Review of the Air Force Academy The Scientific Informative Review, Vol X, No 2(21)/2012

BRAŞOV SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS EDITORIAL BOARD

Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics Editor-in-chief

Cmdr Prof Mircea BOŞCOIANU, PhD Maj Assistant Prof Adrian LESENCIUC, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

Prof Ion DINESCU, PhD Editorial assistants (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics Prof Nicolae JULA, PhD Maj Cristea RĂU (Military Technical Academy, Bucharest, Romania) (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

Prof Ştefan NEDELCU, PhD Management and Socio-Humanities (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Capt Assistant Cătălin CIOACĂ

Col Prof Marian PEARSICĂ, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) ( “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Editors Cmdr Prof Constantin ROTARU, PhD Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics (Military Technical Academy, Bucharest, Romania) Capt Cmdr Assistant Prof Ionică CÎRCIU, PhD Prof Florentin SMARANDACHE, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) (University of New Mexico, Gallup Campus, USA) LtCol Assistant Prof Laurian GHERMAN, PhD Associate Prof Lavinia GAVRILĂ, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Associate Prof Ivanka Milkova STAMOVA, PhD Associate Prof Doru LUCULESCU, PhD (Burgas Free University, Burgas, Bulgaria) (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Assistant Prof Liliana MIRON, PhD Associate Prof Ivanka Milkova STAMOVA, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) (Burgas Free University, Burgas, Bulgaria) Assistant Mihaela SMEADĂ, PhD Associate Prof Alexandru ŞTEFAN, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) ( Manhattan Institute of Management, New York, USA) Management and Socio-Humanities

Management and Socio-Humanities Associate Prof Bledar TOSKA, PhD

Cmdr Prof Traian ANASTASIEI, PhD (University of Vlorë, Vlorë, Albania)

(National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania) Assistant Prof Lenka KURHAJCOVA, PhD

Col Prof Zbysek KORECKI, PhD (University of Security Management, Košice, Slovakia)

(University of Defense, Brno, Czech Republic) Assistant Prof Mihaela GURANDA, PhD

Prof Marcela LUCA, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

(“Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania) Capt Assistant Cosmina DRĂGHICI

Prof Vasile MACOVICIUC, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

(Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania) Assistant Daniela NAGY

Cmdr Prof Gabriel-Florin MOISESCU, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

(“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Researcher Andreea SZILAGYI, PhD

Prof Stelian PÂNZARU, PhD (European Board for Certified Councelors)

(“Spiru Haret” University, Brasov, Romania) Researcher Diana GHIDO

Prof Milan SOPOCI, PhD (The Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania / (Armed Forces Academy, Liptovsky Mikulas, Slovakia) University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland)

Associate Prof Margareta BOACĂ, PhD Researcher Georgiana UDREA (National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania) (NSPAS, Bucharest, Romania / University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) Associate Prof Ella CIUPERCĂ, PhD (National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest, Romania) Col Ovidiu MO OIU, PhD (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) Associate Prof Nicoleta CORBU, PhD (National School of Political Studies, Bucharest, Romania) Designer

Associate Prof Diana ILIŞOI, PhD Math Carmen URSOIU (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania) (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

Lt Col Associate Prof Jaromir MARES, PhD Printing (University of Defense, Brno, Czech Republic)

Associate Prof Pavel NEČAS, PhD Eng Daniela OBREJA (Armed Forces Academy, Liptovksy Mikulas, Slovakia) (“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania)

Associate Prof Bledar TOSKA, PhD * * * (University of Vlorë, Vlorë, Albania) The editorial board claims no responsibility concerning the Researcher Alberto FORNASARI, PhD scientific contents of the published papers in this issue. (“Aldo Moro” University of Bari, Bari, Italy) The authors take full responsibility for the contents. No Researcher Maria de São José CÔRTE-REAL, PhD part of this publication may be reproduced, partially or (Universidade Nova, Lisbon, Portugal) totally, without the prior w ritten permission of the

Researcher Asher SHAFRIR, PhD publishing board. (Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel)

- 11/2012 ISSN 1842 – 9238 Review of the Air Force Academy

C O N T E N T S

TECHNICAL SCIENCES AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS

Laurian GHERMAN An Electromagnetic Launch System for UAVs ...... 05

Cristina Sanda CISMAŞIU Some Remarks on Lupaş Operators of Second Kind ...... 12

Cezar VASILESCU Modeling the Reliability of C4ISR Systems Hardware/Software Components Using an Improved Markov Model ...... 15

Vasile ŞANDRU Emerging Aspects in the Process of Modernizing Integrated Airspace System 25

Vasile PRISACARIU, Ionică CÎRCIU, Mircea BOŞCOIANU Flying Wing Aerodynamic Analysis ...... 31

Gheorghe MORARIU, Ecaterina Liliana MIRON Transmission Lines Analysis Using Cascades T Filters ...... 36

MANAGEMENT AND SOCIO-HUMANITIES

Victor CHRISTIANTO, Florentin SMARANDACHE Social Archiving and the Role of New Media in Scientific Dissemination: A Viewpoint ...... 40

Adrian LESENCIUC, Raluca Mihaela LEVONIAN Requirements of Discursive Rationality in Regard to the Discourse of Ph.D. Theses in Social Sciences ...... 42

Emrah AKÇAY Your Body Reveals You ...... 50

Diana ILIŞOI, Daniela NAGY Intercultural Management – A Challenge of the Contemporary World ...... 56

Ella Magdalena CIUPERCĂ A Comparative Analysis of Security and Intelligence Academic Studies in the Western Area and Romania ...... 61

Cosmina DRĂGHICI The Use of English vs. American Military Terms between the XVIIth and XXth Centuries ...... 66

Mariana BORCOMAN Universitas Saxonum – A Political and Administrative Institution of the Transylvanian Germans ...... 74 3 Contents

Oana-Andreea PÎRNUÎĂ, Dragoş Nicolae Secărea The Impact of International Organizations on Global Security ...... 78

Ovidiu MOŞOIU Risk Assessment Strategies against Money Laundering and International Terrorism Financing ...... 82

Ion BĂLĂCEANU Methods, Instruments and Sources of Money Laundering Used for Financing International Terrorism ...... 89

Tomáš SCHÓBER, Blažej LIPPAY, Pavel NEČAS Possibilities of Countering the Air Threat and Prevention against it ...... 95

Ivan KOBLEN, Libor TALPAŠ, Ján JURČÁK Selected Aspects of Aviation Equipment Disposal Issue ...... 102

Daniela BELU The Psychological and Statistic Instruments Used to Measure Detachment from the Other’s Opinion – The Basis of Leadership ...... 109

Carmen Maria CHIŞIU Mentoring an Alternative Pedagogical Change ...... 115

Cornel SCURT A Study on the Percentage of Varied Terrain Running for Improving Effort Capacity in Junior Female Middle and Long Distance Runners ...... 121

Silviu Gabriel BARBU Brief Comments Regarding the Draft of New Law on Probation ...... 127

Mădălina COCOŞATU Analysis on the Principle of National Sovereignty in the Constitutional Regulations of the European Union Member States ...... 133

BOOK REVIEW

Adrian LESENCIUC For a Pedagogy of Points of View ...... 137

Cosmina DRĂGHICI On War and (In)Security ...... 141

4 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

AN ELECTROMAGNETIC LAUNCH SYSTEM FOR UAVs

Laurian GHERMAN

Department of Electronics and Informatics, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper presents a new design of a launch catapult based on electromagnetic energy for tactical UAVs. This technology is under development to launch projectiles with high velocity but it has theoretically proved the possibility to launch also UAVs. The second part presents a theoretical approach necessary to find the expression of force under certain approximation for E-shaped electromagnetic launch system design. Based on the theoretical results, I have built a physical model in order to examine the behavior of this design under laboratory conditions. After that, I have created a computer model calibrated to reproduce the behavior of the physical model with errors below 1%. I have used an interactive software package based on the finite element method (FEM) to analyze, solve three- dimensional electromagnetic field problems and simulate the E-shaped design’s behaviors. The last part of the paper present the results of simulation which prove the possibility of using the E-shape design to launch different masses with a desired speed.

Keywords: UAV, coilgun, induction, Lorentz force, electromagnetic launch system).

1. INTRODUCTION - this approach is environmentally friendly. Nowadays UAVs have recorded an The catapult installations use different increased rate of development and so they can kinds of energy to accelerate the UAVs like: now its cover a large spectrum of missions. If - mechanical energy stored in springs or we compare UAVs based on dimensions we rubber bungee; can see that there are big UAVs used to - pneumatic/hydraulic energy produced operate at global level through mini UAVs by cylinders and pistons; used inside buildings. The big UAVs are - electromechanical energy produced by operated almost like a manned aircraft, fact electrical motors. which implies the existence of an airport All these installations are made by using infrastructure and a runway for take-off and many parts which increase the complexity and landing. The mini UAVs can be launched by require a lot of maintenance in order to be hand. Between these two extremes, there is a functional. Also these installations are not part category of UAVs used at tactical level which of the automatic loop used to control the cannot be launched by hand and the cost to UAVs. In order to improve the launch system build a runway is very high. These UAVs are this should have few moving parts to reduce launched using RATO (rocket assisted take- maintenance costs and should be powered by off) or catapults. These installations are a good electric energy in order to be easily integrated solution because: into the automatic control loop. - the UAVs can be launched without any A possible solution can be an infrastructure; electromagnetic launch system like, the railgun - because the fuel is not used for or coilgun. These systems were initially launching the payload weight or the mission developed to accelerate projectiles at very high time can be increased; speeds. Because the guns based on chemical 5

An electromagnetic launch system for UAVs energy achieved their maximum possibilities to launch UAVs but it can do it. So in order to the researchers found a new way to increase use an electromagnetic launch system to the projectile speed from 1.5 km/s to 8 km/s. launch UAVs another approach should be The first direction of research and the most taken into consideration. This new approach developed is the railgun design. This design should eliminate the sliding contacts and use consists of two parallel DC powered rails, and less energy. To do this, such a system should a sliding armature between them. This be based on induction and magnetic flux armature is rigidly coupled with the projectile. density B should be created by a coil. The Lorentz force is used to launch Based on this observation I have developed projectiles. A good approximation of the force a new coilgun. This design is an improvement produced by this design is given by the of an older, well known design like “Thomson expression (Railgun, 2011): Jumping Ring” adapted to launch projectiles. (1) This approach solves most of issues related with the railgun system presented above: where: - magnetic constant ; 1) The magnetic flux densities B is I - the current through system (A); d - the created by a coil and a magnetic circuit made distance between rails; r - the radius of the by soft magnetic materials; rails. 2) The current necessary to produce desirable magnetic flux densities B is less than in the case of the railgun design; 3) The armature is a ring made of aluminum and the UAVs can be attached by ring. 4) The current is induced into the ring so there are not contacts between the armature and coil or magnetic circuits; 5) The Lorentz force produced is only in axial direction and it is possible to use all the available energy to accelerate the ring.

Fig.1 Rail gun design (Railgun, 2011)

Because this system is in an advanced stage of development and the results obtained are good, it was used like a possible solution to replace the steam catapults on US carriers. This technology proved that it is capable to accelerate an F18 airplane to the takeoff speed on the same length like the steam catapult. Despite these achievements the railgun technology has a few drawbacks. The main drawback is the sliding contact between armature and rails. Because of this the rails must be replaced after a certain number of launches. Also because the rail is like a straight conductor a very high current is necessary to produce the desirable magnetic Fig.2 “E-shaped” coilgun design flux density B. As a result the power source should be able to provide a large amount of In Gherman et al. (2011:725-729) I have energy. Taking into consideration these demonstrated the superiority of “E-shaped” drawbacks this technology is not suitable yet design compared with “Thomson Jumping 6 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

Ring” design. Despite the fact that this design avoided). I calculated the air gap at a is still under development, it has demonstrated minimum possible to allow the movement of the possibility to produce enough force to the ring without any friction. The dimensions launch an UAV. This paper presents this of the “E-shaped” launcher are: design and the results obtained under 1) coil height Hc=58 mm; inner diameter laboratory conditions. dc=40 mm; outer diameter Dc=60 mm; number of turns N=300; winding made of 2. THE “E-SHAPED” DESIGN THEORY cooper wire. 2) ring height Hr=5 mm; inner diameter This device is based on two fundamental dr=40 mm; outer diameter Dr=50 mm; made laws: the Faraday law (induction) and Lorentz −3 of aluminum; mass mr= ⋅1010 kg. law (force). 3) the coil is powered by a voltage source dϕ −=ε (2) of 240 V/ 50 Hz. dt Because magnetic flux density B is a Φ If there is N number of turns in the coil function of linkage flux l and the induced with the same amount of flux flowing through current inside the ring is a function of speed it, hence: variation of a fraction of linkage flux, mutual dϕ Φ −=ε N (3) Φ ⎛ d M ⎞ dt coupled flux, ⎜ ⎟ a maximum ⎝ dt ⎠ where: N – number of turns of wire in coil. M Lorentz’s force is produced by a current linkage flux must be created in order to carrying conductor (in this case the ring) achieve a maximum force. present in a uniform magnetic field of flux First, let us consider the device without the density B (in this case into the airgap between ring. The coil is powered by a sinusoidal voltage. columns). Dependent upon the direction of the ϕ surrounding magnetic field, the force induced ()+=α+ω d c m1 cc0 NiRtsinU (6) is given by (in this case in axial direction dt repulsive sense): Where: U m1 – maximum value of source = () α BXliF (4) voltage; c – phase angle; Rc – electrical where: i – represents the current flow in the resistance of coil wire; ic – intensity of conductor; l – length of wire, with direction of current in coil wire; – number of turns in l defined to be in the direction of current flow; N ϕ B – magnetic field density coil; c – magnetic flux created by coil. = The goal is to create an electromagnetic For the limit case when Rc 0 it can be launch system based on the “E-shaped” design written: which produces a Lorentz force at a maximum dϕ possible value under certain condition in order ()=α+ω NtsinU c (7) m1 0 dt to achieve a specific muzzle velocity necessary The solution of (7) is: to launch different UAVs with different U masses. −=ϕ m1 ()+α+ω Ctcos (8) c ω 0 First, I chose the shape of armature circular N ϕ = because l is maximum in the case of a If considered at t=0 c 0 then: αΦ= circumscribed circle of a square. Compared cosC 0cm (9) with a square it can be written: So, the expression of magnetic flux can be πr > 2r (5) written: 2 ϕ Φ−= ω αΦ+α+ cmc cos)tcos( 0cm0 (10) where: r - the radius of the circle. Where the first term from the right side is I calculated the dimensions of the magnetic the ac component and the second term is the circuits in order to allow the saturation only dc component. For us the most favorable inside the coil (the saturation cannot be 7 An electromagnetic launch system for UAVs situation is at =α 00 or =α 1800 degrees 1) The magnetic flux density inside the 0 0 air gap is uniformly distributed; when: Φ=Φ 2) No fringe flux at the end of the air 2 cmc (11) gap. For a given voltage, the maximum id id LuiR +−=− M rc (20) magnetic flux is created in transient regime if c1cc dt dt the electrical resistance of the coil is zero and Because the assumption it is still the coil is fired at 0 or 180 degrees. Under valid: these conditions, the transient regime becomes ϕ ϕ = d c − d r steady state. Now let us consider the device 1 Nu N (21) with the ring in a static position. The coil is dt dt ϕ ϕ powered by the same sinusoidal voltage at 0 = ⎛ d − d rc ⎞ 1 Nu ⎜ ⎟ (22) degree phase. The following system of ⎝ dt dt ⎠ equation can be written: ϕ ϕ ϕ d c − d = d lr id id (23) LuiR +−=− M rc (12) dt dt dt c1cc dt dt ϕ = d l id id 1 Nu (24) L0iR +−=+ M cr (13) dt rr r dt dt =ϕ=ϕ U m1 ω l d dttsin (25) where: Lc – coil inductance; Lr – ring ∫∫l N inductance; M – mutual inductance. π −=ϕ U m1 ⎛ −ω ⎞ In order to find out the expression of ring l ⎜ tsin ⎟ (26) Nω ⎝ 2 ⎠ current, let us assume R = 0 and R = 0. The c r U system of equation becomes: −=ϕ m1 ωtcos (27) l Nω id −= id rc Lu c1 M (14) All the magnetic flux lines are split into dt dt two by the columns, and the magnetic flux id id L r = M c (15) density inside one air gap becomes: r dt dt ϕ l = AB (28) and 2 gg id r = M ϕ ϕ u1 (16) B = l = l (29) dt − MLL 2 g πr rc A2 g 2 h The induced current in the ring is: 2 E M U idi == ω dttsinU (17) B −= m1 ωtcos (30) rr ∫∫ − 2 m1 g ωπ rc MLL hrN E M U ⎛ π ⎞ From equations 4, 19, 30 and because the i = m1 tsin −ω (18) r 2 ⎜ ⎟ ring has two parts inside air gaps, the total − MLL ω ⎝ 2 ⎠ rc Lorentz force acting on ring is: M U i −= m1 ωtcos (19) = F2F (31) r − 2 ω g rc MLL πr ⎛ M U ⎞ The inductance of the coil ( L ) and the = 2F ⎜− m1 ωtcos ⎟⋅ c ⎜ − 2 ω ⎟ 2 ⎝ rc MLL ⎠ inductance of the ring ( Lr ) were assumed as (32) constant. In fact, after the coil is fired, the core ⎛ U ⎞ ⎜− m1 ωtcos ⎟ inside the coil is saturated and both ⎜ πω ⎟ ⎝ hrN E ⎠ inductances drop rapidly to a constant value. M U2 In order to find out the magnetic flux density F = m1 2 ωtcos (33) − 2 ω2 inside the air gap ( Bg ), the following rc MLL hN E assumption should be made: NM 22 F = ωΦ tcos (34) − 2 m1 rc MLL hE 8 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

But the mutual inductance M depends on 1) The flux linkage and force are the distance between the coil and the ring, and simulated under the same conditions like the the dimensions of the coil and ring. By physical model in laboratory. changing these dimensions, the mutual inductance will change. As a result, mutual inductance M can be expressed as a function of coupling coefficient k where 0 ≤ k < 1. = LLkM rc (35) The equation of Lorentz force acting on ring becomes: LLk N F = rc 22 ωΦ tcos (36) − 2 m1 rc LLkLL rc hE k N F = 22 ωΦ tcos (37) − 2 m1 1k1 r LLh rcE Fig.3 Force and flux linkage under laboratory This expression of force is a good conditions approximation when based on assumptions made. The force achieves the maximum value F=21.86 N at 3.8 ms because the ring starts to 3. SIMULATION move and, as a result, the coupling coefficient is decreases in value. Linkage flux lags behind In order to test the theoretical results, I the voltage with 28.8 degrees. The minimum −=Φ have used an interactive software package value of the flux is l Wb7066.0 but the based on the finite element method (FEM) to force achieves its maximum at analyze, solve three-dimensional electro- −=Φ l Wb5009.0 . Not all the energy is used magnetic field problems and simulate E- to create force. If the ring is kept in place for shaped design’s behaviors. First, I built a 2.8 more ms, the entire available energy will physical model with the same dimensions be used. These data will be used for already presented. I conducted a lot of comparison purposes with further simulation experiments in order to determine the behavior data. By increasing the mass of the ring the of this device. After that, I created a computer force acting on the ring will increase but the model calibrated to reproduce the behavior of speed of ring will decrease. the physical model with errors below 1%. 2) The variation of the Lorentz force In this section only the results of the when the mass of the ring varies with values simulation will be presented. The main from 5 to 100 with step 5 grams and from 100 objective of all simulation was to establish to 400 with step 100 grams. how the maximum speed of ring varies based on the ring’s mass and the source voltage. The mass of the ring was considered the mass of the entire ensemble of ring-UAV and the drag forces caused by air friction were not taken into consideration. In order to obtain the maximum force, the coil is fired in all the simulations at 180 degrees. The results of these simulations are presented in the following graphs. First the behavior of the “E- shaped” device was simulated under laboratory conditions like the physical model. Fig.4 The variation of the maximum value of the Lorentz force [N] for different values of the ring mass 9 An electromagnetic launch system for UAVs

Because the mass of the ring is increased 4) The time variation of force for different the time when the ring remains into the most RMS values of voltage. favorable position (close to coil) is also increased and as a result the force is increased up to the point where the flux linkage achieves its minimum in our case. The variation of the ring speed when the mass of the ring varies with values from 5 to 100 with step 5 grams and from 1to 400 with step 100 grams. According to Fig. 5 graph, even if the force is increased, the muzzle speed of the ring decreases. In order to increase the speed of ring, the mass of the ring is kept constant (10 grams) and the RMS value of source voltage is increased with values from 120 to 1200 V with step 120 V. Fig.7 Force acting on the ring function of time

When the voltage value is increased 10 times, the force value is increased 7.63 times. The moment of time when the force achieves its maximum decrease, from 5 ms to 2 ms, and this means that not all the available energy is used. If the power voltage increases more and more, the device will be less efficient despite the fact that the force will increase. In order to

find out the maximum value of the force for a Fig.5 The variation of the maximum value of ring certain available energy, we should keep the speed [m/s] for different values of ring mass ring static. 5) The force variation for different RMS 3) The variation of the ring speed for a values of voltage when the ring is kept static. variation of source voltage.

