Coal Markets and Carbon Capture

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Coal Markets and Carbon Capture Coal Markets and Carbon Capture Model Development and Climate Policy Applications Dissertation vorgelegt von Dipl.-Ing. Roman Mendelevitch von der Fakultät VII – Wirtschaft und Management der Technischen Universität Berlin Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Wirtschaftswissenschaften - Dr. rer. oec. – genehmigte Dissertation Promotionsausschuss: Vorsitzender: Prof. Karsten Neuhoff, Ph.D.(TU Berlin) Gutachter: Prof. Sauleh Siddiqui, Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins University) Gutachterin: Dr. Franziska Holz (DIW Berlin) Gutachter: Prof. Christian von Hirschhausen (TU Berlin) Tag der wissenschaftlichen Aussprache: 10. Oktober 2016 Berlin, 2016 Abstract The international consensus regarding the 1.5-2°C target in the COP21 Paris Agreement entails that most fossil fuel reserves must remain unburned. Currently, a majority of climate policies aiming at reducing fossil fuel consumption are directed toward the demand side. In the absence of a global carbon regime, these policies are prone to carbon leakage and other adverse effects. Supply-side climate policies present an alternative and more direct approach to reduce fossil fuel consumption by addressing its production. Here, coal, as both the most abundant and the most emission-intensive fuel, plays a pivotal role. In the first part of this dissertation, I use a model of the international steam coal market (COALMOD- World) to examine the effects of different supply-side climate policies and the extent to which they can achieve desired reductions in coal consumption. The partial equilibrium model is designed to replicate global patterns of coal supply, demand, and international trade. It features endogenous investments in production, export, and transportation capacities in a multi-period framework, while allowing for substitution between imports and domestic production of steam coal. The first policy examines the introduction of taxes on steam coal exports and, alternatively, on steam coal production, based on the rationale of reduced consumption and improved terms-of-trade. To this end, COALMOD-World is extended to a two-level setting. Results show that while significant revenues can be generated through a tax, substantial reductions in coal consumption can only be induced if a large coalition of producers jointly introduces a tax. A second policy analysis investigates the effects of removing subsidies for steam coal production. While the policy has a small positive net welfare effect, prices do not increase by the magnitude required to drive down coal consumption. Another supply-side policy currently discussed is a moratorium on new coal mines. I compile a unique dataset of reserves in currently active mines. Using different estimates of reserves in China and India, I set up two scenarios. I find that the low estimate of reserves would result in a coal consumption pattern compatible with a 2°C target in the absence of the Carbon Capture, Transport and Storage (CCTS) technology. CCTS technology has been used to justify prolonged use of coal for electricity generation. In the second part of this dissertation, I take a critical view on CCTS. Scenario results from the mixed- integer, multi-period, cost-minimizing network model CCTS-Mod suggest that - even in combination with CO2-enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR) - the technology will not play a major role in decarbonizing the European electricity system. It might be an alternative for industrial processes where CO2 can be captured at lower cost, especially in the iron and steel industry and in the cement industry. Coordination in developing transport and storage infrastructure is found to be crucial for realizing the associated economies of scale. Lastly, ELCO, an integrated modeling framework that is able to assess the implications of various regulatory approaches on the development of a future electricity mix with a detailed representation of CCTS is presented. The framework is applied to a case study of the UK Electricity Market Reform to illustrate the mechanisms and potential results attained from the model. Keywords: Carbon capture, CCS, CCTS, climate change, coal, CO2-EOR, partial equilibrium modelling, policy analysis, reserves, resource markets, steam coal, strategic behavior, subsidy removal, supply-side climate policy, taxes I Zusammenfassung Der bei COP21 in Paris erreichte Konsens eines 1.5°-2°C Ziels impliziert, dass große Teile der heute als Reserven verfügbaren fossilen Rohstoffe im Boden verbleiben müssen. Gegenwärtig zielt eine Vielzahl der Maßnahmen, die der Reduktion des Konsums fossiler Rohstoffe dienen soll, auf die Nachfrageseite ab. Ohne ein verbindliches globales CO2-Budget, sind diese Politiken jedoch anfällig für Emissionsverlagerungen