialto considerthe fact that shewas operatingas a womanin a male-dominatedarena.
206 In the early 1980sChristine Battersby claimed that:
A personbrought up a woman can never occupy the samesocial or artistic spaceas one rearedas a man. However superficially similar, her words, works and perceptionswill neverbe the sameas thoseof a man and are likely (whethershe knows it or not) to have featuresin 171 commonwith thoseof otherwomen.
The conceptwas not a new one. French feministsbase much of their work in the field of literature on the assumptionthat a woman's voice differs from a man's as a result of fundamentallydifferent sexualities. Battersby and others have broadened this discussionconsiderably, focusing more on the psychologicaldifferences resulting from the contrastingexperiences of menand women living within a patriarchy.172
Bacewicz's family claims that the composerexperienced very little direct discrimination;she was given sufficient opportunitiesto train, perform, composeand travel. It would be difficult to believe,however, that in Polandin the first half of the twentiethcentury every aspectof her musicalcareer would havebeen identical to that of a man. The survival of her reputationis certainlyone issuethat requiresdiscussion with regardto her gender.
It is difficult to establishquite how these different experiencesarc able to manifestthemselves in a musicalscore. Absolutemusic, in particular,contains no narrative,giving few cluesas to the underlyingintentions of the composer.The study of context is fundamental,however, to the researchof other musical traditions.
Ethnomusicologists,for example,attempt to discover the ways in which piecesof
171Marcia J. Citron, Gemkr and theMusical Canon (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993), 159. Detailsof original sourcenot disclosed. 172Solie defines patriarchy as 'a web of psycho-socialrelationships which institutea socially significantdifference on the axisof sexwhich is so deeplylocated in our very senseof lived, sexual, identity that it appearsto us asnatural and unalterable. Ruth A. Solie, Musicolov andDifference. Genderand Sexualityin Music Scholarship(Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1993), 10.
207 music can expressor reflect the culture that makes and uses them and thus the
differencesbetween and among those peoples. Citron assertsthat such research
methodsshould be extendedto Westernclassical music. She claims that a composer
'is embeddedin particular cultural circumstancesand assumptions,and theseaffect the ways a piece is written."73 Many feminist musicologistsconsider their analytical
approachcan make allowancesfor such concerns. Elizabeth Wood, for example,
suggeststhe following:
If we think about meaning in music and how it is produced,about music as a socially constructed discourse whose meanings are ,decipherable once we learn to interpret its rules and codes,we may find composersusing music in special ways. In life, and in their narratives about life, composersmay resort to music and musical proceduresas a sourceof aflusions,metaphors, roles and techniques. They may also usemusic as a sound-formof narrative:as a way to tell truths aboutlife, shapesubjectivity, and makeaudible feelingsthat are essentiallyprivate, whose meaningswords may only partially reveal. If we read togetherworks of music and autobiographicaltexts, we in turn may usemusical techniques and allusionsto explicatetexts, listen to life, andhear its secrets.174
'Rules and codes' of the kind mentionedby Wood were createdby operacomposers in the seventeenthcentury in an attemptto developa musical sernioticsof gender.a set of conventions for constructing 'masculinity' or 'femininity' in music.
'Familiarity with this network of cultural associationspermits us to recognizeeven in textiess music traditional signs.' 175 Concert programmeshave of course helped to perpetuateaudiences' familiarity with this gesturalvocabulary. McClary reportsalso that 'many aspectsof the codesare strikingly resilient and have been transmittedin because ways that are quite recognizableup to the present... certain social attitudes
173 Citron, op. ciL, 120. 174 S 0li e. 0P. CiL, 164. 175Solie, op. dt, 329.
208 concerning gender have remained relatively constant throughout that stretch of history'. 176
One of the most sophisticatedconstructions of meaning in the sphere of absolutemusic governsthe behaviourof themesin sonata-allegroform. In 1845,the theorist A.B. Marx positedthat the first and secondsubjects in sonataform could be comparedto the genderedcharacteristics of masculineand feminine.177
The theme to the first second ... serves as contrast energetic statement,though dependenton and determinedby it. It is of a more tendernature, fle3dbly rather than emphaticallyconstructed - in a way the feminineas opposedto the precedingmasculine. 178
This suggestion has been taken up with considerable enthusiasm by critical musicologistsincluding McClary. This is not without reason,as Citron has tmccd the appearanceof referencesto the coding of sonataform themesin a number of texts 179 dating throughto the middle of the twentiethcentury.
A gendered analysis of a typical sonata form movement on these terms is a tale of patriarchal authority, a plot played out regularly on the opem stage. Ile conventionsof sonataform ensurethat the 'masculine' themewill eventuallytriumph over the 'feminine' second theme. In the words of McClary, 'the masculine protagonistmakes contact with but must eventuallysubjugate (domesticate or purge) the designated[feminine] Other in order for identity to be consolidated,for the sake of satisfactorynarrative closure. "180
176 McClary,op. cit, S. 177A.B. Marx, Die Lehre von der MusikalischenKomlxWtion. Part3 (Leipzig, 1845). 17'McClary, op. cit, 13. 179Citron,op. dL, 13241. 180ibid, 14.