Fig.8 The maximum force acting on the ring

Fig.6 Ring speed variation [m/s] for different RMS If we manage to keep the ring in initial values voltage [V] position until the linkage flux achieves its minimum, then the force acting on the ring When the voltage is increased 10 times the will be a maximum value and, as a result, the speed of the ring is increased only 3.66 times. speed will be at maximum value. Fig. 8 The reason for this behavior will be clear if we displays a comparison between the maximum study the variation in time of force with power force acting on the ring when the ring can voltage. The next graph displays this variation. move freely (gray chart) and the maximum

10 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics force acting on the ring, when the ring is static UAV. Also, the force can be adapted based on (black chart). The vertical axis is logarithmic the UAV mass and launch speed, and as a base 10. But maybe even under these result one catapult can be used for different conditions the force is not strong enough to UAVs. An electrical source of power is launch an UAV. The force value can be already available to power other equipment for increased by reducing the electrical resistance communication and control link and can be of the coil and ring. In the theory section of used to power this catapult. This kind of this paper the equation of force was calculated catapult can be integrated into automatic = = when c 0R and R r 0 . The next graph control loop. The dimensions of this catapult displays the results of a simulation with are less than those of the catapult currently = 0R and R = 0 when the ring is kept static used. Further research should be made c r although the electromagnetic launch systems in order to find the maximum value of force have proved their capability to accelerate for a certain value of power voltage (in this projectiles at high speeds. case RMS 240V). The variation of force with = = Rc 0 and R r 0 for U1=240V. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Balicki, A., Zabar, Z., Birenbaum, L & Czarkowski, D. (2007). On the design of coilguns for super-velocity launchers. IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, vol. 43, no. 1. 107-110. 2. Fair, H.D. (2007). Progress in electromagnetic launch science and technology. IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, vol. 43, no. 1. 93-98. 3. Ghassemi, M., Molayi Barsi, Y., Hamedi, = M.H. (2007). Analysis of force distribution Fig.9 Force and flux linkage when c 0R and acting upon the rails and the armature and = 0R r prediction of velocity with time in an electromagnetic launcher with new A tremendous increase in the force value is method. IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, vol. obtained under these conditions. Also, the flux 43, no. 1. lags behind the voltage with approximately 4. Gherman, L., Pearsică, M., Strîmbu, C. & radians according to theory. If the Constantinescu, C.-G. (2011). Induction electrical resistance of the coil and ring is coilgun based on “E-shaped” design. IEEE reduced to zero, which is technically possible, Trans. on Plasma Science, vol.39, no. 2. the maximum force generated can be 725-729. F=24.5148 kN. So, instead of increasing the 5. McNab, I.R. & Beach, F.C. (2007). Naval voltage, a more efficient way is to reduce the railguns. IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, vol. electrical resistance of the coil and ring. 43, no. 1. 463-468. 6. ***. (2011). Railgun [online]. Wikipedia. 3. CONCLUSIONS URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railgun. [consulted on September 20, 2011). The “E-shaped” design is capable to generate a force strong enough to launch a

11 Some remarks on Lupaş operators of second kind

SOME REMARKS ON LUPAŞ OPERATORS OF SECOND KIND

Cristina Sanda CISMAŞIU

“Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: In this paper we give a probabilistic interpretation of Lupaş operators of the second kind and a quantitative estimation of theirs.

Keywords: Gamma type operators, Rathore operators, Szasz-Mirakjan operators, Lupaş operator of the second kind, probabilistic interpretation.

1. INTRODUCTION t − − )tu(t)u(g =ρ= ut ()1xt ,ute xt xt Γ()xt (3) The operators of gamma type were studied >> by many authors (Lupaş, 1967, 1995a, 1995b; 0x,0t Muller, 1967; Rathore, 1973; Miheşan, 2003). Indeed, by a change of variable, we have In this paper, we consider Rathore operators for Rathore operators the representation ∞ (1973) which are gamma type operators and ⎧ 1 − − ⎪ ()= []()VfEx;fR = ut ()1xt ()duufute are defined by t xt Γ()∫ ⎨ xt 0 ⎧ ∞ xtu −− 1 ⎛ u ⎞ ⎪ ()= () (4) ⎡ U ⎤ fue du, ⎩ t 0f0;fR ⎪ ()= ⎛ xt ⎞ = 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎪ t ; ⎢ fExfR ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ Γ()xtt ∫ It is known that, these operators are linear ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ 0 >> ⎪ xt 0,0 positive operators which preserve the linear ⎪ ()= ffR ()00; (1) ⎩ t functions: These operators were given for ⎧ ()()== tnnN=∈, but they are well- defined for ⎪ 00t 1xex;eR ⎪ ()() ()i ==>≥== > 0t , if f is a real measurable function on ⎨ 11t i 1,0i,xxe,0t,0x,xxex;eR , 2 ⎪ ()()2 +== x [ ∞) ⎪ 22t xxex;eR (5) ,0 for which, the mean value of the ⎩ t ⎛ U ⎞ and have the same properties as Szasz- ⎜ xt ⎟ random variable f ⎜ ⎟ exists, i.e. Mirakjan operators ⎝ t ⎠ ()xt k k ⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤ ∞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎡ U ⎤ ()= xt = − xt f ⎜ ⎟, ⎛ xt ⎞ St ⎢fEx;f ⎜ ⎟⎥ e ∑ !k ⎝ t ⎠ ⎢ fE ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ∞< , where { ≥≥ 0x,0t:U } ⎜ t ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ xt ⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎦⎥ =0k >≥ ⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥ 0t,0x is a gamma stochastic process with probability (6) { ≥≥ } density : On these operators (6), xt 0x,0t:N ⎧ −− u1xt eu >>> is a standard Poisson stochastic process, =ρ ⎪ 0u,0x,0t, xt )u( ⎨ Γ )tx( (2) independent of the gamma process (2) but ⎪ defined on the same probability space as ⎩ === 0u,0x,0t,0 ρ ⎡ ⎛ N xt ⎞⎤ If U xt has the probability density xt )u( ⎜ ⎟ former and for which ⎢fE ⎜ ⎟⎥ represent ⎢ t ⎥ U xt ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ then V = has the probability density xt t (Feller, 1966:53) 12

Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤ to gamma distribution (Feller, 1966:52-53) for ⎜ xt ⎟ >> the mean value of random variable ⎢f ⎜ ⎟⎥ . 0x,0t with (3), that: ⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠⎦⎥ ( )=== k,t V kNP)x(p Now, we consider the Lupaş operators of xt ∞ k second kind [4] which are linear and positive t − ()ut − − = e ut ut ()1xt duute = operators and preserve the linear functions Γ()xt ∫ !k defined as 0 ∞ ⎧ ∞ () t − ut2 −1xtk − tx ⎛⎞k = ()() duutute = ⎪2,tx k f xt>>0,0Γ()∫ ()= ∑ k ⎜⎟ xt!k 0 Lfxt ; ⎨ k =0 2!kt⎝⎠ ∞ −+ 1kxt ⎪ () = (7) t θ− θ ()+Γ kxt ⎩ fx0, 0 = =θ = ∫e + d + [ ∞∈ ) Γ()xt!k 2 kxt kxt Γ()xt2!k Cf B ,0 , 0 where ⎛ ++ 1kxt ⎞ 1 = ⎜ ⎟ () ()()( )( −+++= 1kxt2xt1xtxtxt ) ⎜ ⎟ +kxt k K ⎝ k ⎠ 2 ∈ , kN, is the k – order rising factorial power of tx,. Some approximation properties of these ⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤ operators were given in Lupaş, 1995, Agratini, ()= ⎜ V xt ⎟ So the operator t ⎢fEx;fL ⎥ is the 2000. ⎜ t ⎟ ⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎦⎥ Using a gamma first kind transformation ⎛ NV ⎞ (Miheşan, 2003:49-54) mean value of the random variablef ⎜ xt ⎟ , ⎛ a ⎞ ⎜ t ⎟ ∞ −− ⎛ t ⎞ ⎝ ⎠ 1 pt 1 ⎜ xfte ⎜ ⎟ ⎟dt, a ()=Γ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ for any measurable function f for which p ; xf ⎝ p ⎠ ,is easy Γ()p ∫ ⎝ ⎠ 0 ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤ xpRa >>∈ 0,0, N ⎢ ⎜ V xt ⎟ ⎥ ∞< = ⎢ fE ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ . to see that, for a 1together with Miheşan ⎜ t ⎟ (2003:49-54, th.2.4.), Lupas operators can be ⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥ represented as a combination between Rathore An interesting result, which was obtained operators (1) and Szasz-Mirakjan operators (6) by De la Cal & Carcamo (2007:1106-1115) for ()= ()() t tt x;fSRx;fL (8) the operators of Bernstein – type which With this representation we have preserves the affine functions, namely ()()i === 1,0i,xxex;eL “centered Bernstein-type operators”, can be iit used for these Lupaş operators of the second

()2 x2 >≥+= kind : 2t xx;eL 0t,0x, t Theorem 2.1. (De la Cal & Carcamo, Remark. = 2007:1106-1115). If o LLL 321 , where ⎧ ⎛ ()x ⎞ = () L L,L, are centered Bernstein-type ⎪ tr ⎜ ;utfL ⎟ r x;fL 321 ⎪ ⎝ t ⎠ ()= [] ( ) ⊂∈ x ,RIx,YfExLf( ⎨ operators on ⎪ ⎛ ⎛ u ⎞ ⎞ = () () []== r ⎜fL ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ tr x;fLxt; 1 x )xYExLe ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎠ the same interval I and if L is the set of all xutr ≥>>> 0,0,0,0 . cx convex functions in the domain of the three

operators, then f,fLfL ∈≥ L . If in 2. PROBABILISTIC INTERPRETATION 21 cx OF LUPAŞ OPERATORS OF THE addition L3 preserves convexity, then SECOND KIND f,fLfLfL ∈∨≥ L where ∨ gf denotes 321 cx In view that, for the kernel of Lupaş the maximum of f and g. operators we obtain randomizing the Indeed, using the representation (7) for parameters of Poisson distribution according Lupaş operators of the second kind, we have

13

Some remarks on Lupaş operators of second kind

∈≥> [ ∞) BIBLIOGRAPHY for tt f,fRfL,0t Lcx ,0 and

f,fSfRfL ∈∨≥ L [ ,0 ∞), where S are ttt cx t 1. Agratini, O. (2000). On the rate of Szasz-Mirakjan operators (6), R t are Rathore convergence of a positive approximation operators (1) and Lt are Lupaş operators of process. Nihonkai Mathematical Journal, the second kind (7). Vol. 11, No. 1. 47-56. An estimation of the difference 2. De la Cal, J. & Carcamo, J. (2007). On the ()− (x;fRx;fL ) is given next. approximation of convex functions by t t Bernstein – type operators. J. Math.Anal., Appl. 334. 1106-1115. 3. A QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION 3. Feller, W. (1966). An Introduction to Probability Theory and ist Applications. [ ∞∈ ) Theorem 3.1. If B ,0Cf , then for Vol. II. Wiley. every [ ,0x ∞∈ ) and > 0t we have 4. Lupaş, A. (1995). The approximation by means of some linear positive operators. In () ()⎛ δ+≤− −2 x ⎞ ()δϖ Lt t ⎜1x;fRx;f ⎟ f . M.W. Muller, M. Felten, D.H. Mache t ⎝ ⎠ (eds.), .Approximation Theory. Vol. 86, Proof. Using an estimation of Shisha & Proc. International Dortmund Meeting on Mond (1968) with the modulus of continuity Approximation Theory, IDoMAT. 201- of f relative to Szasz-Mirakjan operators (6) 229. ()()⎛ δ+≤− −2 x ⎞ ()δϖ 5. Lupaş A., Mache D. & Muller W. (1995). St ⎜1xfx;f ⎟ f , we have ⎝ t ⎠ Weighted Lp –approximation of derivatives with (8) that by the method od Gammaoperators. Results in Mathematics. Vol. 28. 208-226. () ()=− ()(() )≤− t t tt t x;fRx;fSRx;fRx;fL 6. Lupaş A., Muller M. (1967). ∞ Approximationseigenschaften der 1 −θ− ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞ ≤ θ 1xt fSe − f d ≤θ Gammaoperatoren. Math. Z. 98. 208-226. Γ()∫ t ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ xt 0 ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ 7. Miheşan, V. (2003). On a general class of ∞ Gamma approximating operators. Studia 1 ⎛ −−θ− θ ⎞ ≤ ⎜1e δ+θ 21xt ⎟ ()d ≤θδϖ Univ. Babes-Bolyai, Mathematica. Vol. Γ()∫ 2 f xt 0 ⎝ t ⎠ XLVIII, Number 1. 49-54. 8. Muller, M. (1967). Die folge der Gamma ⎛ − θ ⎞ ⎜1 δ+≤ 2 ⎟ ()δϖ 2 f operatoren. Dissertation, Stuttgart. ⎝ t ⎠ 9. Rathore, R.K.S. (1973). Linear combinations of linear positive operators So, we obtain the same estimation for the and generating relations on special difference functions, Ph. D. Thesis. New Delhi. () ()=− ()(()− ) t t tt t x;fRx;fSRx;fRx;fL 10. Shisha, O., Mond, B. (1968). The degree as for the difference ()(− xfx;fS ). of convergence of linear positive operators. t Proc., Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 60. 1196- 1200.

14

Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

MODELING THE RELIABILITY OF C4ISR SYSTEMS HARDWARE/SOFTWARE COMPONENTS USING AN IMPROVED MARKOV MODEL

Cezar VASILESCU

Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: An important problem for C4ISR systems is choosing the right reliability modeling method. Because C4ISR system’s components are redundant and configurable, both at the level of functional entities and inside them, the resulting reliability models are complex. The redundancy adds supplementary complexity elements associated with the response capability of hardware and software to the failure events. A complicated issue is to choose the right degree of detail. Too many details could result in loosing the existing hardware and software interdependencies of the redundant structures within the model. In this paper I am proposing an enhanced theoretical calculus method of the reliability indicators based on an improved Markov model, and its application to the reliability modeling of C4ISR systems hardware/software components. A detailed application of the enhanced method is presented in paragraph 3. The reliability modeling of C4ISR systems’ components may use status diagrams recommended for redundant hardware/software structures. Nevertheless, this solution could be hard to be applied, considering the C4ISR system’s complexity, its number of possible states, and the large number of redundant elements and parameters of interest. Therefore I approach the study by adapting the status diagrams representation, through a combination of system’s status tables with transitions states graphs, using also the matrix representation of fluency graphs.

Keywords: hardware/software systems, reliability analysis, dynamic models, Markov model.

1. INTRODUCTION hardware/software systems had as a starting point the Rome Laboratory’s "System and C4ISR systems are basically computerized Software Reliability Assurance Notebook” networks that include sensors, communication (Lakey & Neufelder, 1997). The document nodes and command centers, each of it offers a methodology for the reliability performing special / essential tasks for good assurance study of systems composed both functioning of the entire system. From a from hardware and software elements, reliability point of view it represents a serial designed for estimation and prediction of its reliability structure made of independent reliability. The methodology concentrates on components, each with its own functional software configuration reliability prediction restore capabilities - ultimately a system with and estimation methods and on the techniques multiple recovery capacity. used to correlate hardware and software Each of the system’s components could reliability metrics with system’s general have a more or less complex redundant parameters. The reliability model proposed by structure, but we should consider it as a whole. Rome Laboratory consists of state transition Consequently the system could be considered diagrams that partially respond to the issues a minimal serial structure with multiple related with the complexity of a C4ISR system recovery capacity. The considerations and its components. Even if the model regarding the reliability modeling of combined contains restrictive hypotheses, the reliability

15

Modeling the reliability of C4ISR systems hardware/software components using an improved… indicators of the system’s components calculus processes method uses a dynamic system can utilize a large scope of methods. model (Ghi ă & Ionescu, 1996:55-56). These Consequently, in the first part of the paper I dynamic models follow the temporal evolution am proposing an enhanced theoretical calculus of the system’s state and are defined using method of the reliability indicators based on an characteristic states. A system’s state improved Markov model, while in the second represents synthetic information regarding the part I apply it to the reliability modeling of condition of its elements and could have only C4ISR systems hardware/software components. two possible values: an operational state or a A complicated issue was to choose the failure state. Assuming n is the number of right degree of detail. Too many details could elements of the system and X the set of {}== result in loosing the existing hardware and system’s states i ; ,...,2,1 NixX , in software interdependencies of the redundant n which N ≤ 2 , it results that X is a finite set structures within the model. Because the with elements defined as = (),...,, xxxx C4ISR system’s components are redundant iii 21 in = and configurable, both at the level of and xik 0 when element k is in an functional entities and inside them, the = operational state and xik 1 when element k is resulting reliability models are complex. The in a failure state, = ,...,2,1 nk for state x . redundancy adds supplementary complexity i elements associated with the response Due to the failure and recovery of capability of hardware and software to the component elements, the current state of the υ() []∞=∈ failure events. For the reliability modeling of system at t moment, noted , Ttt ,0 C4ISR systems’ components I used one of the is a random process. Mathematically speaking, general methods applicable to complex this process has the following characteristics: redundant structures, based on hardware, evolves in a continuum time; has a finite set of software and hardware/software elements - the states X and has a poissonian character (in a Markov processes method. A detailed very short time interval it could be application of the enhanced method will be distinguished maximum one change of state). presented in paragraph 3. The reliability The subset ⊂ XS represents the set of modeling of C4ISR systems’ components may failure states and the complementary subset use the status diagrams recommended for −= SXS represents the set of operational redundant hardware/software structures. states. The model allows to determine the time Nevertheless, this solution could be hard to duration when the process υ()t will remain in be applied, considering the C4ISR system’s complexity, its number of possible states, the S or S . A random process with the above large number of redundant elements and mentioned characteristics could be modeled as (Λ= ) parameters of interest (for only two identical a graph XG , , where X represents the elements and five parameters of interest it nodes set (identified with the states set) and Λ results 32 possible states). Therefore I represents the set of arches that connect the approach the study by adapting the status nodes. diagrams representation proposed by Rome Each poissonian process can be associated Laboratory, through a combination of system’s with a graph following certain rules (Lakey & status tables with transitions states graphs, Neufelder, 1997): the nodes identify the states; using also the matrix representation of fluency nodes are connected one to each other through graphs. arches if there is a possibility to move from one state to other in a single step; on arches is 2. MODELING THE SYSTEM’S specified the reliability or maintainability λ COMPONENTS RELIABILITY USING parameter that determines the transition, i for AN IMPROVED MARKOV METHOD μ failures and i for recoveries.

The resulting graph is named States The reliability modeling process of Transition Graph. The Markov processes system’s components through Markov 16 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics method is based on a dynamic model that In order to calculate this probability it is follows the evolution in time of the current necessary to eliminate from the state system’s stateυ()t . On each moment t, υ()t is − transitions graph all the transitions from S to a random discrete variable. Let’s S . If the graph maintains his structure ()(υ ()== ) note k xtPtp k . The probabilities complete, through the same relation we can ()tp are absolute probabilities with obtain the system’s availability coefficient k () () fundamental properties: K D t or tD . It should be mentioned that ()≥ 0tp )1 k 0tp when we apply the method to C4ISR systems, N (1) the following indicators must be calculated: 1tp 2) ()= 1tp ()−= () ∑ k ()idef tP1tF (4) =1k and Poissonian processes theory shows that ∞ those absolute probabilities are solutions for a () = () .dttPT (5) differential equation system that could be idef ∫ 0 determined by applying Venttel rule to the The advantage of the method is the state transition graph. transformation of system’s reliability calculus ' () Derivative k tp is equal with the algebraic to standard mathematical problems. It applies sum of the products between the starting both irreparable and repairable systems, when nodes’ probabilities and the corresponding failure and restore follow an exponential transition intensities of the arches leaving distribution law. The method implies a great those nodes, calculated for all incoming and volume of calculations which exponentially outgoing arches belonging to node xk . In the increases with the system’s states number. sum, the terms entering x are positive ()+ , Applying the method to C4ISR systems k needs data regarding the software failure rates ()− while the exiting ones are negative . (operating systems of applicative software) Λ + Let’s note k the set of arches entering and hardware failure rates. The operating − systems’ failure rates could be obtained from node k, Λ the set of arches exiting node k k the manufacturers, usually as number of λ and ij the transition intensity of the arch that failures in a specific time interval. exit node i and enter node j . The following Those failure rates are calculated taking in equations system results: consideration the time of the system, because the operating system is active when the ' ()= ()− () = (2) computer is on and ready for processing. To k p j ttp λ jk ∑∑ tp λkjk , 1,k 2, ..., N ∈ + ∈ − obtain the compatibility with hardware failure λ jk A k λ A kkj The system of equation is integrated for the rates the measuring unit of the obtained failure initial condition (1): rates must be numbers of failures per hour. Regarding the failures of reusable software ()= 10p 1 code, that information could be obtained from () ≠= k 0,0p 1.k the applications in which the software was = () where x1 0,...,0,0 is the state in which all used before. The information is relevant only elements are operational. if the operational profile of the previous The main reliability indicator of a system designed application is approximately the calculated through this method is the same with the current application and in this − case the historical data regarding failure rates probability function ()tP . Having ⊂ XS - the could be used. set of failure states and S - the set of In comparison with Rome Laboratory’s operational states, it results: approach, reliability analysis with dynamic ()= () models has several advantages, such as: P ∑ k tpt (3) − ∈Sk

17 Modeling the reliability of C4ISR systems hardware/software components using an improved…

• systematize the states transition graph, The following notations were used: # - because the arches connect only the states that state number; T - type (success or failure); A - differ one from each other with a single defect; basic hardware; B - basic software; C - backup • offers a systematization surplus, the hardware; D - backup software; E – recovery, status diagrams (states number) are organized where A, B, C, D values are O = operational; F tacking in consideration the number of existing = failure; - = not applicable; E values are S= system’s failures; successful recovery or failure on backup • offers the possibility to represent the equipment detected; F - unsuccessful recovery states transition graph using fluency graphs or latent failure on backup equipment. methods (incident / adjacent matrix) and The structure described has a total number • offers a complete methodology for the of states equal with 10, as shown in table 1. calculus of reliability indicators. Table 1. Description of system’s states State State 3. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE Explanations RELIABILITY MODELING METHOD no. type TO C4ISR SYSTEMS HARDWARE/ 0 Success Complete operational structure SOFTWARE COMPONENTS. A software failure was CASE STUDY 1 Success detected in the backup equipment that was repaired The objective of the paragraph is to detail The system is operational, the implementation of the improved Markov 2 Success with a latent software failure methodology presented before to the reliability in the backup equipments modeling of C4ISR systems. For this purpose The system is operational, with a detected hardware 3 Success we will use the reliability model of a simple failure in the backup redundant structure. Figure 1 depicts the equipments simplified state diagram of a The system is operational, hardware/software structure with two identical 4 Success with a latent hardware failure elements (at least one must be in an in the backup equipments operational state). To model the system’s Failure on basic software, states, I took into account five parameters: switching on backup hardware status of the basic hardware platform and software equipments (operational or faulty); status of the basic 5 Failure failed; an intervention is software (operational or faulty); status of the necessary for system’s backup hardware platform; status of the recovery on either of hardware backup software and status of the operation’s platforms Failure on basic hardware and recovery. the recovery process failed; it System’s operation recovery may be occurred an incorrect successful or fail. Success is defined by: the detection, isolation or 6 Failure structure switched on backup equipments, as a incomplete recovery; a result of a basic hardware or software failure; a manual intervention is failure to the backup equipment has been required for system’s recovery detected, and it has been repaired. on backup equipments Because there are five parameters of Software failures occurred on interest, each with two possible states, it 7 Failure both basic and backup results a total of 32 states. Nevertheless, in equipments practice, some of the states could not exist Basic hardware and backup software failed; recovery is (e.g. software could not be operational on a 8 Failure not possible without a manual faulty hardware platform) and others are intervention functionally equivalent. Both hardware equipments 9 Failure failed