und andere unerwünschte Effekte. Angebotsseitige Maßnahmen stellen alternative Politikinstrumente dar, die durch Angebotsreduktion direkt eine Reduktion des Konsums fossiler Rohstoffe bewirken können. Dabei spielt gerade die Kohle als einerseits emissionsintensivster und anderseits reichlich vorhandener fossiler Rohstoff, eine zentrale Rolle. Im ersten Teil dieser Dissertation nutze ich ein Modell des internationalen Kesselkohlemarkts (COALMOD-World), um die Effekte verschiedener angebotsseitiger Politikmaßnahmen auf die Nachfrage nach Kohle zu untersuchen. Dabei wird betrachtet, inwieweit diese dazu geeignet sind, angestrebte Reduktionen des Kohlekonsums zu erreichen. Das für die Untersuchung genutzte, partiale Gleichgewichtsmodell ist in der Lage sowohl das globale Angebot als auch die Nachfrage sowie internationalen Kesselkohlehandel zu simulieren. Über mehrere Zeitschritte hinweg umfasst es endogene Investitionen in Produktions-, Export- und Transportkapazitäten und ermöglicht die Substitution zwischen einheimischer Produktion und Importen. Das erste Politikszenario untersucht die Einführung von Export- bzw. Produktionssteuern auf Kesselkohle. Dieser Politik liegt die Idee zugrunde, dass dadurch einerseits der Konsum reduziert, andererseits, die Terms-of-Trade verbessert werden können. Zur Umsetzung des Szenarios wird COALMOD-World zu einem zweistufigen Setting erweitert. Ergebnisse zeigen, dass durch die Steuer zwar signifikante Erlöse erzielt werden können, jedoch für eine substanzielle Reduktion des Kohlekonsums eine große Koalition von Ländern, die gemeinsam eine Produktionssteuer erheben, notwendig ist. Als weitere Politikmaßnahme untersuche ich den Wegfall von Subventionen für die Kohleproduktion. Zwar zeigt die Maßnahme einen geringen positiven Effekt auf die Nettowohlfahrt, jedoch bewirkt sie keine erhebliche Steigerung des Kohlepreises. Diese wäre allerdings notwendig, um den Kohlekonsum nachhaltig zu reduzieren. Eine weitere angebotsseitige Politikmaßnahme, die aktuell diskutiert wird, ist die Einführung eines Moratoriums auf neue Kohleminen. Hierfür habe ich einen einzigartigen Datensatz zusammengestellt, der die Reserven in bereits bestehenden Minen zusammenfasst. Basierend auf verschiedenen Annahmen zu Reserven in China und Indien, untersuche ich zwei Szenarien. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass eine Beschränkung auf aktive Minen - unter der Annahme geringer Reserven in China und Indien - zu einer Nachfrage nach Kohle führen würde, die mit dem 2°C Ziel vereinbar wäre. Dabei wird angenommen, dass die CO2-Abscheidungs-, Transport- und Speichertechnologie (engl. Carbon Capture, Transport, and Storage - CCTS) nicht zur Verfügung steht. Im zweiten Teil dieser Dissertation wird die CCTS-Technologie, die lange Zeit dafür genutzt wurde, um neue Investitionen in Kohlekraftwerke zu rechtfertigen, kritisch beleuchtet. Ergebnisse des gemischtganzzahligen, kostenminimierenden Multiperiodenmodells CCTS-Mod zeigen, dass die Technologie keine große Rolle bei der Dekarbonisierung des europäischen Strommarkts spielen wird, selbst wenn das abgeschiedene CO2 zur tertiären Ölgewinnung (engl. CO2-enhanced oil recovery - CO2-EOR) wertsteigernd eingesetzt wird. Die Technologie könnte jedoch eine Alternative für II Emissionen aus industriellen Prozessen darstellen, bei denen das CO2 zu geringeren Kosten abgeschieden werden kann. Des Weiteren zeigen die Modellergebnisse, dass Koordination für das Erzielen von Skaleneffekten bei Transport und Speicherung von CO2 eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Zuletzt wird mit ELCO ein integriertes Framework vorgestellt, welches für die Untersuchung unterschiedlicher regulatorischer Ansätze auf die Ausgestaltung eines zukünftigen Strommixes genutzt werden kann. Dabei ist die CCTS-Technologie mit ihren Prozessschritten im Detail abgebildet. Das Modell wird zur Untersuchung der UK Electricity Market Reform genutzt, um die abgebildeten Mechanismen und mögliche Modellergebnisse vorzuführen. Schlüsselwörter: CO2-Abscheidung, CCS, CCTS, Klimawandel, Kohle, tertiäre Ölgewinnung mit CO2, partiale Gleichgewichtsmodellierung, Politikanalyse, Reserven, Ressourcenmärkte, Kesselkohle, strategisches Verhalten, Abbau von Subventionen, angebotsseitige Klimapolitik, Steuern III Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Christian von Hirschhausen. He sent me through a tough program of challenging and promoting. He did a great job in motivating me by providing access to incredible places: together, we have visited nuclear power plants, former and future nuclear waste disposals, have seen the strongest high voltage line in the world in Kazakhstan and met the avant-garde of energy modeling in Washington DC. I am thankful for these great experiences and opportunities and I am now eager to leave my own footsteps on the
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