209 It is essential,therefore, that an analysisof a work in sonataform written after
Marx's study should at least give considerationto the amlogy, as any composer's
understandingof the form will havebeen infonned by the conscious(or unconscious)
manipulationof thesestereotypes by others. A woman composer,in particular, may be disposedto mount a challengeto sucha formal scheme. It wouldýof course,not be unexpectedfor any twentieth-centurycomposer to makealterations to the classical
model; indeed, departurefrom the norm was expectedeven in the seventeenthand
eighteenthcenturies. The specific natureof the composer'sopposition to any of the multitude of conventions,however, could be significant.
Bacewicz always deniedthe existenceof nan-ativeand meaningin her instrumental
music; she believed it to be autonomousand absolute. In an interview with Stefan
Kisielewski in 1960, she said that 'music doesnot expressany fcclings of ordinary 181'This life, it simply communicatesitself and its own emotions'. was, of course,a typical manifestationof the modernistaesthetic, but G4-siorowskaalso reports that
'the ideal of "objective" art struck a commonnote here with the principles she bad
beentaught in her family home' and would of coursehave tied in with contemporary
modernist beliefs. McClary attributes this common denial of significance and
meaningto the patriarchaltradition:
[o]ur disciplinestend to academic ... avoid questionsof signification This denial has history that altogether... a complex cultural reaches far beyondthe domain of music theory and musicology. As feminist scholarship in every discipline is beginning to demonstrate,the tendencyto deny the body and to identify with pure mind underlies 182 virtually every aspectof patriarchalWestern culture.
'a' Malgorzata,G*iorowska, Gratyja Bacewicz DaYs-7Amdversary Concerts (Warsaw-. Concert literature, 1999), 22. 182McClary, op. cit, 54.
210 It is unsurprising, therefore, that a woman composer might feel it particularly
necessaryto deny the existenceof codesof significance. Yet this does not render them inoperative.
The nature of Bacewicz's compositionaloutput reveals a similar attitude.
Bacewicz recalls that Boulanger once describedthe profession to which she was entering as an 'essentially masculineworld of musical creation'.193 It seemsthat
Bacewicz was keen to enter this world and competeon the sametcn-ns as her male colleagues.According to Citron, womencomposers generally find it easyto 'identify with male mentorsand colleagues,and with customsand traditions that grow out of the expectationsand experiencesof men'. The processcan lead to what Judith
Fetterley terms 'immasculation': taking on the viewpoint of men and identifying againstwomen. 184 Boulanger herself, although always happy to promotethe music of her sister, did little to promotethe work of other woman composersknown to her.
The vast majority of Bacewicz'sworks are composedin standardforms, indicatingan obvious willingness to tackle the more 'serious' genres. In contrast, many other women composersincluding Cdcile Chaminadeand Maude Valerie Wrightýchosc to or were perhapsencouraged to avoid complexmusical structures.'" Chaminade,for example,attempted only one piano sonataand was not preparedto presentthe results in public.
Bacewicz'sconcertos draw predominantlyon establishedforms, in particular sonata form. The composer'smanipulation of the conventionsof this form are
183B. Maciejewski, op. cM, 65. 194 Citron, op. Cg, 156. 185Derek Hyde makes a study of such composersin his book, New Foutki Voices. Womenin Nineteenth Century Wish Music. (Aldershot and Brookfield USA: Ashgate), 1998.
211 interesting,particularly as the themesare usually set up according to the gendcrcd stereotypes.The two themesare, in mostcases, equal partners, and in most casesthe first subject theme (theme A) fulfils its primary function and returns in the recapitulation, providing closure. In two of the movements of the concertos, however, this is not the case. In the first movementsof the second and third concertos,the first subjecttheme is entirely absentfrom the recapitulationsection; both close with a referenceto the secondsubject theme (themeB). The balanceof power is clearly upsetand in this case,in Marxian terms,constitutes a victory for the
'feminine' thematic material. Given Bacewicz's usual adherenceto this particular convention,her decisionto abandonthe 'masculine'theme altogether in theseworks must be significant.
The first subjectmaterial is alsoundermined on a numberof occasionsby the composer'sintroduction of additionalthematic material. In the first movementof the second concerto,for example,Bacewicz compensatesfor the loss of theme A by introducing additionalmaterial. The first subjecttheme is a quite typical 'masculine' constructionwritten in the key of A minor. Shortly afterwards,however, a second
'masculine'theme is introducedin the relative major. The 'feminine secondsubject theme(theme B) doesnot appearuntil much later in the expositionin the tonic key.