18 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

Fig.1. The simplified state diagram

Transitions from one state to another take diagram systematization, presenting a list of place due to hardware (software) failures or as states’ transition rates (table 3). a consequence of recovery process. Usage of 3. The implementation of the reliability state diagrams that model hardware and modeling method is conditioned by the software failures permit a precise redundant knowledge of numeric values of probabilities systems’ reliability estimation. such asCdSW ,,,,CdHW CiSW CiHW CrSW and CrHW Comparing these two approaches, it result that must be inferred analytically and/or some observations, such as: statistically, 1. The methodology for modeling the where: system’s components reliability using an • Fault detection coverage (C ) - is the improved Markov method (presented in d paragraph 2) is a applicable to every type of probability of detecting a fault given that a system (hardware, software or fault has occurred; • hardware/software) and allow the calculus of Fault isolation coverage (Ci ) - is the reliability indicators relevant for C4ISR probability that a fault will be correctly () () isolated to the recoverable interface (level at systems (e.g. ( tP or tD , respectively DS ). The main problem related with its which redundancy is available) given that a implementation is determined by the state fault has occurred and been detected and • transition graph’s implementation manner and Fault recovery coverage (Cr ) - is the especially by the states’ transition rates. probability that the redundant structure will 2. The states diagram presenting manner recover system services given that a fault has (figure 1) is similar with the states occurred, been detected, and correctly isolated. representation manner from paragraph 1, completed with specific aspects regarding the To facilitate the implementation, it results recovery of hardware/software system’s three new architectural products, specific to components. Moreover, it introduces also state the C4ISR system’s Reliability Vision (Vasilescu, 2010:198-200), as follows: RV-6 - 19 Modeling the reliability of C4ISR systems hardware/software components using an improved…

Description of states (table 2); RV-7 - The matrix of states’ transition rates (table 3); RV- Index 5 6 7 8 9 8 - The list of states’ transition rates (table 4). 6 (6, 8) (6, 9) Table 2 derives from the simplified state 7 (7, 8) diagram (fig.1). 8 (8, 9) Table 2. Description of states 9 Com- posi- Mea- ()Λ A B C D E In this matrix , the lines contain states’ tion ning transition rates corresponding to outgoing Index arches form the node and columns contain 0 O O O O - S states’ transition rates corresponding to 1 O O O F S S incoming arches form the node (essential 2 O O O F F S information for the associated differential 3 O O F - S S equation system). 4 O O F - F S 5 O F O O F F Table 4. The list of states’ transition rates. 6 F - O O F F 7 O F O F - F Code Content 8 F O O F - F ∗∗∗+∗ (0, 1) λSW CdSW λS dSW iSW CCC rSW 9 F - F - - F λ ()− C1 (0, 2) SW dSW Through the table we divide the states in S ∗∗∗+∗ (0, 3) λHW CdHW λH dHW iHW CCC rHW and F, their index starting with working states λ ()− C1 (S) - state(,O ,O ,O ,O −), continuing step by (0, 4) HW dHW ()∗∗− step with every change of state generated by (0, 5) λSW dSW iSW CCC1 rSW its corresponding elements. In this (0, 6) λ ()∗∗− CCC1 representation, all failure states (F) are shown HW dHW iHW rHW in the lower part of the table. (1, 0) μ SW

λ Table 3. The matrix of states’ transition rates (1, 3) HW (1, 7) λ Index 0 1 2 3 4 SW (1, 8) λ 0 (0, 1) (0, 2) (0, 3) (0, 4) HW ∗ 1 (1, 0) (1, 3) (2, 3) λHW CdHW 2 (2, 3) (2, 4) λ ()− C1 3 (3, 0) (2, 4) HW dHW 4 (4, 3) (2, 7) λSW 5 (5, 1) (5, 3) 6 (6, 3) (2, 8) λHW 7 (7, 1) (3, 0) μHW 8 (8, 1) (8, 3) 9 (9, 3) (3, 8) λSW

(3, 9) λHW Index 5 6 7 8 9 ∗ (4, 3) λHW CdHW 0 (0, 5) (0, 6) (4, 8) λSW 1 (1, 7) (1, 8) 2 (2, 7) (2, 8) (4, 9) λHW − 3 (3, 8) (3, 9) (5, 1) ()Tr 1 4 (4, 8) (4, 9) SW 5 (5, 7) (5, 8) (5, 3) λHW 20 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

Code Content rates from working states (S) to failure states (F), Λ contains transition rates from failure λ 21 (5, 7) SW Λ states (F) to working states (S), 22 contains (5, 8) λHW transition rates between failure states (F). To ()−1 calculate the availability (D) we use the (6, 3) TrHW matrix λ (6, 8) SW Λ=Λ D (7) (6, 9) λHW and to calculate the reliability ()P we use the

(7, 1) μSW matrix ΛΛ ⎛ 11 12 ⎞ (7, 8) 2λHW =Λ ⎜ ⎟ (8) ⎜ Λ ⎟ ⎝ 0 22 ⎠ (8, 1) μ HW in which 0 is the null identical matrix, when (8, 3) μSW the determination methodology of the (8, 9) λ differential equation system associated with HW the model is implemented. It is remarkable that this approach (Λ) We also observe that the matrix has a significantly orders (systematizes) the cellular format (marked in table 3) deduction of the differential equation system ⎛ ΛΛ ⎞ associated with the model (Gupta, 2011; Lai et =Λ ⎜ 11 12 ⎟, (6) ⎜ ΛΛ ⎟ al., 2002). Thus to calculate the availability ⎝ 21 22 ⎠ ()D it result the following systems of in which Λ contains transition rates between 11 equations: Λ working states (S), 12 contains transition ' []()()()()()() ()+++++++−= () ⎧ 0 0 1 p3,0p1,0p0,60,50,40,30,20,1p 3 ⎪ ' ()[] ()()()() () ()++++++−= () ⎪ 1 0 1,71,31,0p0,1p 1 5 7 p8,1p7,1p5,1p1,8 8 ⎪ ' ()[] ()()()++−= p2,72,32,4p0,2p ⎪ 2 0 2 ⎪ ' () () ()[] ()()() () () () ()+++++++−++= ()p9,3p8,3p6,3p5,3p4,3p3,93,83,0p2,3p1,3p0,3p ⎪ 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 (9) ' () ()[] ()()()++−+= ⎪ 4 0 2 p4,94,84,3p2,4p0,4p 4 ⎨ ' ()[] ()()()()+++−= ⎪ 5 0 p5,85,75,35,1p0,5p 5 ⎪ ' ()[] ()()()++−= p6,96,86,3p0,6p ⎪ 6 0 6 ⎪ ' () () ()[] ()()+−++= p7,87,1p5,7p2,7p1,7p ⎪ 7 1 2 5 7 ' () () () () () () ()[] ()()()++−++++++= ⎪ 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 p7,8p6,8p5,8p4,8p3,8p2,8p1,8p 7 p8,98,38,1 8 ⎪ ' () () () ()−+++= () ⎩ 9 3 4 6 8 p9,3p8,9p6,9p4,9p3,9p 9 while to calculate the reliability()P it result the following systems of equations: ' []()()()()()() ()+++++++−= () ⎧ 0 0 1 p3,0p1,0p0,60,50,40,30,20,1p 3 ⎪ ' ()[] ()()()()+++−= ⎪ 1 0 p1,81,71,31,0p0,1p 1 ⎪ ' ()[] ()()()++−= p2,72,32,4p0,2p ⎪ 2 0 2 ⎪ ' () () ()[] ()()()+++−++= ()p4,3p3,93,83,0p2,3p1,3p0,3p ⎪ 3 0 1 2 3 4 ' () ()[] ()()()++−+= (10) ⎪ 4 0 2 p4,94,84,3p2,4p0,4p 4 ⎨ ' ()[] ()()+−= ⎪ 5 0 p5,85,7p0,5p 5 ⎪ ' ()[] ()()+−= p6,96,8p0,6p ⎪ 6 0 6 ⎪ ' () () ()−++= ()p7,8p5,7p2,7p1,7p ⎪ 7 1 2 5 7 ' () () () () () () ()−++++++= () ⎪ 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 p8,9p7,8p6,8p5,8p4,8p3,8p2,8p1,8p 8 ⎪ ' () () ()+++= () ⎩ 9 3 4 6 p8,9p6,9p4,9p3,9p 8

21 Modeling the reliability of C4ISR systems hardware/software components using an improved…

Replacing the states’ transition rates from table 4 in formula (9), it results the system:

' ()()−−−∗∗∗+∗−= ⎧p0 λSW CdSW λSW dSW iSW pCCC λSW0rSW pC1 0dSW ⎪ ()()−−−∗∗∗+∗ ⎪ - λHW CdHW λHW dHW iHW pCCC λHW0rHW pC1 0dHW ⎪ - λ ()∗∗− pCCC1 λ ()pCCC1 μ p ++∗∗−− μ p ⎪ SW dSW iSW HW0rSW dHW iHW 3HW1SW0rHW ' ()[]++++−∗∗∗+∗= ⎪p1 λSW CdSW λS dSW iSW pCCC 0rSW SW HW SW λλλμ p1HW ⎪ − + ()1 ++ ⎪ SW pTr μ p7SW5 μ p8HW ⎪p' λ ()pC1 []λ ()C1 λ C +∗+−−−= λ p ⎪ 2 SW 0dSW HW dHW HW dHW 2SW ⎪ ' ()()−∗++∗∗∗+∗= ⎪p3 λHW CdHW λH dHW iHW pCCC λ p1HW0rHW λHW pC 2dHW ⎨ []()++∗+++ ()−1 ++ ⎪ - HW SW λλμ p3HW λHW pC λ 5HW4dHW HW pTrp μ p μ p9HW8SW6 ⎪p' λ ()pC1 λ ()pC1 []λ C ++∗−−+−= λλ p ⎪ 4 HW HW0dHW 2dHW HW dHW SW 4HW − ⎪p' λ ()[](TrpCCC1 )1 +++−∗∗−= λλλ p ⎪ 5 SW dSW iSW 0rSW SW HW SW 5HW ' ( )()[]−1 ++−∗∗−= ⎪p6 λHW dHW iHW 0rHW TrpCCC1 HW SW λλ p6HW ⎪ ' []+−++= ⎪p7 λ p λ p λ p5SW2SW1SW SW λμ p2 7HW ⎪p' λ p λ p λ p λ p λ p λ p λ p2 []++−++++++= λμμ p ⎪ 8 6SW5HW4SW3SW2HW1HW 7HW HW SW 8HW ⎪ ' −+++= (11) ⎩p9 λ p λ p λ p λ p μ p9HW8HW6HW4HW3HW that could be represented in canonical format as:

' ()++−= + ⎧ 0 2p SW λλ p μ p1SW0HW μ p3HW ⎪ ' ()[]++++−∗∗∗+∗= ()−1 ++ ⎪p1 λSW CdSW λS dSW iSW pCCC 0rSW SW HW SW λλλμ 1HW SW pTrp μ p7SW5 μ p8HW ⎪ ' ()[] () +∗+−−−= ⎪p2 λSW pC1 0dSW λHW C1 dHW λHW CdHW λ p2SW ⎪p' ()λ C λ pCCC λ p (λ )pC −∗++∗∗∗+∗= ⎪ 3 HW dHW H dHW iHW 0rHW 1HW HW 2dHW − ⎪ - []λλμ p ()λ pC λ ++∗+++ ()1 pTrp μ p ++ μ p (12) ⎪ HW SW 3HW HW 4dHW 5HW HW 8SW6 9HW ⎪ ' () ()[]++∗−−+−= ⎨p4 λHW pC1 0dHW λHW pC1 2dHW λHW CdHW SW λλ p4HW ⎪ ' ()[]()−1 +++−∗∗−= ⎪p5 λSW dSW iSW 0rSW TrpCCC1 SW HW SW λλλ p5HW − ⎪p' λ ()−∗∗−= [](TrpCCC1 )1 ++ λλ p ⎪ 6 HW dHW iHW 0rHW HW SW 6HW ⎪p' λ p λ p λ p []+−++= λμ p2 ⎪ 7 5SW2SW1SW SW 7HW ' []++−++++++= ⎪p8 λ p1HW λ p λ p λ p4SW3SW2HW λ p λ p6SW5HW λ p2 7HW HW SW λμμ p8HW ⎪ ' −+++= ⎩⎪p9 λ p3HW λ p4HW λ p6HW λ p8HW μ p9HW

Also, replacing the states’ transition rates from table 4 in formula (10), it results:

22 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

⎧p' ()λ C λ pCCC −∗∗∗+∗−= λ ()pC1 −− ⎪ 0 SW dSW SW dSW iSW SW0rSW 0dSW ()()−−−∗∗∗+∗ ⎪ - λ HW CdHW λHW dHW iHW pCCC 0rHW λHW pC1 0dHW ⎪ - λ ()pCCC1 λ ()pCCC1 μ p ++∗∗−−∗∗− μ p ⎪ SW dSW iSW 0rSW HW dHW iHW 1SW0rHW 3HW ⎪p' ()λ C λ pCCC []+++−∗∗∗+∗= λλλμ p ⎪ 1 SW dSW SW dSW iSW 0rSW SW HW SW 1HW ' ()[] () +∗+−−−= ⎪p2 λSW C1 p0dSW λ HW C1 dHW λHW CdHW λ p2SW ⎪ ' ()()−∗++∗∗∗+∗= ⎪p3 λ HW CdHW λ HW dHW iHW pCCC 0rHW λ p1HW λHW pC 2dHW (13) ⎪ []()∗+++ ⎨ - HW SW λλμ p3HW λHW pC 4dHW ⎪ ' p λ ()pC1 λ ()pC1 []λ C ++∗−−+−= λλ p ⎪ 4 HW 0dHW HW 2dHW HW dHW SW 4HW ⎪p' λ ()pCCC1 []+−∗∗−= λλ p ⎪ 5 SW dSW iSW 0rSW SW 5HW ' ()[]+−∗∗−= ⎪p6 λ HW dHW iHW pCCC1 0rHW SW λλ p6HW ⎪ ' −++= ⎪p7 λ p λ p λ p5SW2SW1SW λ p2 7HW ⎪p' λ p λ p λ p λ p λ p λ p λ p2 −++++++= λ p ⎪ 8 4SW3SW2HW1HW 6SW5HW 7HW 8HW ⎪ ' +++= ⎩p9 λ p3HW λ p4HW λ p6HW λ p8HW

The system can be reduced to:

' () +++−= ⎧ 0 2p SW λλ p μ p μ p3HW1SW0HW ⎪ ' ()[]+++−∗∗∗+∗= ⎪p1 λSW CdSW λSW dSW iSW pCCC 0rSW SW HW SW λλλμ p1HW ⎪p' λ ()C1 p []λ ()C1 λ C +∗+−−−= λ p ⎪ 2 SW 0dSW HW dHW HW dHW 2SW ⎪p' ()λ C λ pCCC λ p (λ )pC −∗++∗∗∗+∗= ⎪ 3 HW dHW HW dHW iHW 0rHW 1HW HW 2dHW - - []λλμ p ()λ ∗+++ pC ⎪ HW SW 3HW HW 4dHW (14) ⎪ ' () ()[]++∗−−+−= ⎨p4 λHW pC1 0dHW λHW pC1 2dHW λHW CdHW SW λλ p4HW ⎪ ' p λ ()pCCC1 []+−∗∗−= λλ p ⎪ 5 SW dSW iSW 0rSW SW 5HW ⎪p' λ ()pCCC1 []+−∗∗−= λλ p ⎪ 6 HW dHW iHW 0rHW SW 6HW ' −++= ⎪p7 λ p λ p λ p5SW2SW1SW λ p2 7HW ⎪ ' −++++++= ⎪p8 λ p λ p λ p λ p4SW3SW2HW1HW λ p λ p6SW5HW λ p2 7HW λ p8HW ⎪ ' +++= ⎩p9 λ p λ p4HW3HW λ p6HW λ p8HW

A specification has to be made: to solve the Once calculated the differential equations equations systems (12) and (14) - which are systems’ solutions, the reliability indicators of differential equations systems in Cauchy the system (availability ()D and working canonical format - specialized software is probability ()tP ) are determined using the required (e.g. MathLab or MathCad). formulas from paragraph 2.

Also the following indicators are When data regarding software and determined using the value of the system’s hardware failure rates and probabilitiesC , dSW failure probability: C , C , C , C , C are known or ()−= () dHW iSW iHW rSW rHW ()idef tP1tF (15) it had been inferred analytically and/or respectively statistically, the calculus could go further to ∞ determine the equations systems’ solutions, for = ()dttPT . (16) ()idef ∫ () () >== 0 the initial condition 0 ;00 k ;00 kpp 1 .

23 Modeling the reliability of C4ISR systems hardware/software components using an improved…

3. CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY

The findings proposed in this paper give a 1. Ghită, Al. & Ionescu, V. (1996). Methods methodological framework to the field of for Reliability Calculus. Bucharest: reliability modeling of C4ISR systems Military Technical Academy Publishing hardware/software components. In summary, House. 55-56. the goal of this paper is to propose certain 2. Gupta, P. (2011). Markov Modeling and contribution, such as: Availability Analysis of a Chemical (1) Elaboration of an improved Markov Production System-A Case Study. model regarding the reliability of C4ISR Proceedings of the World Congress on system’s components (paragraph 2) that Engineering, Vol I, July 2011, London, augments the Markov model proposed by U.K. Rome Laboratory’s methodology for 3. Lai, C.D. et al. (2002). A model for hardware/software reliability modeling with availability analysis of distributed information offered by general reliability software/ hardware systems. Information theory in respect with Markov processes and Software Technology, Vol 44, Issue 6. method. Synthesizing (based on the model) of 346-347. new architectural products, specific to C4ISR 4. Lakey, P.B. & .Neufelder, A.M. (1997). system’s Reliability Vision; System and Software Reliability Assurance (2) The implementation of the proposed Notebook. Rome Laboratory Report. Markov model for a representative case study Rome, NY: Griffins Air Force Base - modeling the reliability of a simple 5. Vasilescu, C. (2010). The Reliability of redundant hardware/software system, using a Command and Control Systems within combination of system’s states tables with Romanian Air Force. Brasov: Transilvania states transition graphs and a matrix University Publishing House.. representation of fluency graphs.

24 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

EMERGING ASPECTS IN THE PROCESS OF MODERNIZING INTEGRATED AIRSPACE SYSTEM

Vasile ŞANDRU

“Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This article describes an optimization model of the Surface-To-Air Missile System as a technical integrated system. The theoretical model of optimization describes the basic relationships between the Life Cycle Cost of the system and the frequency of upgrades related to the moral decay, in time. The financial crisis has forced an extension of the system operation even if the system is outdated. Therefore, a new modernized version has been designed.

Keywords: LITS (Large Integrated Technical System); SAMS (Surface-to-Air Missile System); LCC (Life Cycle Cost); Cb(t) (unit acquisition cost related to the operating time) Cm(t) (Cumulative cost for preventive maintenance during the operating time); Cr(t) (Average unit cost for Repairs).

1. INTRODUCTION guidance systems of surface-to-air from the perspective of automated systems, we can Numerous specialists in the scientific field highlight the requirements imposed on them of missiles have approached major topics and their functioning principles, in tight related to missiles (regarded as typical connection with gathering data related to examples of bodies with variable mass) such movement parameters of air targets. as: improvement of missiles’ flight Figure 1 shows a simplified scheme of a performance and of their dynamic stability, or, missile system in a tight functional connection possibilities of minimizing guidance errors and with its constituent elements; the final aim of it of optimizing modernization processes. being the optimization of one of the efficiency The twentieth century has been regarded as criteria or more. The experience in designing a complex temporal space characterized by and exploiting of modern airspace integrated continuous quantitative increase and systems proves a greater and greater technical qualitative change, both of these coordinates and technological complexity, holding contributing to the ongoing process. In this financial implications. This endeavor requires context, intuition is not sufficient in a long time up to its accomplishment – from 2 appreciating the complexity of a technical to 5 years -, in accordance with the system’s integrated system, therefore, although it is very complexity. To determine more precisely the difficult to do so, a clarification of theoretical connections between elements of a technical background is mandatory. The complexity S of system, we must define the following: S1- the system consisting of sub-systems or matrix of connections between input and complexity elements Si, i=1,2,3……,n will output; S2-matrix connections between further be determined based on the relation: elements of input and output of the system; S= ∑ Si Ki (1) S3-matrix connecting the input vector of the where Ki represents the number of type i system with the output vector out of the elements in the system. The first large totality of elements; S4-matrix connecting the technical systems were designed following the input vector of the totality of elements in the anti-air defense. By a careful analysis of the system with the output vector of the system. 25

Emerging aspects in the process of modernizing integrated airspace system

The System’s Arhitecture

R E

Controls

Reflected/emited signals r0

Command system. E E/R Antenna Selection Measurement Guidance Emission Encodingg Mobile And Control system system Device target E/R System Devices system K REC System

Fig. 1. Architecture of an airspace integrated system

Connections between the four vectors of well as the four matrixes of connection are the system and of the totality of elements, as shown in Figure 2:

[S1]

input [S4] Σ G [S3] Σ

output

[S2]

Fig. 2. Structural scheme of a large technical system’s interconnections between the elements listed above

26 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

Under the circumstances of the current correlated with the sub-systems’ economic crisis, it is more and more obvious modernization is absolutely necessary. that an extension of the exploitation time,

8

Fig. 3 Structural scheme of extension of the exploitation time.

Legend: 4 – Achievement; 7 – Revitalization; 1 – General concept; 5 – Exploitation; 8 - Modernization 2 – Analysis of the system; 6 – Extension of resource under 3 – Design; exploitation;

Maximum efficiency (E), under the min C = min M [ ∑ Ci ] E > Edat (3) modern battlefield conditions, is defined as the where: sum between the totality of targets intended to n be destroyed ( ∑ ni ) and the percentage of C – represents the minimal cost minimal; = i 1 C – represents the cost of part i of the θ i targets’ destruction ( i ), in relation with the system made up of I elements; n Edat – represents the value of imposed number of launched missiles ( ∑i j ) efficiency. = j 1 The specialized literature also offers a multiplied with the number of launching ramps reverse form of the efficiency criterion. In this ( M ). case, obtaining a maximum effect is sought, n n θ+ under the conditions where expenses represent ∑ i i limiting factors. E = =1i , (2) n Accordingly: ⋅ ∑ j Mi M[ ∑ Ci ]

- Improving protection sub-systems subjected to obsolescence, as shown in Figure against jamming. 4: Given these modernizations, the system is able to accomplish its mission; yet, it is greatly

Improvement parameters M1

M2 M3 Curve of obsolescence

Md1 Md2 Md3

Fig. 4 Dependence of modernizations, in relation with time and obsolescence

Exploitation expenses need to take into Optimization involves a proper selection of the account the exploitation period of time and means used for this purpose, together with a they include the operating, servicing, good selection of the utilization strategy. maintenance, transportation and preservation Generally speaking, this issue may be referred personnel. The quantitative assessment of to as follows: total expenses needed for operating costs, in relation with the economic assuring the system’s functioning, C, efficiency is possible using the standardized represents a function that depends on coefficient Kec- representing the increasing of functioning and recovery characteristics, accumulations throughout one year, in relation x1,…xn, on characteristics reflecting the with the amount of accumulations at the quality of control, y1,…yn, and characteristics beginning of one calendar year: related to control strategies, z1,…zn. Since the Kec = Ci-Ci-1 / Ci-1 (5) operation is aimed at being executed at the The qualitative assessment of exploitation lowest cost as possible, cost C needs to be expenses makes use of the standardized minimized: coefficient for economic efficiency, Kec - C = min C(x1,…,xn, y1,…yn, z1,…zk) (7) representing the increase of accumulations under the following limiting conditions: (o) throughout one year, in relation with the G1(x1,….,xn, y1,…ym, z1,…,zk), [<,=,>]Gi (8) (o) amount of accumulations at the beginning of G2(x1,…xn, y1,…ym, z1,...,zk), [<,=,>]G2 (9) (o) one calendar year: Gs(x1,…xn, y1,...ym, z1 ,…,zk), [<,=,>]Gs (10) Kec = Ci-Ci-1/Ci-1 (6) Where C(x1,…xn,,zk) represent the total Ci,Ci-1-stand for expenses at the end of the amount of expenses used for exploiting the years i and i-1. Expenses related to different system. G1,G2 ,Gs ,…, exploiting criteria of the (o) (0) (0) periods of time throughout the exploitation system. Gi G2 ,...,Gs given values for process need updating to the same time these criteria. reference, as shown by the relation: The system exploitation is appreciated by n i Ci=Ci (1+Kec) (7) means of general criteria such as: coefficient n Ci - expenses at the beginning of the period of operational status; likelihood of In practice, it is possible for the system to interruption-free operation. Related to the have exhausted its given resource, still, it optimal resulting or given value of control continues to hold an operational capacity. authenticity, the following particular problems 28 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics of optimization may appear: finding the optimal set of the system’s parameters that need to be controlled, so that the system to be 2. ASPECTS REGARDING AN able to accomplish the totality of operations OPTIMIZATION DESIGN IN RELATION regarding minimal material and financial WITH THE LIFE CYCLE CONST OF A consumptions; establishing the optimal MISSILE SYSTEM accuracy for the functioning elements composing the system. It is well known that The major condition of the presented the high fidelity of a measurement apparatus optimization model is for it to display a proper increases the system’s cost. The technical curve distribution Cc(t). Another important maintenance quality is appreciated by the condition for optimization lies in the existence operational preparation coefficient, for of a minimal local point, sufficiently powerful accomplishing tasks at any time. The O (Topt, Ccmin), which will ease the operational preparation coefficient (under the identification of this point, although the desired regular distribution) is given by the technical-economic data are not complete. relation: Kop /= lim ∫P(t)dt (11) 2.1 The average acquisition cost of one For the static exploitation process: unit of the sub-system. Kop=M[tf]/M[tf]+M[tn] (12) a relation where M[tf] is the average value The relation Cb(t), expresses the (the mathematical expectation) of the dependence of the average acquisition price functioning interval of the item, without any for one unit of the sub-system, in relation with disturbances, while M[tn] is the average value its operation timing. It is defined by the of the time interval in which the item is relation: Cb(t)= Cb/t. The graphic deficient or it is between two consecutive representation of this relation is an equilateral operational moods. hyperbola. It is noticeable how its value decreases at the same time with the extension of the exploitation time.

Fig. 5 Dependence of the average acquisition price for one unit of the sub-system

29 Emerging aspects in the process of modernizing integrated airspace system

2.2 The average cost for preventive - replacement of emission-reception maintenance. system by a phased antennas net, which could lead to the system compacting; The relation Cm(t), expresses the - replacement of liquid fuel, which dependence of the average cost for preventive necessitates increased maintenance; maintenance of each unit, related to its - compacted module-built construction operational time: Cm(t)=Cm(t)/t, where Cm(t) of the research systems and of the systems represents the sum of costs necessary for with increased mobility guidance. achieving preventive maintenance of sub- The use of a new concept of optimization systems throughout their operational time. By of the missile system would eventually lead to extension, individual actions of preventive an increase in probability of air targets maintenance do not vary too much; therefore, destruction ad to a complex prefigured tactical Cm may be considered to be constant. situation, in this era of economic crisis.

2.3 The average cost for repairing one BIBLIOGRAPHY unit of the sub-system. 1. Angheloiu, Ion. (1980). Introducere ]n The graphic representation of the relation sistemele tehnice mari. Bucharest: Military Cr(t), shown in Fig. 5, displays the intersection Publishing House. and the gradual increase of operational value 2. Cîrciu I., Pahonie R., Boşcoianu M. timings, throughout the study. (2009). Considerations about the micro propeller design and it’s interaction with 3. CONCLUSIONS the aerodynamic surfaces. Review of the Air Force Academy. No 1. 49-54. We can argue that keeping the anti-air 3. Cîrciu I., Dinea S. (2010). Review of missile system in a good functioning state is applications on Coandă effect.history, possible only by upgrading it. Consequently, theories, new trends. Review of the Air the following steps are required: Force Academy. No 2. 14-21. - digitalization of calculus systems; 4. Mihailov, A.V. (1970). Exploatationie dopuski. Moskva.

30 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

FLYING WING AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Vasile PRISACARIU*, Ionică CÎRCIU**, Mircea BOŞCOIANU**

*“Transilvania” University, Brasov, **“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy

Abstract: Integrating innovative solutions in the construction of the UAV is one of the research trends in the field having direct influence on the performance of unmanned airborne systems. The aerodynamic concepts applied to the UAV disregard the human component – the overload factor limit, but are still dependent on performance (aerodynamic coefficients of buoyancy - Cz and of the drag - C)x as well as on the breaking boundaries of the UAV structures.

Keywords: flying wing, vortex lattice method, morphing concept, longitudinal stability , lateral stability.

1. INTRODUCTION loading, stability, maneuverability (Russell, 1996). The evolution of unmanned aircraft UAV field is constantly expanding both in included the development of air vectors of the terms of constructive solutions and the flying wing type (tailless) due to low missions they may fulfill. If, in the beginning, production and operating costs and to the ease the use of UAVs was solely military, they now of use. Aeronautics imposed three sets of have a wide use in civilian areas. The main flying wings in terms of achieving stability: motivation for using this type of aircraft is the straight wings (plank), arrow wings (swept) low cost of construction and operation and parafoil wing. Flying wings are compared to manned aircraft. The creation of operational in several types of robotic aerial aerodynamic forces which sustain the aircraft systems (UAS Yearbook, 2011) which during flight is influenced by the physical successfully perform data acquisition missions properties of the surrounding air mass. both for civilian use and in military operations Therefore, we can say that specialists (see fig.1). successfully apply the same concepts, principles and methods used in aeronautical manned aircraft. The field of fluid movement uses UAV-related concepts such as gravity and its effects, air viscosity and aircraft influence at different flight speeds, the speed of sound in Fig.1 Robotic aerial systems - Flying wing type. various fluid media (gas, liquid), types of fluid a. EADS, Germany (plank) b. EagleScan, USA flow on a solid surface (laminar, vortex) and (swept) c. Snowgoose, Canada (parafoil) its effects (separation of air fillets, boundary layer), the effects on the flow on wings with 2. FLYING WING ANALYSIS DHS (great-sustentation devices - flaps, leading edge flap), aerodynamic profile, The analyzed wing is the bilongeron wing airfoil, finite span wing and their polar (with tubular fiberglass longerons) with diagrams, rotary wing and blade element plywood ribs at recess and at extreme profile. (helicopters, auto-gyros), aircraft progression It is made of EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) along the trajectory (takeoff, ascension, presenting the security features listed in Table gliding, landing, stunt flying), balance, 2. The wing consists of two half-planes that 31

Flying wing aerodynamic analysis are mounted together in a dihedral angle of 00 . having the Clark YH profile and the input data We propose to analyze a bearing area (fig. 2) specified in Table 1.

Table 1 Flying wing data Span 2b 2000 mm Aspect ratio λ 8,00 Main chord c0 350 mm Weight G 0,50 kg Medium aerod. chord MAC 263.33 mm Surface S 0,50 m2

Table 2 EPS data Data EPS 15 EPS 20 Density (kg/m3) 15 20 Elasticity modulus (N/mm2) 4 4,7 Breaking strain (N/mm2) 0,24 0,27 Stretch rezistance (N/mm2) 0,19 0,27

Fig.2. Flying wing for analysis

Fig.3 Representation of the polar diagram Methodology and analysis tools. (Guidelines for XFLR5, 2011) XFLR5 is software that enables 2D and 3D aerodynamic analysis of bodies and bearing areas, separately or jointly. The software makes analysis for small Reynolds numbers. The latest version has implemented five applications: a direct 2D analysis and design, a 3D analysis and design (wing, fuselage, aircraft), two ways to design and compare 2D, 0 design a 2D QDES and MDES. Fig.4 Lifting and drag diagram (72 km/h and 5 incidence) According to XFLR5 manual (Guidelines for

XFLR5, 2011), the steps in fig.3 should be taken into account when developing polar diagrams appropriate to the input data. Fig.3 shows the analyzed wing based on the characteristics in Table 1 and its bearing, drag, and induced resistance diagram in accordance with figures 4, 5 and 6 through VLM method (vortex lattice method) that Fig.5 Lifting anf induce drag diagram (72 km /h and 120 incidence) involves a certain degree of accuracy of the analysis.

32 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

admits a negative real root, relatively high in mode (an a-periodic mode with high damping) and a small real root, negative or positive (a slow damped or ascending a-periodic mode) and a pair of complex conjugate roots with negative real part (oscillator short-term mode) Fig. 6 Wing forces and induce drag (36 km/h and - Figure 9. The rapid a-periodic mode plays 0 5 incidence) the most important part in the deviation of the rolling p angular velocity or of the side angle φ Table 3 shows the values obtained with the name rapid convergent depreciation depending on the angle of incidence for the of roll. The slow a-periodic mode (the spiral proposed wing. mode) is the most important in the law of

angle variation of lateral inclination and φ of Table 3. The coefficients depending on the angle of incidence azimuth ψ, the aircraft describing a spiral in the horizontal plane. The oscillator mode characterizes the skidding angle β and the angular velocities p and r (Grigore, 1987). A λ5 B λ4 C λ3 D λ2 E λ =⋅+⋅+⋅+⋅+⋅ 0 (1)

Figure 6 shows the bearing coefficient variation all along the chord for an angle of incidence of 50 and a speed of 20 m / s while Figure 7 and 8 shows the variation of the induced angle as well as of the pressure centre 0 line at 5 incidence. Fig. 9. Lateral normal-mode graphics

3D analysis and asymetrical calculations. Calculation case. The stability analysis follows the following steps in figure 10.

Fig. 7. Lifting coefficient variation along the chord

Fig. 8. Induced angle and pressure centre line Figure 10. Steps of the stability analysis 3. DINAMIC STABILISATION ANALYSIS Control and stability analysis actually means evaluating the response time of an Lateral normal- modes. In most cases, aircraft to the disturbances of a flight of the equation of the lateral linear system (1) constant equilibrium. These disturbances may 33 Flying wing aerodynamic analysis occur due to environmental factors or to the State matrix control area. The following mathematical Longitudinal state Lateral state matrix representation is possible by means of matrix simplifying conditions: Neumann boundary -0.2534 1.8295 0 -9.81 -0.0056 0.590 -3.83 conditions are used. -5.3385 -9.001 2.734 0 9.81 8.911e-08 1.69-7.623 -3.442 -9.526 6.631 Position of the weight Inertia instances 0 0 centre 0 0 1 0 0.8296 -3.425 -0.095 CoG_x= 350.5690 Ibxx= 1.051e+05 0 mm kg.mm² 0 1 0 CoG_y= 0.0000 mm Ibyy= 1.255e+04 0 CoG_z= 13.5961 mm kg.mm² Ibzz= 1.176e+05 Control matrix kg.mm² Longitudinal control Lateral control Ibxz= 255.5 kg.mm² matrix matrix 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Problem solving (software calculation steps) Initial conditions Calculation for control position -2.00 ϕ = = m = m = 0 Creating the influence matrix... 0 0 5u 0 5w 0 s1q Performing LU Matrix decomposition... s s Figures 11 and 12 exemplify the graphs Solving LU system... representing variations in speed d along axes x Searching for zero-moment angle... and z as well as the variations in time of the Alpha=13.65005° speed along axis z and of the rotation around Creating source strengths... axis x. Calculating doublet strength...ut

Calculating speed to balance the weight... VInf = 3.68013m/s Calculating the stability derivatives No active control - skipping control derivatives Longitudinal derivatives Lateral derivatives Xu= -0.12674 Yv= -0.0028088 Cxu= -0.11245 CYb= -0.0024922 Xw= 0.91477 Yp= 0.29526 Cxa= 0.81166 CYp= 0.26198

Zu= -2.6693 Yr= -0.075793 Czu= -0.0032135 CYr= -0.06725 Fig. 11. Variations in time of the speeds along Zw= -4.5007 Lv= -0.36153 axes x and z (longitudinal stability) CLa= 3.9934 Clb= -0.16039 Zq= -0.47264 Lp= -1.0156 CLq= 3.1851 Clp= -0.45055 Mu= 1.1185e-09 Lr= 0.70044 Cmu= 3.7686e-09 Clr= 0.31074 Mw= 0.021324 Nv= 0.087976 Cma= 0.071848 Cnb= 0.03903 Mq= -0.095688 Np= -0.42611 Cmq= -2.4487 Cnp= -0.18904 Neutral Point position= Nr= 0.0063622 345.83119mm Cnr= 0.0028225

Fig. 12. Variations in time of the speed along axis z and of the rotation around axis x

34 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

The display of the results regarding speed direction of flight depending on the size of the variation in time and rotation angle variation disturbance. Disturbed lateral movement of an in relation to axis x, in case of longitudinal aircraft with blocked controls presents the stability, according to figure 13. following features: the idle mode, which is a constant deviation after each lateral disturbance of the azimuth angle ψ; the fast a- periodic mode, which is a rapid depreciation lateral tilt; the spiral-mode, which is a slow a- periodic motion (easy to control), the lateral oscillator mode (Dutch roll), which is a rapid oscillatory motion and it must be a stable and rapidly amortized mode. Using inertial sensors to measure the characteristics of the response to flight

Fig. 13. Speed variations in time and rotation angle maneuvers along with the qualitative analysis variation in relation to axis x of the performance lead to an overall improvement of the flying wing aerodynamics. The display of the results regarding speed variation in time and rotation angle variation 5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT in relation to axis x, in case of lateral stability, according to figure 14. The authors wish to thank “Transylvania” University and "Henri Coandă" Air Force Academy of Braşov for supporting the research necessary for writing this article.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Grigore, I. (1987). Aircraft Flight Mechanics. Bucharest: Military Academy Fig. 14. Speed variations in time and rotation angle Publishing House. variation in relation to axis x 2. Russell, J.B. (1996). Performance and

stability of aircraft. London. 4. CONCLUSIONS 3. ***. (2009). Surfaces – User Manual –

Vortex-Lattice Module. Great OWL In conclusion, during disturbed lateral Publishing – engineering software. movement, the aircraft moves in a neutral way 4. ***. (2011). Guidelines for XFLR5 v6.03. in relation to one of the degrees of freedom of 5. ***. (2011). UAS Yearbook. Unmanned this movement because the equation (4) has at aircraft systems – The Global Perspective least one null solution. No aircraft flying in a 2011/2012. Paris: Blyenburg & Co. in a straight and uniform manner will maintain a constant azimuth direction after a disturbance; it will tend towards a new

35 Transmission lines analysis using cascades T filters

TRANSMISSION LINES ANALYSIS USING CASCADES T FILTERS

Gheorghe MORARIU*, Ecaterina Liliana MIRON**

*Electronics and Computers Department, „Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania ** IT and Electronics Department, “”Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper proposes a method of determining the characteristic impedance and the equation of propagation in transmission lines, by equivalence of the line segment with an elementary T filter. We obtain thus the equivalence between a cascaded T filters network and a transmission line arbitrarily chosen. The mathematical model used is based on string theory.

Keywords: transmission line, T filter, characteristic impedance, wave propagation.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE A transmission line segment can be represented - considering its functionality, as Impedance in different points of the an infinity of elementary T filters networks structure is determined to be equivalent: connected in series (fig. 1), forming a += cascaded network with equivalent ZZa 210 (1) ++= impedance (Morariu et al., 2009:23). 01211 )aZ(ZZa (2) ++= )aZ(ZZa (3) Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 11211 ………………………………… ++= Ze= Z2 Z2 Z2 −1n1211 )aZ(ZZa (4)

where an is a recursive string. Fig. 1. The network of cascaded T filters If n→ ∞, it follows that lim an = lim an-1 and lim an = l. So, In the sense of the consideration cited, the ++= )lZ(ZZl (5) transmission line can be rated as having 121 equivalent structure from Figure 2. + )lZ(Z Zl += 12 (6) 1 ++ 12 lZZ 2 2 += ZZ2Zl (7) 1 21 2 += ZZ2Zl (8) 1 21

The elementary network (Morariu et al., 2009:23) consists of components R, L, G and C (fig. 3).

Fig. 2 The equivalent structure of the transmission line

36 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

Substituting in (8) equivalent parameters of = LL fig. 3 results: Z0 (15) CL 2 =+= 1 ZZ2Zl 21 where Z is the characteristic impedance of the 1 ω+ LjR (9) 0 ()LjR 2 +ω+= line. ω+ 4 CjG 3. THR WAVE PROPAGATION R/2 L/2 L/2 R/2 Z1 Z1 PATTERN

Z2 G C To highlight the phenomenon of the propagation of the voltage or current wave in a line segment, we consider a succession of two elementary networks (Morariu et al., 2009:25) Fig. 3. The elementary network of filters in a portion of the line segment, as The parameters R, L, G and C of the shown in fig. 4. transmission line are uniformly distributed, In In+1 resulting in that: Z1 Z1 Z1

Un In R=∆lRL; L=∆lLL; G=∆lGL; C=∆lCL (10) Un+1 Un Ze Z Z e where ∆l is the length of the line segment and 2 RL, LL, GL and CL are called line parameters and they have punctual value in line.

Relation (8) becomes: Fig. 4. Sequence of elementary networks

Δl2 ω+ LjR l = )LjR( 2 +ω+ LL (11) With representation in fig. 4, we establish LL ω+ 4 L CjG L the following relations: = Zl e (12) ⋅=− + Z2IUU 1n1nn (16)

U When Δl → 0, it follows that: I = n (17) n Z ω+ e L LjR L Z = (13) Z2 1 e ω+ + =− UUU (18) L CjG L n1nn Ze

In microwave domain when ω is very large Respectively compared to RL and GL, it results in: − UU + Z2 1nn = 1 (19) = Un Ze Zlim e →Δ 0l ω→ω sup Relation (19) defines the phenomenon of R the voltage wave propagation in a transmission L + L line. Δ 2 ω L = l 2 +ω+ j Substituting Z , respectively Z with lim LL )LjR( 1 e →Δ 0l 4 G L electrical parameters R, L, G and C we obtain: ω→ω + C sup jω L − UU ω+ LjR +1nn = (20) = LL U 1 ω+ LjR n )LjR( 2 +ω+ CL 4 ω+ CjG (14) So, Replacing the line parameters in equation (20) it results: 37 Transmission lines analysis using cascades T filters

γ − UU + = z 1nn = along a line and has the solution seU)z(U , U n where Us is the voltage at the load. ω+Δ L L )LjR(l (21) Derived, the result is = 2 Δl ω+ LjR 2 2 +ω+ L L Ud dU L L )LjR( γ=γ= 2 4 ω+ CjG U (28) L L dz2 dz

+ ω Given that L LjR L has a finite value This relation is a differential equation that and Δ 2 4l tends to zero faster than ∆l, we describes the dynamics of the propagation phenomenon along transmission lines. can neglect the influence of the expression Solving equation (28) shall be obtained Δ 2 l + ω 2 voltage wave solutions that emphasize the R( L j L )L without changing the 4 simultaneity of the direct and inverse wave, physical effect of the expression (21). Thus, known relationship of the propagation we obtain: phenomenon.

− γ−γ UU +1nn = += BeAeU zz (29)

Un (22) Using equation (16) and the relation ω+ω+Δ= L LL L )CjG)(LjR(l 1 Z ω+= )LjR( (30) If variable l is associated with coordinate z 1 2 Δ=− from space (x, y, z) and + UUU n1nn the resulting formula is: is determined following expression:

Δ + +=Δ=− ω )LjR(IUUU (31) Un ω+ω+Δ= nn1nn L LL L )CjG)(LjR(z (23) U n But + ω +=Δ ωLjRl)LjR( (32) As the index n is taken arbitrarily may be LL neglected, resulting in the expression: ΔU n ω+= and Ln L )LjR(I (33) ΔU Δl ω+ω+Δ= )CjG)(LjR(z (24) U L LL L

If l=z, using a Cartesian coordinates system But ΔU and Δz is simultaneously at value (x, y, z), and any n, then: of 0, and we can write: ΔU ω+= L L )LjR(I (34) dU Δz ω+ω+Δ= )CjG)(LjR(z (25) U L LL L When n→∞ and ∆z→0, the result is:

Noting with dU ω+= L L )LjR(I (35) ω+ω+=γ )CjG)(LjR( (26) dz L LL L Using relations number (26), (27) and (35) we get the relation: we obtain: dU Uγ= (27) γ += ω dz L L )LjR(IU (36) and

This relationship describes the overall ω+ )CjG( U L L = I (37) distribution of the propagation phenomenon ω+ L L )LjR( 38 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics

For current waves following relations are The solution of the equation (44) expresses established in accordance with the drawing of a second current wave propagation mod along fig. 4: over the line and is:

U +1n II + ==− + YU (38) += γ−γ zz 1nn Z 21n EeDeI (45) 2 +=− ω γz ++ 1n1nn )CjG(UII (39) It highlights current incident wave De and − ω+ reflected current wave Ee-γz. II +1nn = )CjG( U +1n (40) Δl Δl 3. CONCLUSIONS ← (10) → − Δ II + = In1nn = ω+ + L1n L )CjG(U (41) The determination model presented uses Δl Δl recursive string theory applied to a

For l=z, using a Cartesian coordinates transmission line structure. T-symmetric filters system (x, y, z), n→∞ and ∆z→0, we get the are assimilated to the punctual elements off the relation: line. The propagation pattern obtained is very close to physical phenomena, allowing a dI complete understanding of the propagation in ω+= )CjG(U (42) dz L L transmission lines.