The choice of key further contributesto the demiseof theme A; theme B effectively takes control of the patriarchaltonic, stripping the first theme of its basic function, providing closure.
Bacewicis use of key underminesthe classical roles of the themes on a numberof occasions;a clear examplecan be found in the first movementof the first concerto. Here, the theme'sbold statementof the tonic, A major, is immediately
212 4
underminedby a move to Bb for the usualrepetition of the thematic material. Such
an opening frees the remainderof the movementfrom any tonal constraintsas the
listenerhas no real senseof the tonic. The thememoves rapicHy through a numberof
key centres,reaching the key of Bb for the introduction of theme B at b. 65, thus
confirming its identity as the dominanttheme. By carefully manipulatinga specific
relationshipbetween the first subjectand anotherkey centre,Bacewicz managesto
establisha hierarchywhich is in turn transferredto the two main themes.
The dynamicsof the relationshipbetween the first and secondsubjects also
change regularly due to the presence of two contrasting elements within a single theme. By incorporating 'feminine' material into theme A without omitting or downgrading the role of the 'feminine' second subject, the balance of the movement is considerably altered.
Bacewicz clearly utilises a numberof methodsto undermineand control the
'masculine'themes in a numberof her concertomovements. The numberof strategies developedand employedsurely displays a determinationto make a statementand challengethe acceptednorms. It is difficult to ascertainwhether Bacewicz launched this assaultas a retaliationto the 'masculine'domination of the form, or as a meansof adaptingthe well-usedform for her purposesas a twentieth centuryneo-classicist. In the absenceof the composeestestimony, it is only possible, for the moment, to highlight this idiosyncraticbehaviour. Only when linked to future studiesof other women composersworking under similar conditionscan the extentof its relationship to genderbe revealed.
It could be useful, however,to compareBacewiczs methodsto those of her male contemporaries.The close links betweenthe neo-classicalworks of Bacewicz
213 and Stravinsky would certainly support the investigation of other works. One of
Stravinsky's first neo-classicalworks, Puldnella, for example, demonstratesa tremendousnumber of similar stylistic features.Puldnella is modelledon a baroque suite, using traditional forms such as a Gavotteand Variations (Mvt. VI) and Minuet
(Mvt. 8). The harmonic languagerelies heavily on that of the original, though
'distorted' by Stravinskianinterjections and extra layers, with additional harmony using fourths and fifths, facilitated by an abundantuse of open stringsand harmonics.
Traditional orchestralwriting is juxtaposedagainst sectionsof concertantewriting using Stravinsky's hallmark of novel orchestration. In relation to this work
Stravinskywrote:
I have tried to arrive at an even dynamic in the juxtaposition of instrumentaltimbres which havesimilar soundinglevels. A colour has value only by the relationshipto other coloursjuxtaposed with it. A red hasno valueby itself, it acquiresit only by its proximity to another red or a green,for example.186
Baroque/Classicaldevices and figurationsappear throughout the work. Theseinclude repetitive accompanyingfigures (see fig. 62); scale-wise movement (flig. 32); imitation (fig. 44); sequences(fig. 32); string crossings(fig. 56) and pedal notes(fig.
100). Bacewicz'searly compositionalstyle resemblesevery aspectof this apprpach.
From this common aesthetic,the two composersmoved in quite different directions. It is interesting, therefore, to look at Stravinsky's use of form and thematic material in a slightly later work in order to assessthe significance of
Bacewicz's developmentsin these areas. Stravinsky wrote far fewer sonata-form
186 Mid, 113.
214 movementsthan Bacewicz,but modelsfor the treatmentof themescan still be found
in the Symphonyin ThreeMovements.
The first movementof this work is not a conventionalsonata-form movement, although broad areasof exposition and recapitulationcan be identified. The first theme, introduced at the opening of the movement,returns only to announceits
closure. It is highly 'masculine' in character,marked ff with accentsand large, ascendingintervals. Its limited role is offset by the omnipresentsecond theme,
introduced at b. 21. This theme appearsin a number of different guises (see for examplefigs. 34,38,53,97), but is alwaysrecognisable due to its melodic contour, the movement could almost be viewed as a set of variations with separate introduction and coda sections. The natureof the secondsubject material doesnot serve as a direct contrastto the openingtheme: it is quiet, but is heavily accented, marked marcalo, and is built on a seriesof large intervals. Additional thematic material is introducedonce at b. 26, returningtowards the end of the movementat fig.