Taking into consideration the relation (27), BIBLIOGRAPHY it follows 1. Morariu, Gh., Alexandru, M. & Păun, I.Al. 2 Id dU ω+= (2009). Microunde. Fundamente si L L )CjG( (43) dz2 dz aplicatii, Vol.2, Linii de transmisie. and Brasov: Transilvania University Publishing House. 2Id Iγ= 2 (44) dz2

39 Social archiving and the role of new media in scientific dissemination: a viewpoin

SOCIAL ARCHIVING AND THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA IN SCIENTIFIC DISSEMINATION: A VIEWPOINT

Victor CHRISTIANTO*, Florentin SMARANDACHE**

*Sciprint org, Jakarta, Indonesia, **Department of Mathematics and Science, University of New Mexico, Gallup, NM, USA

Abstract: Science is of course very far from the art, nonetheless there are some aspects of science which can be compared to art. For instance, there is elitic art that prefers that art is for art only. On the other side, there is pop art, which relates smoothly to industrialism. And there is also avant garde art, which asserts that all things can be thought of as art (like mirror, glass, broken window etc). Similarly, in science some researchers believe that it is the best way to keep the ‘ordinary people’ out of the traditional scientific communication (for example, arxiv.org declares that it is exclusively scientific channels for scientists only), while on the other side people sometimes also wants to know what happens behind the wall of scientific labs.

Keywords: social archiving, science, new media.

1. INTRODUCTION: THE ROLE OF ‘scientific value’ of paper. Of course in this NEW MEDIA regards, one can reply that there are systematic indexing system which introduces. Enter the social media. Various forms of electronic communication and publication 2. GRADE OF SCIENTIFIZATION have entered in recent years, which sometimes are dubbed as ‘new media’ (TCSC, 2009; In order to clarify the situation, we offer an NFAIS, 2009; ePharma Summit, 2009). This simplified analysis based on the asynchronous/ includes, for instance, blogging, youtube, synchronous communication and also ‘grade facebook, online directory, blog directory etc. of scientifization’, which is a new notion. This Let’s consider a simple example: a decade ago, grade is defined simply to enable us to rank a new paper in a remote journal will take some the channel of communication, which are months to be noticed by scientists (in ‘more’ serious and which are less serious, at particular via notification by the scientist least from scientific viewpoint. By himself/herself). But today, at the same day synchronous here we mean as method of the paper appears in electronic journals, there communication which takes effect is high likelihood that it will be disseminated immediately (like telephone), see Table 1.. simultaneously in numerous forms of new Implication of Table 1 would mean that media channels, like Google, blogging perhaps scientific communication can accept directories and other indexing services. or agree with the fast-growing social media to The problem is that some scientists feel disseminate scientific works, if only we limits that a number of scientific works get plenty of its role as ‘Grade C’, i.e. not to regard them as publication coverage in this new media, while ‘very serious’ scientific channel. Furthermore, at the same time an equally ‘worthy’ paper get perhaps we can introduce a new word here less publication coverage. In other words, does ‘social archiving’, in order to reflect both the it mean that nowadays popularity in new method of ‘social network’ as the essence of media had replaced what we called before as new media, and the scientific archiving. 40 Management and Socio-Humanities

Table 1. Grade of Scientific Communication Type/Grade Grade A Grade B Grade C Asynchronous Peer-reviewed Scientific Books, Popular Science Journals, Proceedings Scientific Magazines Books/Magazines, Online Forums Synchronous Scientific Lectures, Public Blogs, Online Conferences Seminars, Preprint Directories, Videos, Services, Indexing Emails, Other New Media

3. HOW TO MAKE SOCIAL ARCHIVE perhaps better, a postmodern society. USEFUL Therefore new ways to interact with the common people shall be considered by the Scientists improve their work not only by scientific societies. After all, science moves on thinking by themselves, but also by receiving not only by making continuous progress in its comments and suggestions from their peers. own, but also because of its interaction with Such a method of review has been established the public sphere... in traditional scientific communication, called as ‘peer reviewing’. But there are other forms BIBLIOGRAPHY of ‘input’ that scientists can receive from their ‘outer world’, for instance what indexing 1. ***. (2009). Transformations in Cultural system now begin to call as ‘impact factor’, and Scientific Communication (TCSC). whatever the bias it may introduce. [online]. Social Media and Cultural Another type of input, although not so Communication. Research, strategy and ‘serious’ is of course from the public itself, ideas for digital cultural participation. those people which are enthusiastic on the URL: http://nlablog.wordpress.com/ science, either by email, blog posting, etc. conference-2009/. [consulted on April, Another way is perhaps to introduce some 2009]. ‘rating review’ in those blogging, just like 2. ***. NFAIS 2009: The Rise of Social amazon.com enables potential book readers to Media and Multi-language see what others say. In this regards the Communication. [online] What I Learned administrator may enable the comment/rating Today... URL: http://www.web2learning. review be sent to the scientists in order for net/archives/2659. [consulted on April, them to see how their papers may get better 2009]. response. 3. ***. (2009). Real Insights from Social Of course, a scientist can always choose Media – ePharma. [online]. Med 2.0 either to take care of the ‘new media’ Exploring Emerging Tech & New media response, or just get rid of them, and focus on Trends in Science, Medicine, and Pharma. more serious review by his/her peers. URL: http://www.med20.com/blog/2009/ Nonetheless, a balanced view may be better, in 03/real-insights-from-social-media- this regards the ‘periodic table of the social epharma-summit-part-2/. [consulted on media elements’ can be considered too April, 2009]. (PTSME, 2009). 4. ***. (2009). The Periodic Table of the Social Media Elements (PTSME). [online]. 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS eyecube. URL: http://eyecube.wordpress. com/2009/02/23/the-periodic-table-of-the- The new media has begun to embrace the social-media-elements/. [consulted on communication sphere of modern society, or April, 2009].

41 Requirements of discoursive rationality in regard to the discourse of PhD theses in social sciences

REQUIREMENTS OF DICURSIVE RATIONALITY IN REGARD TO THE DISCOURSE OF Ph.D. THESES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

Adrian LESENCIUC*, Raluca Mihaela LEVONIAN**

*Department of Military Sciences and Management, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania, **Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Letters, University of Bucharest, Romania / Dipartimento di Filologia, Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia, Università della Calabria, Cosenza, Italy

Abstract: One’s meta-discursive focus on one’s own discourse is a natural thing to do once the research interest lies in the field of social sciences. The projected discourse does not regard only the mere organization of a scientific text round the dense nuclei of assigned significations composing it, but also a set of limitations resulting from the particularities of the text’s production context and its reception. Due to the fact that the intended scientific text, belonging to a specialized production and performance background, characterized by norms concerning the manner of writing and defending a doctoral thesis, cannot be analyzed within intended textualization standards of any scientific content, the analysis of the text production is highly recommended as well. As a result, projection through discursive approaches, namely, through discourse analysis, offers the possibility of a discursive organization of the dynamic relation text – context, in order for it to meet specific requirements, with regard not only to the scientific content, but also to the circumstances of the text’s production and reception, including adjacent constraint, the communicative competence implying at least the semantic, socio-linguistic and semiotic- linguistic dimensions, organized round the discursive competence (Charaudeau, 2001, 2002), respectively, the correct definition of the discursive framework and the appropriate identification of discursive strategies.

Keywords: discourse, meta-discursive approach, scientific discourse, doctoral thesis, requirements of discursive rationality.

1. INTRODUCTION. DEFINING decades. According to van Dijk (1998:3), DISCOURSE AS A VARIABLE discourse analysis should focus on production and performance equally: ‘In sum, discourse Doctoral theses represents a particular type studies are about talk and text in context’. A of academic discourse mainly because of the similar point of view is advanced, for example, social conventions marking all the components by Maingueneau (2007:48), for whom every of this speech situation, from the socially discourse is contextualized and may even assigned statuses characterizing both speaker change its own context during its enunciation. and hearers to the specific setting needed for The preparation and the defense of a Ph.D. the final act of defending the thesis. A proper thesis require a special focus on the textual definition of discourse as a variable notion dimension of the discourse and also on the should take into account both text and context context, which will be defined in this study as by investigating these two dimensions not in ‘the total social setting in which the speech an additive manner but from a broader point of event takes place’ (Mey, 2001:30). In the case view, as interdependent components. This has of doctoral theses, the context is pre- also been a constant shift in the domain of established or conventionalized and for this pragmatics and discourse studies in the last reason we have chosen to use a definition able

42 Management and Socio-Humanities

to integrate both dimensions, but at the encountered its three main dimensions: (a) same time which enables the researcher to language use, (b) the communication of beliefs address especially the role of the ‘text’. H.G. (cognition), and (c) interaction in social Widdowson’ studies seemed particularly situations. relevant to us, because of the interest for the role of the text in the configuration of the which shows that by using Widdowson’s discourse. In his critics’ opinion, one of the definition and focusing strictly on the text, the main dichotomies discussed by him is the research is positioned at the first level, the one text/discourse dichotomy, where ‘text is re- of language sciences. conceived as the starting point or alternatively Our discussion of doctoral theses as a the trace of discourse’ (Cook, Seidhofer, particular form of scientific discourse is 2001:11). For Widdowson, the difference mainly aimed to summarize literature in the between text and discourse includes the notion field of discourse studies and to draw attention of intended meaning: ‘(…) the term discourse to the fact that research is still needed is taken here to refer both to what a text especially regarding the possible variations in producer meant by a text and what a text academic / doctoral discourse, due to cultural means to the receiver’ (Widdowson, 2007:6). or institutional features and also to the In Eco’s terms (1996:25), the intended particularities of the scientific field. The discourse implies an emphasis on two of the following two sections are focused on the three possible interpretive intentions: intentio doctoral discourse in relationship with its auctoris, viewing the interpretation of the context while the other ones bring into message as research and intentio lectoris, discussion mainly the textual dimension, by where interpretation connotes imposition. enlisting and describing three major What remains left – or at least partially left – requirements needed for the achievement of aside is interpretation as investigation, intentio discursive rationality. operis, since the doctoral thesis implies research work for the text production and the 2. THE DOCTORAL THESIS AS A evaluating reading done by the members of the DISURSIVE GENRE doctoral scientific board. However, this does not necessarily mean that an academic or a A proper procedure for the analysis of a scientific text cannot constitute a work in itself discourse needs to take into account discursive or that it does not speak by itself, regardless typologies and strategies and, by means of what the author intends to convey. them, discourse forms and functions. Focusing on features as the organization, The discursive or the ‘situational’ genre as production and performance of the discourse, stated in Charaudeau (2002:312), which is to various definitions of this variable have been be understood in direct connection to more in use in the field of discourse studies. general communication domains or situations Defining the variable ‘discourse’ from (for instance advertising, politics, media, Widdowson’s perspective may lead us to a science a.s.o.) represents a special type of broader frame of definitions, notwithstanding meta-discourse which sums up variants the fuzzy perspective (van Dijk, 1998:1), deriving from the communication which approaches discourse by referring to ‘subcontracts’, also called ‘subgenres’, and other terms that are conceptually very close to also specific formal restrictions at the level of it: language, communication, interaction, sub-subgenres. Because of the topic discussed society, culture. Teun A. van Dijk (1998:2) and of the constraints regarding the speech distinguishes between three major levels situation and contract, the text of a Ph.D. which cannot be overlooked by a valid thesis belongs to the category of scientific definition of discourse: discourse. Oriented scientific discourse (OSD) is a written form of discourse in the field of Even after this first approximation to the communication sciences, needing a concept of discourse, we already have multidisciplinary approach within the frame of 43 Requirements of discoursive rationality in regard to the discourse of PhD theses in social sciences social sciences. As a subgenre, OSD refers to is common knowledge that a thesis may be the construction and performance of a highly subject to certain constraints, which are similar specialized scientific text, implying distinctive for many scientific disciplines. For instance organizational features and at least two there are general conventions ruling the textual subgenres: the monograph, characteristic for structure of a Ph.D. thesis, which must include humanities, theology and law and the an introduction, conclusions and the full list of compilation of secondary literature, references. Other kinds of general conventions characteristic for medicine, technology and are close to the requirements of the Gricean natural sciences (Gustavii, 2008:91). What cooperative principle: the originality of the seems to be agreed upon is that there is no scientific content, the good understanding of unique set of rules which can be valid across the literature discussed, the accuracy of all disciplines in order to control the quotations, the clear presentation of the production of a Ph.D. thesis. Following the objectives, of the methodology used and of the tradition of subgenre hybridization, the outcomes, the explanation of the scientific discursive production is not meant to draw relevance of the study, all these features may clear-cut boundaries, as long as a thesis be viewed as corresponding to the maxims of structure may vary ‘from institution to quantity, quality, relevance and manner in the institution and even from professor to domain of scientific written and oral discourse. professor in the same department of the same In regard to the particular conventions, these institution’ (Day, Gastel apud Gustavii, may derive from the research topic (for 2008:91). It seems more appropriate therefore example, a thorough presentation of the corpus to talk about the conventions deriving from the is needed if the thesis is based on corpus speech situation, conventions which may be research) or from distinctive traits of the either general or particular. In the first case, it public or from the speech situation.

S C I E N T I F I C D I S C O U R S E for teaching for specialized purposes popularization

Discursive explanatory defining descriptive focalization argumentative descriptive Semiotiv non- symbolic iconic + iconic verbal codes symbolic

Reference epistemological

Referentia- concepts, denomination, denomination, lization hypotheses, definition, description, operations theories, categorization, explanation models exemplification Rhetorical graphic and general idiolect linguistic operation linguistic metaphor metaphor

Speech argumentation denomination, assertion, acts (+ polemic) argumentation definition (- polemic)

Fig.1. Subgenres of scientific discourse (apud Rovenţa-Frumuşani, 2005:192)

44 Management and Socio-Humanities

At a general level, OSD presupposes a low interactants in this communication process. degree of affective involvement from the part Research methods involving frames analysis of the speaker / writer, manifested through the or critical discourse analysis might not provide use of a neutral tone, a reduced number of very useful tools for this particular speech subjectivity markers, the use of the scientific situation. One method takes into account the register. As a basic general rule, epistemic manner of constructing the interpretation, stance is privileged instead of affective stance placing emphasis on the idea of the but totally unbiased communication will sociocultural context, while the other one always remain an ideal and expressions of values more the ways of discourse production stance are unavoidable even in academic and dissemination leading to social change. discourse. Nevertheless, recent studies have The enunciation, from the point of view of shown that the use of subjectivity markers may discursive pragmatics, is seen as a way of vary according to the academic field (e.g. constructing a reality and implies the Charles apud Hunston 2007) which confirms establishment of a dynamic relationship the idea that distinct scientific domains create between the interactants. In this relationship, their own registers. the speaker engages in the truthfulness of the For a more precise description of the traits message conveyed by marking his/her status of OSD, we have used a representation of the throughout the discourse. But the speaker’s subgenres of scientific discourse according to status itself may be called a ‘semi-legitimate’ a set of discursiveness markers (see Fig.1). one, a trait which leads to the act of unstable Following this representation, the Ph.D. thesis balancing between two positions. First, the belongs to the subgenre of specialized speaker positions him/herself as an expert, discourse, implying as discursive focalization whose discourse is meant to prove his/her an explanatory / argumentative one, with authority in the scientific field. Second, the epistemological references, by making use of speaker’s social status is that of a doctoral concepts, hypotheses, theories and models as student and thus a candidate or simply a referentialization operations and argumen- person being evaluated. In this case, the tative speech acts. The polemic character of a relationship with the hearers is asymmetrical doctoral thesis may constitute in itself a and, by means of the discourse produced and subject for further research and it can be stated performed, the speaker is in search of a only by an investigation which pays attention support from the examiners for consolidating to the national, local or institutional culture. his/her identity. Paul Thomson (2005:32) According to the typology advanced by highlights this unstable kind of balance van Dijk (2003:73), the discourse of the between the speaker’s positions and provides a doctoral thesis in social sciences is meant to possible answer to this dilemma of the fulfill the individual goals of the speaker/ discursive positioning of the doctoral student writer and it is based on specific, highly as a speaker towards the examiners as hearers: abstract knowledge. Its reference is not formed by obvious reality but it places itself in Doctoral candidates are in a peculiar position contrast to the sciences which rely on of being both experts, as well as examinees. It information derived only from observation is important therefore both to assume a tone of (Saussure 2004:147). authority, and, at the same time, establish that the writer is entitled to adopt a tone of authority. Claims must be backed up to 3. THE SPEAKER’S UNSTABLE evidence, and a comprehensive understanding BALANCING of thinking, approaches and knowledge in their chosen fields of specialisation must be An investigation of the doctoral thesis demonstrated, in order to persuade the most discourse within the limits of discursive immediate readers (the examiners) that the pragmatics brings into discussion the specific thesis is worthy of the award of a doctorate. dynamism of the speaker – hearer relationship and the socially assigned status of all 45 Requirements of discoursive rationality in regard to the discourse of PhD theses in social sciences

The speaker’s need to find a balance for (Jakobs 2003:895). Regarding the speaker- his/her double status is a result of the multiple hearer relationship, this engagement is realized publics or types of hearers to whom the by indicating the utterances considered message or the thesis is supposed to be important, by using various strategies of conveyed. The most immediate type of public, ranking the scientific content, by indicating the a 'primary’ public, is composed of the degree of certainty through the use of members of the scientific board who take the epistemic markers a.s.o. decision of awarding or not the title. As Thompson points out, in this case the speech 4. DISCURSIVE TYPES AND act is mainly persuasive but also it has a STRATEGIES performative component (or at least it will lead to another performative act, the change in the As a type of discursive organization, the speaker’s status). A 'secondary’ public is intended projection focuses on the expository represented by the scientists, researchers genre which ‘focuses attention upon a present forming the academic community, at various time and place coincident with the levels, from the local level of the institution convergence of reader and text’ (Beale, awarding the title to the national or 1987:37) delimiting itself from the narrative international level. The relationship to the and dramatic genres, unlikely to be used in primary public is clearly asymmetrical, while scientific discourse. It is possible to determine it is desirable that the relationship with the the discursive strategies regarding the research more general public should maintain a higher topic and the specific discourse aspects degree of symmetry. starting from the conditions proposed by A consequence of the oscillation in the Charaudeau (2002:313) regarding the power relations at work in this frame is also a constraints, the goals (taking into account the specific way of directing the public in the act distinction between the goal of the scientific of reading, a way of signaling the intention research in itself and that of the discourse which organizes the text. The specific trait of which is ultimately of a persuasive kind, i.e. to this reading guidance derives from the fact that persuade the examiners that the candidate the message conveyed is supposed to undergo deserves the Ph.D. title), the speaker’s a specific form of evaluation. As following, positioning in regard to the hearer and his/her the speaker 1) presents the original content in managing to fulfill his/her intention of relationship to the sources used (signals the identifying and surpassing the risks connected intertextuality in particular ways by clearly to the other interactants. Even if the discursive pointing out which parts of the message are strategies might not be consciously used by the original and what is quoted, lists the models speaker, it is necessary that they should be which have been used etc.); 2) provides a carefully planned in the case of the final and hierarchization of the scientific content, an broader project which includes not only the internal evaluation of the message; 3) realizes written text of the thesis but also the a complex form of argumentation, having to conversation taking place between the justify his/her decisions regarding the research candidate and the examiners. The scientific conducted, the chosen topic, the methods, the text imposes the strategies necessary for its references used or the current of thought the self-legitimization through the author’s thesis belongs to, but also to bring valid attempt to ratify him/herself by invoking arguments for the outcomes of the study. expert sources: ‘strategy of legitimization Intertextuality is a feature of academic consists especially of recalling or reinforcing works, not merely unavoidable, but even a position of authority’ (Charaudeau, highly necessary. However, a characteristic of 2002:314). The presentation of the research the doctoral thesis discourse remains the need results, of the scientific essays written during for clearly setting the limits between the the doctoral years and of the thesis as the final original discourse, assumed by the speaker, product of year-long research means a and the previous discourses or quoted sources different kind of performance and therefore 46 Management and Socio-Humanities certain strategies should be taken into account the production of an academic text, to include in order to realize the hearers’ ‘captatio a correct discussion of the topic or to respect benevolentiae’. the limits of the scientific field. The A more detailed investigation from the illocutionary aspect of this speech act meta-discursive perspective should pay represents the force of the scientific statements attention to the requirements of discursive included in the text and the speaker’s intention rationality intended for the preparation and the to persuade the hearers regarding the scientific defense of the thesis as these stages of the value of the text (of the research), the research process involve specific discursive importance of the topic and his/her epistemic requirements. These requirements can be authority which has been acquired during the studied alongside with the general research period. ‘impositions’ of the discursive organization: cohesion/ coherence, informativity and 6. THE DEGREE OF INFORMATIVITY relevance, which require a high level of discursive competence from the part of the Another essential requirement of the hearer. discursive rationality refers to informativity. For the Ph.D. thesis, the informativity of the 5. INTENDED COHESION AND OSD focuses on how to reach the desired COHERENCE degree of comprehension which should be assessed in relationship to the main public or The textual cohesion refers to the syntactic publics, especially the evaluatory board of unity of the text and is accomplished by scientists in this case. The realization of marking the connection in a series of linguistic informativity includes its own form of units: repetition of the same item in different balancing two contrasting communicative sentences, the use of logical connectors, the goals. One of this goals is the unavoidable use of segmentation markers, the unity of the appeal to ’shared knowledge’ (Sperber, pronouns (pronominal deictics), the unity of Cummins, 2007:4) which functions as a the verbal system a.s.o. Briefly, „the prerequisite for all types of communication in identification of connections that are its broadest sense. Without a common linguistically signalled like those between a background shared by all participants it would pronoun and a previous noun phrase, enables be impossible for the message to be us to recognize the cohesion of a text” understood. At the same time, the (Widdowson, 2007:45). In turn, coherence informativity of the scientific discourse is implies the unity at the level of the signified, accomplished by setting as an explicit the unity of meaning of a series of utterances objective the extension of the hearer’s which must refer to the same linguistic reality. cognitive field. This neccessity of enlarging Coherence is based on the idea of an addition the hearer’s knowledge starting from common, to the meaning of each sentence taken well established facts and notions, the act of separately and also on the idea of sustaining balancing between the old and the new the global communicative intention (the represents the requirement which is most illocutionary act). As Reboul and Moeschler representative for a doctoral thesis. (2010:153) put it, the coherence of a discourse is accomplished when every local informative 7. RELEVANCE/PERTINENCE OF intention (characteristic for every isolated CONTENTS utterance) supports the global informative intention (characteristic for the whole The ultimate major requirement of the discourse). intended discursive rationality is the one The context of the production and concerning relevance or pertinence of presentation of a Ph.D. thesis requires a contents. Continuing Searle’s studies on correlation between the text and the speech speech acts rationality, Herbert Paul Grice situation, which means to respect the rules for (1975) has included the maxim of relevance 47 Requirements of discoursive rationality in regard to the discourse of PhD theses in social sciences among his conversational maxims. Grice knowledge. Nevertheless, Sperber and underlines the necessity of correlating Cummings (2007:5) argue that this type of intervention with the conversation topic, rhetoric should not be thoroughly restrictive; without adding any generalizing, useless pertinence being perceived as one of the propositions, without deforming the “cognitive scale”, the locutor being asked to agree with functions of shared knowledge: the context, with the time of the performance and with the purpose of the communication, (...) any proposition of which some but not all and thus, the scientific discourse becomes of the entailments are part of shared strict with regard to meeting these imperative knowledge is relevant. The wide field of requirements. Charaudeau (2002:304) relevance comprises all propositions that are considers the principle of relevance as being a relevant in this sense. It can thus be described as the potential complement of shared fundamental one and brings up the necessity of knowledge, and any modification in shared relating the discursive content with the knowledge will bring about a modification in Gricean principle of relevance: its complement. (...) This definition of relevance is clearly too broad. Shared The content (propos) is that which echoes the knowledge, at any given moment, is not a relevancy principle, together with the idea that homogeneous whole. Relevance is a function of each situation belongs to a thematic domain, shared knowledge and thus of memory. however general it might be’. Pertinence and informativity are The relevance of the research topic, from interrelated aspects having various the angle of the study field resides in an consequences but they are mainly related to analysis, from communicative perspective, of the process of production and not to the the appearance and development of sign defense of the text. systems under the historical evolution of cultural patterns within the linguistic 8. CONCLUSIONS community. Related to the cognitive rhetoric limitations and to the particular case of Perspectiva The meta-discursive scientific discourse, “we consider as pertinent perspective related to one’s own intended any proposition that, placed next to shared discourse may be a useful exercise in the knowledge, brings about new consequences” minute designing of scientific contents and in (Sălăvăstru, 1997:622), that is, it offers the considering the adjacent requirements of possibility of engaging creative and innovative discursive rationality. A fore-positioning in the dimension into the research process. By this discursive field, by defining the “discourse” positioning, with regard to the scientific text, variable in the sight of the act’s particularity pertinence and the informativity become inter- and of the intended content, by indentifying conditioned. Therefore, in order to avoid the type of discourse , the enunciator’s surpassing the limits of the reference cognitive position, the adequate methods and strategies, area, informativity (inside shared knowledge) is useful in the ultimate attempt of building meets the requirement of integrality, which discourse. Thus, an organization of the text implies that the scientific information be and an achievement of discursive constraints integrated within the already existent take place in an anticipated manner. Yet, the knowledge (the common encyclopedic horizon construct design is incomplete in the absence of the audience), without abandoning the of a projection similar to a simulation of requirement of progressive informing, which, accomplishment manner of discursive in turn, involves, in the cognitive rhetoric rationality requirements: coherence and perspective, not only the “cognitive addition”, cohesion, informativity and relevance/ by surpassing the limits of the common pertinence. Bringing up the possibility of cognitive area, but also the new information, designing a doctoral thesis in relation with the transmitted within the limits of shared above mentioned variables and indicators 48 Management and Socio-Humanities should not be confused for a meta-discursive 9. Maingueneau, Dominique. (2007). and self-reflexive steadiness inside the project, Discursul literar. Paratopie şi scenă de but it should stand for prefiguring an endeavor enunţare. Translated by Nicoleta Loredana that is about to be undertaken. Moroşan. Foreword by Mihaela Mârţu. Iaşi: European Institute. BIBLIOGRAPHY 10. Mey, Jacob L. [1993] (2001). Pragmatics. An introduction. Oxford: Blackwell 1. Beale, Walter H. [1981] (1987). A Publishers. pragmatic theory of rhetoric. Southern 11. Rovenţa-Frumuşani, Daniela. (2005). Illinois University Press. Analiza discursului. Ipoteze şi ipostaze. 2. Charaudeau, Patrick. (2001). Langue, Bucureşti: Tritonic. discours et indentité culturelle. Revue de 12. Sălăvăstru, Costantin. (1997). Identitate şi didactologie des langues-cultures, 3-4, diferenţă. Cazul retoricii. Revista de nº123. filosofie, nr.6, noiembrie-decembrie, 3. Charaudeau, Patrick. (2002). A Tomul XLIV. communicative conception of discourse 13. Sperber, Dan & Cummins, Sarah. (2007). [electronic resource]. Discourse studies, Rudiments of cognitive rhetoric. Rhetoric vol.4, nº3. Society Quarterly, Fall. 4. Cook, Guy & Seidlhofer, Barbara. [1995] 14. Thomson, Paul. (2005). Aspects of (2001). An applied linguist in principle and identification and position in intertextual practice. În Guy Cook, Barbara Seidlhofer, references in PhD theses. În Elena Principle and Practice in Applied Tognini-Bonelli, Gabriella Del Lungo Linguistics. Studies in Honour of H.G. Camiciotti (eds.), Strategies in Academic Widdowson, Oxford: Oxford University Discourse, Amsterdam: John Benjamin Press. Publishing Company. 5. de Saussure, Ferdinand. [2002] (2004). 15. van Dijk, Teun A. [1997] (1998). „The Scrieri de lingvistică generală. Iaşi: Study of Discourse”. În Teun A. van Dijk Polirom. (ed.) Discourse as structure and process, 6. Eco, Umberto. [1990] (1996). Limitele Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. interpretării. Constanţa: Pontica. 16. van Dijk, Teun A. (2003). Contextual 7. Grice, Herbert Paul. (1975). Logic and knowlwdge management in discourse conversation. În P. Cole, J. Morgan (eds.), production: A CDA perspective. În Ruth Syntax and semantics, vol. 3 [electronic Wodak, Paul Chilton (eds.), A New Agenda resource], New York: Academic Press. in (Critical) Discourse Analysis, 8. Gustavii, Björn. [2003] (2008). How to Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Write and Illustrate a Scientific Paper. Company. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge 17. Widdowson, Henry G. (2007). Discourse University Press. Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

49 Your body reveals you

YOUR BODY REVEALS YOU

Emrah AKÇAY

Communication Design and Management, Anatolian University, Eski ehir, Turkey

Abstract: Detecting deception is one of the most important skills for professionals to use in the field of their profession. These skills are capable of being improved over time in direct proportion to experience by scanning essays on the subject and having a lot of practice. Reading body language cues is a practical study that can be applied in every minute of daily life. We can catch a lot of useful tips by examining the people around us like our family and our friends in the business, park, bus stop or a restaurant.

Keywords: nonverbal communication, body language, lie detection, stress detection.

THE MOMENT THAT THE HOMICIDE CASE IS SOLVED

A sudden phone call informed of a homicide to the police. The Police Chief and his staff went to the crime scene in order to investigate the case. In the open field, there was a common fountain which has a small pool for the cattle to drink water. In this pool, filled up with water, there was the corpse of a woman who was half naked. In her possessions, there was nothing else but a soaked mobile phone to learn her identity. With the help of a cellular repairer, the phone is started again. The identity of the woman and the last person whom she spoke with was learned. The Police decided to go to the suspect’s house. In homicide cases, the importance of fast action is undisputed, because while time is passing by, the suspect can spoil the evidence and make up a fake alibi. For this reason, the same afternoon, the police force raided his house with permission from the prosecutor. The suspect was at the house with his family. When he encountered the police, he behaved very cool when the staff started to search the house, the police chief took the suspect to the police car to conduct a private interview. The suspect seemed very relaxed and was answering the questions in a calm manner. The police chief mentioned the name of the woman without mentioning the homicide, “Do you know Fatma Turna?” When the suspect heard the name, in a moment, his looks has changed. His mouth went dry and he tried to say that he didn’t know a woman with this name. Because of the dryness in his mouth, he couldn’t even answer properly. After approximately ten seconds, he returned to his calm manner. A whole day long, he was interrogated. At the end of his custody, although it had been proven that he committed homicide with the help of the evidence and witnesses, he never confessed. But the “momentary” expression was

enough for the police officers to be sure they were on the right track.

The suspect had known why the police came for sure and he had prepared himself for this. But,

hearing the name of the murdered woman caused some involuntary behaviors in his body which were

easily observed.

1. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS AND included. It is commonly known as body NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION language and there are many books which are written by practitioners about it. When it is Nonverbal behaviors, with its narrow used in the broad sense of the non-verbal meaning, refer to the behaviors other than movements, the body language concept is not talking (Mehrabian, 2007:1). In this concept; enough; the concept of nonverbal forms of facial expressions, gestures, postures, communication is more correct. Because positions and foot / leg movements can be in this field; body language (kinesics),

50 Management and Socio-Humanities proximity and use of space (proxemics), tactile deliberate use of facial muscles might cause (haptic), environmental factors (eg, the emergence of opposing signals, for architectural style, odor, color, temperature, example, can cause a false smile. This smile is lighting, noise, and traces of the previous not a symmetrical one like a genuine smile. movement), physical properties (general We try to give a friendly and respectful attractiveness, breath odor, length, weight, and greeting, but a number of muscles that signal hair-tan), paralanguage (voice pitch, loudness, contempt emerge. Mostly we want to look speaking rate, intensity, silent pauses, speech relaxed during communication, and want to mixed with sounds, speech disorders), control our facial expressions and gestures, but artificial items (perfumes, clothes, lipstick, a nervous foot shake may reveal us (Schober, glasses, tattoos) should be included (Knapp & 1996:39). Hall, 1978). Voluntary or involuntary movements are The pioneering work of non-verbal executed by our brain. The human brain can be communication belongs to Charles Darwin. In examined in three parts: reptile brain, the his distinguished book, "Expressions of mammalian brain (limbic system) and the emotions in man and animals", he tried to human brain (neocortex) (MacLean, 1952). establish the common facial expressions of The limbic system is the reason for the body's humans and animals. In his book, Darwin spontaneous movements for our survival; the stated that these expressions are innate and emotions of fear, disgust, tension always universal. Since then, thousands of studies emerge in this part. If our heart beats speed up have emerged in the most interesting and and our breathing frequency increases when mysterious field of communication science, we hear the footsteps behind us, while walking but in this issue, there is at least one further down a deserted street at night; it is the result topic to be investigated. of the limbic system. This part of the body is the honest one because we don’t have any 2. NONVERBAL LEAKAGE dominance over it. It means, while the neocortex refutes a crime that we committed; Darwin stated that "Based on the habitual the limbic system expresses the truth to the movements that are associated with certain counterpart by giving signals like sweating, situations can be partially controlled. The motion freezing, dry mouth, etc. (Navarro, muscles that can be controlled at least in this 2008:25). case exposes the most credible statements, and In connection with this matter, channel we accept them descriptive" (Darwin, 1965). capacity should be mentioned. Channel With this statement; he means that the capacity refers to the amount of information movements which the sender (source) can’t that a communication tool can transfer per unit control, will tell to the receiver the truth. of time (Cherry, 1966:178). According to Freud, in a manner that is more poetic, "He Ekman and Friesen, the body parts with the that has eyes to see and ears to hear may lowest channel capacity, provide the most cues convince himself that no mortal can keep a on deception (Ekman, Friesen, 1969). Our secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with faces, comparing to our hands and our hands his fingertips; betrayal oozes out of him at comparing to our feet can transfer more data every pore" (Freud, 1959:94) referred to the per unit time. In that case, our legs reveal more same subject. cues to deception than our hands and hands As is proved by the above scientific give out more than face. judgments, during a dialogue when we don’t Everyone, who communicates knows that tell the truth, our bodies will often betray us. his/her facial expression is being read Because, we cannot control our non-verbal permanently and for this reason he/she tries to behavior as much as we control our verbal dominate these expressions. In this case, the behavior (Pennycook, 1985:264). Mimic is signals which emerge as far as possible from related with our emotional world and is open our faces reflect the actual state of mind. The to our routing attempts. However, the relationship of the face and foot movements, is 51 Your body reveals you as follows: “Being away from our heads, we fiction is believed, or the liar is able to forget to control our feet while we are in a convince himself/herself, the body naturally excited conversation or while we are trying to will not give any signal to the other party. make up a lie. So, the feet are the most realistic limb of our body. Whatever facial 3. THE MOST COMMON BEHAVIORS expression; unconscious movement of our feet OF LIE AND STRESS exposes the real mood of ours.” (Schober, 1996:39). Closing Mouth: Brain instructs to Former FBI agent and body language suppress the lies unconsciously. While closing expert Joe Navarro, proves the same argument the mouth in children is an obvious sign, more by expressing that the most honest part of the subtle closings occur with age, more and more body is the feet and legs (Navarro, 2008:63). fingers lightly cover up is encountered. Navarro, in his book, contrary to the common Sometimes there can be people who gently manner, recommends to read the signs of body hold their hands in their mouth in the form of language upward, starting from the feet coughing. (Navarro, 2008:63). Touching Nose: "Smell and Taste Albert Mehrabian, after the experiments he Treatment and Research Foundation" in conducted on "nonverbal leakage" or a general Chicago has identified that, chemicals called sense "lying signs", has reached the following catecholamine release in a person who lies and conclusions: the tissues of the nose filled with more blood. • When people lie, a greater amount of As a result of the experiments made with negative feelings are expressed by nonverbal special cameras, showed that lying people’s behavior. nose grew slightly which cannot be seen • Facial expressions, are less effective in visually and this is named "Pinocchio Effect". revealing the lie, because our control on the We cannot see the nose growing with eyes, but face is stronger. we can see the effect of the increase in blood • A happy facial expression incompatible circulation in the form of the person gently with the social environment, can be a touching his nose. deceptive act to soothe the other person. Scratching Nose: In contrast to lightly • Over-stressed or introvert people smile touching the nose, people who lie can scratch less when lying, so they are less likely to their nose in a more prominent way. conceal the cues to lie. Scratching Eyes: This can be done by • People are likely to limit their talking people who do not want to scratch their noses. time while lying. People who lie or are This is the brain's effort to prevent the lie or to stressed, slip of the tongue and speech hinder seeing the thing which the person does disorders like stuttering increase. not want to be seen. • While lying, affirmative nodding and Scratching Neck: In general, it is seen in foot/leg movements are reduced. the form of scratching the side of the neck by the index finger. It may indicate instability and • Volume level, shows self-confidence uncertainty. and dominance. People who lied or are stressed decrease the volume level. Collar Adjusting: In the event of stress or telling a lie, sweating increases due to the • Swinging movement while sitting and increase of blood circulation. This is the main increasing the foot/leg movements, shows the reason of the collar detraction. (Pease, comfort level of the person (Mehrabian, 2006:148). 2007:98). But fidgeting can be sign of stress.

The responses of the body while lying are 4. RESEARCH RESULTS CONCERNING caused by differences in reality and rhetoric. LIE DETECTION RATES Those skilled at lying are the ones who can make himself believe the fiction he/she Even There are many studies concerning designed in the mind at the beginning. When judicial and law enforcement personnel’s lie 52 Management and Socio-Humanities detection rates in the world. Through this In incriminating interrogation, law- research, the accuracy of detecting the verbal enforcement officers directly divert or non-verbal signs of lies by the expert or incriminating types of questions against the supposed to be expert is aimed. In most suspects. (For example, “Your responses research, the accuracy of lie detection is stated suggest that you're hiding something”). In to be close to chance. (DePaulo, 1994, 1998; information collecting interrogation, they ask DePaulo et al., 1985; Zuckerman et al., 1985). the suspects open-ended questions in order to In the meta analyses of the 37 researches’ make them to explain the whole story. (For results which were conducted to detect the example, “What did you do between 3 pm and cues of deception, accuracy rate is between 4 pm?”, “You told me that you were at the 45% and 60% and the average accuracy is gym last night, who else was there with 57%. It actually shows that people are not you?”). As it can be easily seen in good at lie detection. (Vrij, 2000). Another incriminating interrogation short answers are research showed that the professional lie taken from the suspect (for example “I am not detectors could not catch the high accuracy hiding anything”) whereas more long answers rates of lie detection comparing with the are taken in information collecting ordinary volunteers from the university interrogation. As the words are the verbal students. (DePaulo et al., 1986; Ekman et al., cues, it is indisputable that detecting the signs 1991; Ekman et al., 1999; Köhnken, 1987; of lie is more possible in longer answers. As a Vrij, 1993; Vrij et al., 1997; Vrij et al., 2001). result of the research, information collecting Ekman & Sullivan have stated that only interrogation, exposes more verbal signs of American secret service personnel could get lying rather than incriminating interrogation. better results than the university students. Also incriminating conversation could not (Ekman et al., 1991). expose any clues of verbal signs (Vrij et al., Two methods are used for the detection of 2007). lying through interviews and interrogations: Some of the results obtained from the Direct evaluation (Is this person lying?) and results of the research are as follows: Indirect evaluation (Did this person get in too • If law enforcement personnel cannot much trouble to respond?). In direct confirm what the suspect told, they prefer to evaluation, the observer focuses on the signs read nonverbal signs: rather than verbal of lies and tries to evaluate the signs according statements during the interview. to this. In indirect evaluation, a person focuses • Assessing a person as telling a lie, only on psychological assessments for the results makes sense when performed by professionals. rather than signs of lying. In direct evaluation, Even in this case, all of the assessments will the question “Is this person lying?” leads us to not be correct. (Ekman et al., 1999). result but in indirect evaluation, the reply is • When a law-enforcement personnel taken by the question “Does the speaker really interviews with the suspect through like the person that he mentioned”. (Vrij et al., incriminating interrogation, if he thinks that he 2001). All of the research shows that only “knows” or is “sure” the suspect is “guilty”; indirect evaluations have more accuracy and he/she does not change this prejudice and he accuracy rates of these kinds of evaluations are tends to put pressure on the suspect to confess. more than chance. (Anderson, DePaulo 1999; This can cause an innocent suspect to take the DePaulo, Jordan et al., 1982). responsibility of a crime. (Kassin, 2005). Another study has been conducted to detect Professional lie detectors, such as law- deception cues according to the style of enforcement personnel do not easily think that interrogating (Vrij et al., 2007). In this the suspect is telling the truth (Vrij et al., research the techniques of 2005). Furthermore sometimes they tend to be (i) incriminating interrogation and prejudiced toward the suspect as guilty. While (ii) information collecting interrogation the law-enforcement staff is getting more were evaluated. experienced and having more training in lie

53 Your body reveals you detection; they tend to be a prejudiced that the detecting deception. Journal of Applied suspect is guilty (Meissner et al., 2002). Social Psychology, 16, 249–267. 5. CONCLUSION 7. DePaulo, B.M. (1994). Spotting lies: Can humans learn to do better? Current Matters that I mentioned above may be the Directions in Psychological Science, 3, cues which can be used for detecting the signs 83–86. of lying. However, the following should also 8. DePaulo, B.M. (1998, May). Deceiving be noted that these kinds of cues can be caused and detecting deceit: Insights and by tension or discomfort of the other part at oversights from the first several hundred that time. For example, if a person is studies. Invited address presented at the frequently scratching his nose, this may be just annual meeting of the American because of flu. Detecting deception is a Psychological Society, Washington, DC. demanding effort. Many experiments which 9. Edelstein.R.S. Luten, Tanya L., Ekman, P. had been carried out on students and law- Goodman, G.S. (2006). Detecting lies in enforcement personnel showed that the children and adults. Law and Human accuracy of detecting the cues of lie is almost Behavior. Vol.30. No.1. pp.1-10. equal to chance rate. Unfortunately, the 10. Ekman, P. & Friesen W.V. (1969). misunderstood behaviors which were mostly Nonverbal leakage and cues to deception, thought to be the indicators of deceit were Psychiatry, 32, 88-106. generally caused by the stress and pressure. 11. Ekman, P. (1991). Telling lies: Clues to (Ekman, 1991:187). Judicial officials should deceit in the marketplace, politics and imagine the stress of the suspect who is marriage. New York: W.W. Norton &Co. accused of murder in the court hall, approach 12. Ekman, P., & O’Sullivan, M. (1991). Who the suspect without prejudice and try to make can catch a liar? American Psychologist, assessments within this framework. 46, 913–920. Freud, S. Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria (1905), in BIBLIOGRAPHY Collected papers, Vol.3. New York: Basic Book. 1. Anderson, D.E., DePaulo, B.M., Ansfield, 13. Ekman, P., O’Sullivan, M., & Frank, M.G. M.E., Tickle, J. J., & Green, E. (1999). (1999). A few can catch a liar. Beliefs about cues to deception: Mindless Psychological Science, 10, 263–266. stereotypes or untapped wisdom? Journal 14. Goman, C.K. (2008). İşyerinde beden dili. of Nonverbal Behaviour, 23, 67–89. Alfa Yayınlan. 2. Cherry, C. (1966). On human 15. Howard, A.S. Nonverbal communication communication. Cambridge, Mass: M.I.T. in teaching. Rewiew of Educational Press. Research. 1979. Kassin, S.M., (2005). On 3. Darwin, C. (1965). The expressions of the the psychology of confessions: Does emotions in man and animals. (First innocence put innocents at risk? American published 1872). Chicago: The University Psychologist, 60, 215-228. of Chicago Press. 16. Knapp, M.L. & Hall, J.A. (1978). 4. DePaulo, B.M., Jordan, A., Irvine, A., & Nonverbal communication in human Laser, P.S. (1982). Age changes in the interaction (2nd edition). New York: Holt, detection of deception. Child Development, Rinehart, &Winston. 53, 701–709. 17. Köhnken, G. (1987). Training police 5. DePaulo, B.M., Stone, J.L., & Lassiter, officers to detect deceptive eyewitness G.D. (1985). Deceiving and detecting statements. Does it work? Social deceit. In B. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and Behaviour, 2, 1–17. social life. New York: McGraw Hill. 323- 18. Mehrabian, A. (2007). Nonverbal 370. communication. New Jersey: Aidine 6. DePaulo, B.M., & Pfeifer, R.L. (1986). Transaction. On-the-job experience and skill at 54 Management and Socio-Humanities

19. Meissner, C.A., & Kassin, S.M. (2002). 27. Vrij, A., Edward, K., Roberts, K., & Bull, "He's guilty!": Investigator bias in R. (2000). Detecting deceit via analysis of judgments of truth and deception. Law and verbal and nonverbal behavior. Journal of Human Behavior, 26, 469-480. Nonverbal Behavior, 24, 239–263. 20. Molcho, S. (2007). Çocuk beden dili. Delta 28. Vrij, A., & Mann, S. (2001). Telling and Yayınları. detecting lies in a high-stake situation: The 21. Navarro, J. Dr.Karlins, M., (2009). Beden case of a convicted murderer. Applied dili, Alfa Yayınları. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 187–203. 22. Pease, A. and B. (2006).The definitive 29. Vrij, A. (2005). Cooperation of liars and book of body language. Bantam Books.. truth tellers. Applied Cognitive 23. Pennycook, A. (1985). Lauder than words: Psychology, 19, 39-50. Paralanguage, communication, and 30. Vrij, A. Mann, S., Kristen, S., Fisher, R.P. education. TESOL Quarterly, Vol.19, (2007). Cues to deception and ablity. To No.2. detect lies as a function of police interview 24. Schober, Otto. (1996). Beden Dili style. Law and Human Behavior. 499-518. (Davranış Anahtarı). Arion Yayınevi. 31. Wilson, A.E., Smith, M.D., & Ross, H.S. 25. Talwar, V., & Lee, K. (2002). (2003). The nature and effects of young Development of lying to conceal a children's lies. Social Development, 12, 21- transgression: children's control of 45. expressive behavior during verbal 32. Zuckerman, M., & Driver, R.E. (1985). deception. International Journal of Telling lies: Verbal and nonverbal Behavioral Development, 26, 436-444. correlates of deception. In W.A. Siegman 26. Vrij, A. (1993). Credibility judgments of & S. Feldstein (Eds.), Multichannel detectives: The impact of nonverbal integration of nonverbal behavior. behavior, social skills and physical Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 129-147. characteristics on impression formation. Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 601– 611.