88. Again, this is marked staccato and marcalo,with frequent accents. In this movement,there seemsto be a complete absenceof thematic material offering a stereotypically'feminine' alternativeto the highly 'masculine' openingtheme. The third movement, again, is not a typical sonata form movement. The overfly
'masculine' openingtheme recurs only occasionally,and often in characteronly. it is marked fortissimo, and again, is heavily accented. A series of melodies are introduced creating occasionalmoments of contrast, but none reappear. There is certainly no strongsecond subject theme to offset the weighty openingtheme. in this work, Stravinsky constructshighly "masculine' thematic material which is never challengedby an opposingtheme. He rarely includes 'feminine' material, creating
215 ' contrastinstead by suddenchanges in texture and movesto concertantewriting. Ile certainly is not working along the samelines as Bacewicz,who seemsactively to be searchingfor ways to undermine'masculine' material and assertthe secondsubject theme.
It is possible,therefore, that the two discussionscontained within this chapter are interrelated. The developmentfrom Bacewicz's neo-classicalroots to a more individual musicallanguage may not only havebeen the result of outside influences and contemporarytrends, but also a willingnessas a maturecomposer to move away from traditionalpatriarchal models of compositiorL
The study of the sevenViolin Concertoshas proven,without doubt, that Bacewicz's compositionalstyle underwenta numberof very definite changesover the courseof her career. A number of the characteristicsalso associatedwith the music of
Lutoslawskiwere assimilatedquite naturallyinto her style, and certainly not pastedon at the last momentat the time of 'the thaw', the partial lowering of cultural barriers betweenEastern and WesternEurope. Although it is difficult to state with absolute certaintythe extent of the impact of composerson eachother's work, there can be no doubtthat Bacewiczcontributed vastly to the developmentof Polish music. Her work with texture, in particular, predatesthe interest in textural issuesthat characterises
Lutoslawski's celebratedworks of the 1960s. While Lutoslawski's musical language hasbeen widely acknowledgedas experimentaland progressive,these traits arc rarely associatedwith the music of Bacewicz. It is surely time not only for a reassessment of her contribution to development of Polish music, but also for a renewed
216 appreciation of her music, in particular, the violin concerti, some of which rank amongher greatestachievements.
217 Appcndix
List of Works
A number of cataloguesof Bacewicz's works exist; those by Judith Rosen, Malgorzata
Gqsiorowska, the Polish Music Centre, PWM and Wanda Bacewicz are the most
extensive! This list of works brings togetherinformation from each as none seemsto be
comprehensive. As it is difficult to verify the information, each of their listings is
included, but with the original source identified. Additional information is given
wherever possible, with discrepanciesbetween the above catalogueshighlighted. Any
details other than the name of work and date of composition, however, are drawn from just three sources:those of Malgorzata Gqsiorowska,the Polish Music Centre and PWM.
1Rosen, op. cht, Gqsiorowska,op. cir, Polish Music Centre. JamesHarley Ed., httpJ/www. usc.edu/depttpolish_musidWPUVbacewiczlb-wrks -f htinl, Copyright1998-2003, accessed June 2005; Ed. ElIbieta Dziqbowska,Enejvlopedia ofMusie. PWAf, Biographicalpart, Vol. 1,4AB'supplement, WandaBacewicz, Gra, 5m BawWcz- Principal Worksýunpublished.
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(Full Score) Violin ConcertoNo. 6. (HandwrittenFull Score) 1965. . Violin ConcertoNo. 7. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzyczne, . 1965. (PianoReduction) Violin ConcertoNo. 7. (HandwrittenFull Score) 1965. . Other Works by Grzkyna Bacewicz Concertofor String Orchestra. Krak6w- Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1948. Contradizionefor Chamber Orchestra. Krak6w-. Polskie, Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1966. Divertimentofor String Orchestra. Krak6w: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1967. Easy Worksfor Clarinet. Krak6w: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1950. Musicfor Strings, Trumpets and Percussion. Kmk6w: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1958. Musica Sinfonicain Tre Movimenti. Krak6w- Polskie WydawnictwoMuzymne, 1965. Overturefor Orchestra. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzymne, 1947. Partitafor Orchestra. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzymne, 1955. Piano SonataNo. 2. Krak6w: PoIsIdeWydawnictwo Muzymne, 1955. Quartelfor Four Violins. Krak6w: Polskie WydawnictwoMuzyczne, 1950. SonaladaCamera. Krak6w-PoiskieWydawnictwoMuzyczne, 1951. SymphonyNo.3. Kmk6w: PolskieWydawnictwoMuzyczne, 1952. String QuartetNo. 5. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwoMuzyczne, 1955. String QuartetNo. 6. Kmk6w: PolskieWydawnictwoMuzyczne, 1960. String QuartetNo. 7. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzymne, 1965. Triofor Oboe,Violin and Cello. Krak6w- PoWe WydawnictwoMuzyczne, 1935. Violin SonataNo. 2. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1950. Violin SonataNo. 4. Krak6w-.Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzymne, 1952. Violin SonataNo. 5. Krak6w: PolskieWydawnictwo Muzymne, 1954, 268