55 Intercultural management – a challenge of the contemporary world

INTERCULTURAL MANAGEMENT – A CHALLENGE OF THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Diana ILIŞOI, Daniela NAGY

Department of Military Sciences and Management, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Intercultural management has entered the specialized literature in response to the new configuration of the contemporary world. The terminological explosion multi-, pluri-, inter-, trans- culturality reflects the evolution of cultural phenomena in the context of globalization, which is in tight connection with the new ways of organizing the economic activity. Cultural globalization, perceived as an attack toward individual and group identity, has spread within the social field as diverse forms of social pathology aiming at the very human condition. The consistence of intercultural management and its purpose are given by the intercultural education, as a formative measure, as a new perspective on education or as an attitude and as a mood.

Keywords: multiculturality, interculturality, cultural pluralism.

1. FROM MULTICULTURALISM TO Multiculturality is intrinsic for history INTERCULTURALITY and humankind’s evolution, given the fact that, in time, human communities have Multicultural, pluricultural, transcultural, developed conceptions, traditions, own rituals intercultural – are terms whose common root and beliefs, according to their particular life is ‘culture’, a concept that has come to public experiences. Therefore, it is natural for the attention since the latter half of the eighteenth term to be associated with collectivities’ and century, on the background of an groups’ characteristics, it reflecting a mosaic autonomization of the cultural field that of cultures that cannot be reducible ones to the gradually makes its identity clear. Later on, others, despite their common features – throughout the nineteenth century and the cultures that coexisted in the same space and beginning of the twentieth century, we witness time without necessarily knowing about one the stage of cultural codification; thus, culture another. These cultural entities live their had become both a national and ethnical moments by usually avoiding contaminations symbol. During the twentieth century the (Rey, 1999). process continues through the Following the same pattern, pluriculturalism institutionalization of culture that has turned sustains the specificity of each culture that into a defining element for shaping individual develops its own perspective of the world and and group identity. Moreover, culture holds its own value system. Multicultural progressively changes into a factor of (multi = many) and pluricultural (pluri = economic development and instrument of many more) are terms that accomplish a static globalization. The order of the above description of societies that, in effect, are mentioned terms (multi-, pluri- and inter- pluri- and multi-cultural because they reunite culturality) is not randomly selected, it individuals and groups belonging to different reflects, in fact, the evolution of historic and cultures. Consequently, their common trait is social realities in the world. their static dimension, 56

Management and Socio-Humanities

their replicating the atom-like character of The interest in achieving knowledge and cultural diversities. Through a multi-cultural psycho-sociological research has moved from approach, interactions are not excluded; yet, mono- and intra-cultural studies toward pluri- they are implicit to the concept (Rey, 1999). and multi-cultural ones, reaching its highest Apart from any theory, a society functions peak through the study of interculturality as a net of reciprocal conditionings that cannot focused on “studying norms’ differentiation in be ignored. Fathali M. Moghaddamm (1993, relation with cultural specificities of the areas apud Chelcea, 2002:191) makes distinction they belong to” and their correlation with between the collective multiculturalism and cultural phenomena generated by social the individual multiculturalism. Should changes and the connection of local cultural collective multiculturalism stand for “equal entities with universal cultural unities (Zaiţ, treatment of cultural traditions of the group”, 2002:80). then, the individual multiculturalism reflects Blain Flowers and Frank Richardson the “right of each person to be respected as an (1996) underline the necessity to study the independent cultural unity within the group”. behaviors of people on all continents, the This distinction highlights the social obligation of respecting diversity and that of reality’s complexity and the weaknesses of the elimination social discrimination. The aim of multicultural approach, which, considering all these interests is to obtain a favorable cultures’ juxtapositioning as being sufficient, it combination of elements characteristic to each can become a source for segregation and culture, and their finality should be the discrimination (see apartheid). accomplishment of this evolution through The concept that manages to reveal, in an cultural adjustment. This is what Jürgen adequate manner, the contemporary world’s Bolten (2011:25-38) calls the “synergistic realities is that of interculturality, which, by meaning of the interculturality’s influence”. the very prefix inter- suggests interaction, the Another derived term and very frequently exchange and the ultra-dynamic character of used by the specialized literature is the society we live in. through its transculturality, which observes relations interactionist, dynamic connotation, the among various national cultures. In relation concept let us think of exchanges, reciprocity with it, interculturality keeps going on and dialogue, demands and realities that are analyzing feed-backs and the cultural synergy omnipresent in the present world. phenomenon. Nevertheless, the use of the English term This is why, intercultural diagnosis ‘multicultural’ is better known than the word involves more than identifying different ‘intercultural’. In the twentieth century, the cultures’ specificity; it aims at making use of it Anglo-Saxon world developed a for the purpose of reaching specific common “multicultural” movement under the pressure goals. of socio-economic changes, although the risk for this movement to bring about 2. INTERCULTURAL MANAGEMENT – marginalization forms could be foreseen. On EXIGENCES AND SOLUTIONS the other side, the use of the term ‘intercultural’ does not always imply its In the era of globalization and interactionist dimension, even though the informational culture, cultural diversity and prefix inter- explicitly underlines the the intensification of contacts and intercultural ‘interdependences’ and evokes the cultural exchanges represents a reality that we can diversity and the necessity of dialogue. The ignore and which necessitates an adequate terminological evolution presented above approach. Intercultural management as a field highlights the mandatory and operational discipline of general management came to life character of the intercultural approach and the in order to satisfy these needs. It represents the necessity of abandonment of mono-cultural, science and art of managing issues that cause egocentric or ethnocentric processes. cultural differences and changes (family, 57

Intercultural management – a challenge of the contemporary world school, church etc.) so as to turn them into uniformization and of losing identity, as a adjustment factors to the challenges of the hidden and perverse effect of globalization, current world. The contact actions, those of determines that the evolution toward engagement and participation are globalization (world’s informational culture) indispensable for the contemporary human to be joined by a “cultural heterochrony” condition. (Demorgon, apud Zaiţ, 2002:82). This If economic globalization has already phenomenon consists of forming some cultural created numerous functioning mechanisms, micro-environments, real forts built for the cultural globalization, which goes along with purpose of saving identity. it, induces a multitude of attitudes and Access to universality presupposes behaviors, different manners of acceptance or preservation of identity. On the background of rejection that need to be managed very wisely. authentic communities’ disintegration, of The internationalization of economic life, the fluidization of identities, which become new forms of organization of production fluctuating, on the background of activities bring about the creation of specific augmentation of the feeling of insecurity, the transcultural spaces, within which intercultural topic of ego-alter, or, we-they relations, learning becomes indispensable. This is how liberty-security, unity-diversity becomes very we explain the expansion of the economic sensitive and difficult to accomplish. Analyses management science over the interculturality and pluri- and interdisciplinary studies that process. have been achieved so far reveal the Alain Touraine (1996, apud Cuco & complexity of these issues and the Cozma, 2001:25) appreciates that impossibility of finding unique and definite interculturalism has been imposed within the solutions. It is sure thing that the epoch of current social sciences due to the fact that the utopias has been forgotten and the dream of “political republican model of the West faces a radically annihilating human poverty and decline” and it is now in dissolution. The suffering has been abandoned. Their place has dissolution of old universal reference points been taken by social justice and the equal makes room for the installation of the distribution of chances under the motto of economic domination and for the creation of respecting and admitting the human rights. consumerism. As a result, the “development of Nonetheless, beyond their seduction force, technology, of markets and of the new type of such desiderates often lead to excesses and consumption has destroyed the capacity of sideslips that are hard to ignore. In this respect, political mediation between the natural order Cornelius Castoriadis (1997, apud Bauman, and the cultures’ diversity. 2001:60-61) equally rejects the universal The contemporary civilization comes fundamentalism, generator of cultural crusades to life at the junction of rationalization and and oppressive homogenization, and the production globalization, of the new forms of “multicultural” policies, lying at the basis of exchanges and of cultural diversity. In this the arrogant indifference and of context, economic competition remains disengagement. dependent on the manner in which the social There can be identified numerous critical actors understand how to relate to one another, voices related to these seducing slogan that do to dialogue or to communicate in an authentic nothing else but to conceal the real intentions way. and action principles. For example, the Another challenge for the intercultural recognition of “cultural pluralism” is management is the topic of identity. perceived as a “new form of indifference Paradoxically, at first sight, we witness a break toward difference” (Bauman, 2001). Russell of the cultural spaces, under the globalization Jacoby considers multiculturalism to be an impact. These spaces turn into “community “ideology of the ideology’s end” because “the fortresses”, able to defend and preserve their educated elites of our time have nothing to say identity more easily. The peril of related to the preferred form of the human 58

Management and Socio-Humanities condition”, therefore these elites take refuge in cultural mutation and diversity. According to multiculturalism, thus concealing their Standards for the Accreditation of Teacher inabilities and lack of courage for solving Education, intercultural education has been these problems (Jacoby, apud Bauman, approached as training for social, political and 2001:92). The very right to be different has economic realities with which people of the been subjected to various interpretations and contemporary world are confronted. These lead to controversies. On the one side, we find realities hold a double dimension: national and the seekers of the best forms of humanity international. Intercultural education stands for (selective and qualitative approach); on the an intervention aimed at helping institutions other side, we observe that the multi-cultural and individuals to be more aware of the human program claims that each difference is worth condition, of the individual cultural identity being preserved for the simple fact that it is and the cultural pluralism of their society [8]. something different. It is certain that at the It needs to be perceived as a new attitude, a junction of these viewpoints there is the mood, an openness toward cultural pluralism individual/ citizen, who is subjected to a having the background of an own unaltered double pressure: anti-community pressures, identity. holding assimilationist effects, and community The first actions of intercultural education pressures, which annihilate the individual’s appeared in 1920, in the U.S.A, as a solution right to choose (Habermas, 2000). to discriminatory practices manifested in Under such circumstances and many others relation with groups of immigrants. Barely in that have not been mentioned here, we can the mid twentieth century was the term formulate a conclusion, according to which mentioned and it started to develop in Europe. intercultural management faces some complex Before this, the European education used to issues that can be solved only in a focus on cultural assimilation. Although multidisciplinary manner while activating all policies of non-discrimination were promoted, the factors involved. Any superficial, the right of preserving one’s own culture was reductionist approach will lead to harmful ignored. For the Eastern Europe, the term effects, able to amplify the contemporary started to be used only after the fall of society’s pathologies. totalitarian regimes. According to differences of approach, 3. INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION – between the European and the American WAY FOR REDISCOVERING THE spaces, two concepts started to be used: CULTURAL UNITY OF HUMANITY 1. Multicultural education: this term was first mentioned within the Organization for Education, generally speaking, and Economic Co-operation and Development intercultural education, especially, represents (OECD), following the English model; one of the important factors considered by the 2. Intercultural education: a term used in intercultural management. For the latter not to documents belonging to the United Nations be just some simplistic theory, there must be Educational, Scientific, and Cultural some people to bring it to actuality, and these Organization (UNESCO) and the European people need specific education. Council. Intercultural education is a formative Although, these two terms hold similar process, imposed by the existence of the spheres of significance, their differences human being in a dynamic and polymorphic consist of the very use of the prefixes multi- world, whose adjustment is conditioned by the and inter-. Multicultural education aims at openness toward multiple values, toward measures able to facilitate the co-existence of diversity. Under the circumstances of the pluri-ethnical and pluri-cultural groups. democratic society, intercultural education is Similarly, intercultural education focuses on an ideological option aiming at training cooperation and common action. The prefix citizens for their orientation and adjustment to inter- signifies “interaction, exchange, 59

Intercultural management – a challenge of the contemporary world reciprocity and objective solidarity. The terms In conclusion, in order for the intercultural ‘pluricultural’ and ‘intercultural’, identical in management not to remain a sterile concept, their meanings, signify situational just like many others, it needs to be sustained descriptions: our societies are either pluri- or by education, the only tool capable of forming inter-cultural. Nevertheless, the option for characters and changing mentalities. interculturality signifies the process and the interaction” (Rey, 1999:197). The ultimate BIBLIOGRAPHY goal of intercultural education is to promote equality of chances to education, which 1. Bauman, Zygmunt. (2001). Comunitatea. presupposes “facilitating the meeting with the Căutarea siguranţei într-o lume nesigură. Other” (Cucoş, 2002:133). Bucharest: Antet. Although initially intercultural education 2. Bolten, Jürgen. (2011). Diversity aimed only at solving the immigrants’ Management als interkulturelle problems, this approach has proved Prozessmoderation/ Diversity management insufficient under the circumstances of as intercultural proces moderation. globalization and creation of a unitary Interculture Journal. Vol.10, no.13. 25-38. European space. The population’s mobility, 3. Chelcea, Septimiu. (2002). Un secol de the intensification of contacts and cultural cercetări psihosociale. Iaşi: Polirom. exchanges, the confrontation of cultural codes 4. Cuco , Constantin & Cozma, Teodor. that coexist within the European space impose (2001). Locul educa iei pentru diversitate a reconsideration of educational policies. în ansamblul problematicii educa iei Transferring our approach to the sphere of contemporane. In Teodor Cozma (ed.), O military education, we can argue that nouă provocare pentru educaţie: intercultural education is a must for forming interculturalitatea. Iaşi: Polirom. future military personnel. The military 5. Cucoş, Constantin. (2002). Pedagogie. organization’s transformations, under the Iaşi: Polirom. pressure of social mutations, together with the 6. Habermas, Jürgen. (2000). The Inclusion of new configuration of military missions and the Other: Studies in Political Theory. international theaters of operations call for this Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. formative dimension for the benefit of the 7. Rey, Micheline. (1999). De la logica future officers. „mono” la logica de tip „inter”. Piste In a world devoured by conflicts, tensions pentru o educa ie interculturală i and conflicts among different human groups, solidară. In Pierre Dassen, Chriastiane intercultural education, seen as education for a Perregaux, Micheline Rey. Educa ia better understanding and solidarity among interculturală. Experien e, politici, people, becomes a survival topic. strategii. Ia i: Polirom. 129-203. Unfortunately, the attempts that have been 8. Zaiţ, Dumitru. (2002). Cultură i made so far still remain timid and formal due specificitate culturală. În Dumitru Zai , to insufficient knowledge related to Management intercultural – valorizarea international legislation and of the actions diferenţelor culturale. Bucharest: accomplished by the European Council, Economic Publishing House. UNESCO and CSCE.

60

Management and Socio-Humanities

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SECURITY AND INTELLIGENCE ACADEMIC STUDIES IN THE WESTERN AREA AND ROMANIA1

Ella Magdalena CIUPERCĂ

Department of Social Sciences, „Mihai Viteazul” National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The increasing of public appetite for understanding intelligence issues determined the delivery of many "bachelor" or "master" academic studies around the world. Despite an exponential increase in the number of such educational programs, experts agree that the Anglo-American space is, qualitatively and quantitatively, the best represented. As a member of the European Union and NATO, Romania has to take on such standards for comparison, but also to understand the common points and differences that divide those areas both in conceptual and pragmatic approach. For this reason I will present and analyze comparatively security and intelligence studies identified in the US, Great Britain and Romania.

Keywords: education, intelligence culture, security studies, intelligence studies . The exponential institution for the American

1. INTRODUCTION 1 paradigm of "smart nation" is American Military University a leading provider of The international sociopolitical develop- security education in the United States. The ments of the recent years have led to the provided programs are diverse (bachelor and reconfiguration of the interest of regular master degree or certificates of competence in people for intelligence and to the occurrence different areas). All its courses are 100% of a new paradigm specific for this field. Also, integrated on an online platform, which is the increasing of public appetite for fueled by the country's major universities and intelligence studies determined the opening of all the information are derived exclusively many "bachelor" or "master" programs around from open sources. This institution is educate the world. Despite an exponential increase in people in areas such as: Undergraduate the number of such educational programs, certificate intelligence analysis; Graduate experts agree that Anglo-American area is, Certificate in Intelligence Analysis; Bachelor qualitatively and quantitatively, the best of Arts in Intelligence Studies; Master of represented. As a member of the European Arts in Intelligence Studies2; Graduate Union and NATO, Romania had to assume Certificate in Intelligence Studies3; Associate such comparison standards, but also to of Arts in Counter Terrorism Studies4; understand what are the conceptual and Homeland Security Online Degrees & pragmatic commonalities and differences. For Certificates5; International Relations this reason I will present and analyze security and intelligence studies identified in the United States, United Kingdom and Romania. 2http://www.amu.apus.edu/lp/intelligence- studies/masters/ 2. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 3 Http://www.amu.apus.edu/academic/programs/degree/ 537/graduate-certificate-in-intelligence-studies 4http://www.amu.apus.edu/academic/programs/degree/1 324/associate-of-arts-in-counter-terrorism-studies 1 This work was supported by CNCSIS-UEFISCSU, 5http://www.amu.apus.edu/lp/homeland- project number PN II-RU 64/2010. security/index.htm 61

A comparative analysis of security and intelligence academic studies in the Western Area…

Online Degrees6; National Security Studies Warfare; Academic Programs for Defense and Degrees & Certificates7. Intelligence Leadership20 (in collaboration Henley-Putnam University is a private with United States Naval War College, higher education institution founded in 2001 as United States Army and some other agencies the California University of Protection and belonging to the American intelligence Intelligence Management and is providing community). bachelor and master programs: Bachelor of Although there are some higher education Science, Terrorism and Counterterrorism institutions that are delivering only a few Studies8; Bachelor of Science, Strategic courses, they must be mentioned here because Security and Protection9; Bachelor’s Degree of the quality they get. So it is important to in Intelligence Management10; Master of underline the contribution provided by Science, Strategic Security and Protection11; University of Maryland (Program on Master of Science, Terrorism and Intelligence Research and Education Counterterrorism Studies12; Master of Science, (PIRE)21; Certificate Program in Intelligence Intelligence Management13; Doctorate, Analysis22), University of Pittsburg (Major Strategic Security14, şi certificate: in Security & Intelligence Studies23), Counterterrorism Studies, Executive Georgetown University (Edmund A. Walsh Protection, Intelligence Analysis, Intelligence School of Foreign Service settled the Center Collection, Intel & Terrorism Profiling, for Peace and Security Studies - CPASS24 Security Management, Strategic Intelligence. with the masteral degree Security Studies The Institute of World Politics15 also Program – SSP), Stanford University organises many intelligence and security (Freeman Spogli Institute for International studies such as: Master of Arts in Statecraft Studies – FSI settled the Center for and National Security Affairs16; Master of Arts International Security and Cooperation - in Statecraft and International Affairs17; CISAC25 with CISAC Interschool Honors Master of Arts in Strategic Intelligence Program in International Security Studies and Studies18; Certificate of Graduate Study19 Center for Counterintelligence and Security circumscribed to eight different areas of Studies26, which provide expertise in the field specialization: Comparative Political Culture, of counterinformation, antiterrorism, regional Counterintelligence, Intelligence, Internatio- studies). nal Politics, National Security Affairs, American Foreign Policy, Democracy 3. UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT Building, and Public Diplomacy and Political BRITAIN

6 http://www.amu.apus.edu/lp/international-relations/ UK is also positioned in the top states 7 http://www.amu.apus.edu/lp/national-security-studies/ having scientific concerns in the field of 8 http://www.hotcoursesusa.com/us/bachelor-of-science- intelligence studies. Because of the academic terrorism-and-counterterrorism-studies-at-henley- and administrative interest for such topics a putnam-university-2461681-usa.html large number of experts in this field emerged. 9 http://www.henley-putnam.edu/126-191.htm 10 http://www.henley-putnam.edu/127-192.htm In a study on British intelligence's, Maddrell 11 http://www.henley-putnam.edu/101-189.htm has identified more than 30 specialists who 12 http://www.henley-putnam.edu/478-233.htm 13 http://www.henley-putnam.edu/101-189.htm 20 http://www.iwp.edu/programs/detail/academic- 14 http://www.henley-putnam.edu/641-260.htm programs-for-defense-and-intelligence-leadership 15 http://www.iwp.edu/ 21http://www.publicpolicy.umd.edu/research/intelligence 16http://www.iwp.edu/programs/degree/master-of-arts- 22 http://www.publicpolicy.umd.edu/executive- in-statecraft-and-national-security-affairs education/intelligence-studies 17 http://www.iwp.edu/programs/degree/master-of-arts- 23www.gspia.pitt.edu/Academics/Programs/MasterofPu in-statecraft-and-international-affairs blicInternationalAffairs/MajorInSecurityIntelligenceStu 18 http://www.iwp.edu/programs/degree/master-of-arts- dies/tabid/95/Default.aspx in-strategic-intelligence-studies 24 http://cpass.georgetown.edu/ 19 http://www.iwp.edu/programs/detail/certificate-of- 25 http://cisac.stanford.edu/ graduate-study 26 http://www.cicentre.com/?page=all_courses

62 Management and Socio-Humanities had already been teaching intelligence in 2003. - University of Buckingham deliver Many universities have developed programs Security and Intelligence Studies (MA)34 and and master's degree, most of them being established Centre for Security and integrated by the departments or schools of Intelligence Studies (BUCSIS)35; political science, international policy, - University of Birmingham, international history, war studies. Academic Birmingham provides US Intelligence works of British experts are constantly Services (M.Phil.)36; delivered at specialised conferences such as - University of Salford, Salford offers a British International History Group, British MA and Postgraduate Diploma în Intelligence International Studies Association şi British and Security Studies (MA)37; Political Studies Association (which has its - Sheffield University, Department of Politics own Security and Intelligence Studies Group - International Politics and Security Studies38. from 1993). The most prestigious universities 4. ROMANIA of UK have incorporated into their curriculum the field of security and intelligence. Thus: After the fall of communism Romania's - Brunel University West London intelligence was reconceptualized in several established the Brunel Centre for Intelligence stages and this process was facilitated by the and Security Studies27 and a Master of Art integration of the country in NATO and EU Intelligence and Security Studies28; structures and the need to align to the main - King's College London oferes a paradigms of thought in these areas. pluridisciplinary program including military The "Mihai Viteazul" National Intelligence disciplines, intelligence history, international Academy (MVNIA) is the leading provider of relations, social sciences to enables the intelligence and security expertise in Romania, understanding of different approaches, and its curriculum include bachelor39 and including critical or unorthodox viewpoints masteral40 degrees and postgraduate courses41 and established Department of War which are organized in a transdisciplinary Studies29 (Goodman & Omand, 2008:1) and manner from using knowledge from the filed MA in Intelligence & International Security30; of psychology, intelligence, communication - University of Wales, Aberystwyth with studies, public relations, security studies. Their its Centre for Intelligence and International main objective is to revolve security culture Security Studies31, (Intelligence and Strategic among students, but also the skills and Studies32, Intelligence Studies and competencies specific to the domain. Also, International History33); together with the Faculty of Sociology, University of Bucharest, MVNIA established a Master program: Information Analysis42 (this institution also deliver master programme 43 27http://www.brunel.ac.uk/about/acad/sss/research/centr Security and Defense Studies ). es/bciss 28http://www.brunel.ac.uk/courses/postgraduate/L900PI NSSTD 29http://www.kcl.ac.uk/schools/sspp/ws/grad/programm es/maiis/ 34http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/humanities/ma/security 30http://www.kcl.ac.uk/schools/sspp/ws/grad/programm andintelligence es/maiis/ 35 http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/research/bucsis 31http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cac 36http://www.uscanada.bham.ac.uk/postgraduate/Intellig he:m8rAJr6asuUJ:users.aber.ac.uk/rbh/iss/aber.htm+Un ence_Studies/index.shtml iversity+of+Wales,+Aberystwyth+%22Intelligence+Stu 37 http://www.salford.ac.uk/course-finder/course/1345 dies+and+International+History%22&cd=4&hl=ro&ct= 38http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/prospectus/courseDetails.d clnk&gl=ro&source=www.google.ro o?id=4986282012 32 http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/interpol/prospective- 39 http://www.animv.ro/ro/index.php?ccs=20 students/masters/degree-schemes/intelligence-studies- 40 http://www.animv.ro/ro/index.php?ccs=21 strategic-studies/ 41 http://www.animv.ro/ro/index.php?ccs=23 33 http://www.aber.ac.uk/prog-specs/index.php?L298S- 42 http://www.unibuc.ro/ro/master_ai_ro MSCEC 43 http://www.unibuc.ro/ro/master_fsassa_ro 63

A comparative analysis of security and intelligence academic studies in the Western Area…

Another important institutions that is programs of study, the involved staff in providing bachelor and masteral programme different teaching subjects, the priority areas dedicated to security and intelligence are: that are orienting those studies. - the National Defence University "Carol As a general conclusion the curriculum of I", who founded the Center for Strategic security and intelligence is that such Studies and Defence44; programmes are concerned to teach general - the West University of Timisoara, knowledge of history's intelligence and where the Faculty of Master of Economics security, to clarify the priority areas of interest provides the masteral programme Security, (terrorism, economic security, environmental Development and European Integration45; security, proliferation of weapons of mass - the Babes-Bolyai University, which destruction, crisis management and conflict, organizes in the Faculty of History: Security human rights), the manner in which the Studies46, Security Management in specific activities are developing and how they Contemporary Society47 and training programs are valued by the beneficiar. In western area, to became "security inspector" and "security there is constant concern to ground the theory agent"; of the domain and therefore they are - the Christian University "Dimitrie extensively discussing topics such as ethics, Cantemir": the Security and Defence Studies, human rights, the relations with civil society, the NATO Studies Center; the public - private partnership. - National School of Political and The funding of the identified programs is Administrative Sciences which prepares whether institutionalized by the state or by NATO experts through Senior Executive private initiative. The teaching staff is Master48; generally mixed as the practitioners, who offer - Romanian Association of Security their expertise in different areas of Industry49, which own the franchise of intelligence, and the theoreticians, who store the Security Institute of UK50 for Romania theoretical knowledge of the field, are equally and Moldavia organizes The Management of involved. Frequently, the first category shall Security, which include 2 stages: a certificate recruit new members from retired or retired and then a bachelor degree. practitioners. In terms of beneficiaries of such programs, graduates are prepared either for the 3. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF state own needs in various institutions's SECURITY AND INTELLIGENCE intelligence or to work in other connected area STUDIES (foreign affairs, politics, diplomacy). Regarding the degree of the openness of The enumeration51 of the security and the country to the study security and intelligence academic programme in the intelligence there are different characteristics. western and Romania areas allows us to Thus, there is a significant opening of identify some trends on several levels of academics and officials to study such topics in comparative analysis. Thus the obvious the United States and their points of view are differences or uniformity are derived from converging. The Central Intelligence Agency variables that influence the orientation is an important promoter of academic study and teaching of this subject since 1960: the 44 http://cssas.unap.ro/ National Security Agency and CIA have their 45 http://www.scritube.com/economie/DOSAR-DE- own team of historians specialized in PREZENTARE-MASTERAT-S734111015.php 46 http://hiphi.ubbcluj.ro/licenta/securitate.html intelligence, who initiated and made 47 http://admitere.ubbcluj.ro/master-istorie.html permanent the practice of inviting teachers to 52 48 http://www.centru-studii-nato.ro/pcsnato.html spend long periods of time in their agencies . 49 http://www.arisonline.ro/ 50 http://www.iisec.co.uk/ 51 The lack of space is the reason for giving the web address of every mentioned programme instead of 52 Also, the National Security Agency launched an describing it more specifically. invitation for students.

64 Management and Socio-Humanities

In UK, on the contrary, there is no such rare. But the biggest problem of Romania is synchronization, but a considerable distance the lack of international visibility of these between academics and practitioners. The programs of study. Without a link to the access to archives and information was quality of teachers involved or to the other allowed only for a few historians ingredients related to education quality, the commissioned to write the history of the publications are poorly capitalized and poorly Second World War and only in 2004 the disseminated, the participation in professional Advisory Group on Security and Intelligence conferences is sporadic, and exchanges of Records was established under the tutelage of students and teachers nonexistent. The Cabinet Office, which is responsible for the research topics addressed are therefore limited relations with the academic field. and not dependent of context, as it requires the In Romania the situation is different, global one. especially in terms of our socioistoric context: As a conclusion, we can say that the level the transition from a totalitarian state to and visibility of intelligence studies programs democracy has been a challenge for the is conditioned on the one hand by the current Romanian intelligence services, born on the strategic interests in that area, but also by the ruins of the former Securitate. Lingering financial strength of the country and the feelings of suspicion that people are still importance it attaches to security and feeling for the Securitate, lack of trust in state intelligence. Although the orientation and institutions, the selective and weak legal basis curriculum of Romanian programme are in governing the intelligence activity and its lack line with those of the highly developed of transparency have been major obstacles for countries of the world, there is a gap in terms developing and strengthening a sense of of funding, methods of dissemination and the confidence that people would have been degree to which experts and research results cherished for these institutions. are used by authorities of the state. This may be the reason why, not mentioning the notable exception of "Mihai BIBLIOGRAPHY Viteazul" National Intelligence Academy established 20 years ago, the most initiatives to 1. Goodman, M.S. & Omand, D. (2008). study intelligence are of recent date. What Analysts Need to Understand: The Unfortunately, Romania still lacks a national King's Intelligence Studies Program. strategy to address direct academic research of Studies in Intelligence, 52(4). Extracts.; the field or a law to regulate the domain Goodman, M.S. (2006). Studying and specific unclear concepts (Sebe, 2009). The Teaching About Intelligence: The lack of such a coherent strategy is reflected Approach in the United Kingdom. Studies even in the relatively few studies dedicated to in Intelligence, 50(2), 57-65. security and intelligence and their random 2. Kent, S. (1949). Strategic Intelligence for distribution across the country. The very term American World Policy. Princeton, NJ.: of "intelligence" was firstly introduced in Princeton University Press. various scientific papers and articles only a 3. Maddrell, P. (2003). Intelligence Studies at decade ago. UK Universities. CIISS. Available at The few Romanian specialists in http://www.aber.ac.uk/interpol/research/CI intelligence have adopted a rather passive way .html of relating to the field developments and their 4. Matei, F.C. (2007). Romania's Intelligence contributions have remained unknown. Instead Community: From an Instrument of of cooperation and collaboration, universities Dictatorship to Serving Democracy. seem to rather compete having no tangible International Journal of Intelligence and results. The cases of institutional cooperation Counterintelligence. 20(4), 629-660. (as was the master "Information Analysis" 5. Sebe, M. (2009a). Despre intelligence. conducted by the Faculty of Sociology, Revista Română de Studii de Intelligence. University of Bucharest and NAIMV) are very 1-2, 17-32. 65

The use of English vs. American military terms between the XVIIth and XXth centuries

THE USE OF ENGLISH VS. AMERICAN MILITARY TERMS BETWEEN THE XVIIth and XXth CENTURIES

Cosmina DRĂGHICI

Department of Military Sciences and Management, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The present paper focuses on presenting some aspects related to the use of military terminology, both British and American, during the XVIIth and XXth centuries. When it comes to British English we can highlight the richness in military terms, as connected to how people lived during ancient times. They were conquerors, involved in historical armed conflicts, where a certain of weaponry was needed. The XVIIth century represents a landmark of English language evolution. It is the moment when the American language began to shape itself. As language is concerned, trade and colonization altered language during the XVIIIth century, thus becoming a rather corrupted one. English language continued to change as the British Empire moved across the world - to the U.S.A., Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia and Africa. American language fully emerged with The Spanish-American War (1898) which lasted for only four months but considerably improved language in general, and slang in particular.

Keywords: military system, borrowings, slang, change of meaning.

something different, and when we hear a new 1. INTRODUCTION word or a new pronounciation or novel use of and old word, we may be catching the early The identification of military terminology stages of a change. development is a difficult process because Change is natural because a language system language has a major role in influencing is culturally transmitted” (1993:13). Thus, the culture, culture, in its turn, shapes language above mentioned authors see language as and thus, language change is a permanent „undergoing revision constantly; with phenomenon throughout history. From this language such revision is slower than with interconditioning, the impossibility to recover some other cultural activities”, such as the whole results, taking into account two fashion, enternainment, etc. The XVIIIth entire dynamic variables. century was important for the development of But, analyzing it in depth, we find, on the modern English: the ruling tradition of neo- one hand, that language is the culture (at the classical attitudes and prescriptive grammar dawn of culture and language, for a population laid the foundations for linguistic correctness living under war time, it is natural for military on various levels. The XIXth century has terminology to have fundamentally influenced decided the victory of English as spoken the development of culture), on the other hand language of the English people, although it language is a form of culture expression, was firstly accepted as the most valued ensuring its transmission, flow, transfer of language for “creative literature” (Millward, cultural signs and codes. This second self- 1996: 15), as early as the end of the XIVth referential dimension, or metacommunication, century. The Spanish-American War (1898) is somehow aware of what happens in the lasted for only four months but improved depths of language and culture. As Pyles and slang considerably. The period was Algeo sustain, „change is a normal state of linguistically fruitful as it was the first time language. Every language is turning into that American

66 Management and Socio-Humanities troops had a chance to absorb foreign Americans protected the towns and farms from languages. American language borrowed Indian and French invaders and helped expand Spanish military terms like: insurrecto, troche, the frontiers of the future nation. The U.S. junta, ladrone, lay fuga, machete, military started not only as a means to apply incommunicado. force but it was and still is a reflection of the morals and traditions of the American way of 2. THE XVIIth CENTURY life. This early frontier soldiers created new units, such as the Rangers that were the We have to bring to attention the moment forerunners of today`s special operating forces. of the emergence of so-called “Black They were an example of bravery and America” in August 1619, when a Dutch inventiveness that reflects the freedom-loving warship sailed up the James River to the and independent spirit that is still a character colony of Jamestown, Virginia, together with of the American military today. 20 black people on board that were taken from As the language is concerned, the first a Spanish ship captured in the Carribean. Even English colonists in America continued to if the geographical beginning – when the speak as they had done in England. But, step discovery of America happened in 1492 (made by step, language changed on both sides of the possible by Cristopher Columbus), the first Atlantic. On the American continent, these signs of migration towards the Americas were changes were mainly caused by the new visible during the above mentioned century. conditions that the colonists faced with. The most important tribes were: the Pueblo, Therefore, American language has much to the Apache (that were mostly hunters), the owe to the mother tongue, i.e. English of those Iraquois – warriors, the North Pacific Haida times. As Pyles and Algeo state, “However, and the Midwest Winnebagoes. This migration the English spoken in America at present has process had 5 “frontier phases” as tefan retained a good many characteristics of earlier Avădanei calls them, both temporal and British English that do not survive in geographical ones (1993:25-26), as follows: contemporary British English” (1993:213). 1. the sidewater phase of settlement (up to They further on support the idea that “to 1700); consider American English as inferior to 2. the setting of fertile river valleys (1700 – British English is to impugn earlier standard 1750); British English as well, for these was little 3. the fertile lands of Kentucky and difference at the same time of the Revolution. Tennessee opened to explorers (1750 – 1775); (...) supposed characteristics of American 4. the treaty of 1783 that set the western English are also to be found in pre- boundary of the US on the Mississippi; Revolutionary British English (..)” (1993:213). 5. the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. Thus, an example of how language was But, the first regular U.S. fighting force, unconsciously conserved is the retention of the the Continental Army, was founded by the American term “gotten”, still used nowadays. Continental Congress on 14th of June, 1775. Its But, obviously, American English has lost a purpose was to add to the local militias in the certain number of language characteristics, but American Revolution. It was under the control that are still preserved in British English. And of a five-member civilian board. In 1789 this to prove this, we may consider the following Continental Army was dissolved and a small example: “waistcoat” denoting a garment that regular army was established. The army`s size Americans usually call a “vest”, it is a word increased only in times of crisis, expanded that in England usually means “undershirt”. with conscription and decreased during In case of American inhabitants, there was peacetime. Anyway, citizen soldiers were a great need to name the topographical serving in the militia on the American frontier, features, of fauna and flora that were kind of even before the Declaration of Independence new for the colonists. All these acquired was drafted, written and adopted in 1776. names that belong nowadays to the basic Being allies of the English, the early American stock. More, the inhabitants of the 67 The use of English vs. American military terms between the XVIIth and XXth centuries

New World were not illiterate at all. They Continental Congress, the Americans were considered to be ambitions, industrious managed the armed conflict against the British members of upper-lower and lower-middle known as the American Revolutionary War classes (clergymen, lawyers and even people (also called The American War of belonging to aristocracy). Therefore, it is Independence,). It represented the beginning likely that some cultural nucleus was created of the division of English into national dialects by that time within the early American that developed more or less independently and communities. Thus, even if American English that had come to have their own language is basically a continuation of the VIIth century standards. English – ancestor of present-day British, From the American War of Independence Pyles and Algeo consider that the differences (1775–1783) onwards, we can discuss of an between American English and the British one infusion of American military terms. Most of are not of great importance, even if they are them were slang expressions, born out of many (1993:215). And to stick to this register, conflict, boredom, good humor or bad food we have to mention Randolf Quirck remark soldiers were given during wars. The new that completes the above mentioned idea. In a military words were heard and used across the review of the time, he said: “The long and lines during the Civil War, in which enemies imposing lists of so-called distinctively British spoke the same language. and American words and usages are 75 per 2.2. The Civil War (1861–1865). Due to cent misleading; it turns out either that both this war, the increase in migration was also the words so neatly separated are used in one possible. Italians, Jews, Yugoslavians, or the other country, or that both are found in Ukrainians, Russians, Czechs, Bulgarians, both countries but are used in slightly different Slavs, Poles, Chinese, Greeks and Armenians contexts or in different proportions.” (1956:7) populated the American lands. This war led to The idea of the English Academy appeared changes due to war needs and it also changed at the end of the XVIIth century: Samuel the way wars would be fought. The need for Johnson wrote (1755) – A Dictionary of the weapons and supplies influenced the English Language (2 volumes, of great improvement in industry and production achievement due to the fixed spelling), Joseph methods required to maintain the war effort. It Priestly (1761) – The Rudiments of the English opened ways to the age of modern technology. Grammar (he focuses on the importance of Everything seemed to happen more quickly, usage), Robert Lowth (1762) – Short people were able to move farther and faster, to Introduction to English Grammar, G. produce products more rapidly and to Campbell (1776) – Philosophy of Rhetoric communicate with the help of wires. Thus, (aiming at ascertaining the language just like battles were conducted easily, at a different Dryden and Swift). Furthermore, we can speak level. Therefore, during the Civil War rifled of Modern English as emerging fully by the cannon came into its own with a beginning of the Georgian era in 1714, corresponding increase in range and accuracy. although English orthography remained By the end of the U.S. Civil War the totally somewhat fluid until the publication of self-contained modern cartridge with powder Johnson's dictionary. and bullet in a single metal container made its 2.1. The American Revolution. Between appearance and, by the Franco-Prussian War 1775–1783 thirteen colonies in North of 1871, the breech-loading rifle had become a America joined together to break free from standard in Europe. Two decades later the clip the British Empire, combining to become the and magazine-fed rifle revolutionized infantry United States of America. By 1774, each tactics. It made possible the introduction of colony had established a Provincial Congress, truly modern dispersed infantry tactics which or an equivalent governmental institution, to further increased the ability of infantry to fire govern itself, but still within the empire. The and manoeuvre. After the Civil War, the U.S. British responded by sending combat troops to Army and the Marine Corps were downsized re-impose direct rule. Through the Second and used as garrison (i.e. barracks) troops. 68 Management and Socio-Humanities

Words from the Civil War include terms like English language continued to change as skedaddlers (the name of those who ran away the British Empire moved across the world - to from the war, synonym of deserter), blizzard the U.S.A., Australia, New Zealand, India, (an intense volley of musket fire), commish (a Asia and Africa. People settled and lived in commission of any sort), doodle (a Union their conquered places and as settlers soldier), etc. “The Civil War spawned a slang interacted with natives, new words were added that was both identifiable and proliferating. It to the English vocabulary. Thus, English was also seen as a nuisance” (Dickinson, acquired terms from colonies, like: caribou, 2004:2). As stated in the article A Word About moccasin, skunk (Native Americans), chilli, Slang, published in The United States Service chocolate, coyote, tomato (of Spanish and Magazine “The existence of a slang element in Portuguese influence via Mexico), barbecue, the Army cannot, of course, be prevented. It canoe, hurricane, potato, tobacco (Cuba and came from home, where the fault lies” (R.W. West Indies), bungalow, jungle (India), McAlpine, 1865). A Civil War glossary gorilla, voodoo, zebra (Africa), boomerang, emerged, with terms that existed before the kangaroo (Australia). French has an important war but that only became important during the role in this respect, deforming the English war. It includes a basic American military language. Philosophy also, was concerned slang with some influences from the frontier, with linguistics matters, i.e. with the idea of rural America, British shipping and the ancient modern grammar. traditions of the sea. The XVIIIth century abounds in military terms: bastion, battalion, battery, bayonet, 3. THE XVIIIth CENTURY bomb, brigade, calibre, canister, cap, casemate (a chamber built within the walls of The XVIIIth century established regularity a fort), corporal, crossbelt (belts organized to in spelling and later in pronunciation, defined hang diagonally across the body), epaulette, the standard lexis by excluding dialect, slang fascines (bundles of tightly bound twigs and and fixed the rules for the languages of sticks hastily assembled and tied together), literature and good style, in a unique fusion of frigate, grenade, grenadier, guards, hammer, literary and linguistic judgments with lock, lunette, muzzle, rifle, royal, shrapnel developments in political and cultural history. (often used erroneously to refer to fragments England began the Industrial Revolution of any artillery shell), troop, waistcoat. within the XVIIth century. This had an effect on the development of the language as new 4. THE FIRST WORLD WAR words had to be invented or existing ones modified to cope with the rapid changes in Jingoism (extreme patriotism, especially in technology. New technical words were added the form of aggressive or warlike foreign to the vocabulary. They were named after the policy) was not the only source of linguistic inventor or given the name of their choice creativity in the period. American war slang (trains, engine, pulleys, combustion, fully emerged during the First World War. The electricity, telephone, telegraph, camera etc). circumstances of it were so horrific, so The XVIIIth century was marked by two extraordinary, and involved so many people important points to keep in mind when that a new language was almost essential. considering any type of public behaviour of Many words which emerged at the time English and English-American societies. First have clear associations with the conflict, such of all, they were stratified societies and the as camouflage, blimp, aerobatics, demob and ways in which people interacted with one shell shock. Others have a more complex another reflected their relative social positions. history, emerging from soldiers’ slang (itself a By the late eighteenth century, therefore, many product of the increased cosmopolitanism had acquired the rudiments of polite ushered in by the war). Therefore, Americans conversation. communicated mostly in slang, a vernacular language used by uneducated soldiers. Some 69 The use of English vs. American military terms between the XVIIth and XXth centuries examples are: dogtag meaning military plates, that (like doughboy, meaning infantryman; the doughboy bearing the meaning of American term was exclusively applied to the Infantry). soldiers. They used a mixture of American, As for the British military terms are French and English equipment and were not concerned, the war between 1914-1918 allowed to fight independently. It is an featured a great currency of words: some informal term, usually used for members of the words which were either new or enjoyed great American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during currency during the war become a part of the the First World War. But the term dates back vocabulary of civilian life. Thus, sector: a to the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848, distinct area or part. It was used in the sense of when some observers noticed that U.S. a specific portion of the fighting line; infantry forces were covered with chalky dust barrage: originally an artificial barrier like a from marching through the dry terrain of dam in a river.; artillery or machine-gun: Northern Mexico, thus giving the impression designated a protective screen of heavy of unbaked dough. The term was not so much artillery or machine-gun fire; dud: a general used during the World War II and it was soon word for any count filet thing; shell: was replaced by the terms like: G.I., Troop or specifically applied to a shell that did not Dogface. After the war it totally disappeared. explode; ace: acquired the meaning of a crack British soldiers adopted the language of airman and hand grenade was the hand their enemies just as keenly as they adapted grenade that we encounter back into 1661, but that of their foreign allies, as is shown by the that acquired new currency during the war. origins of the verb strafe. The German phrase Many British military terms and even slang Gott strafe England (‘God punish England’) had their origin in India and spread from there was a common greeting in Germany from throughout the Empire. Heres some 1914 on – ‘the recognised toast throughout Indian/Hindu words used by British Forces: Hunland’, as one contemporary colourfully put Badmash =rascal/scoundrel; Basha=native it. Refusing to be daunted by the threat, the house, hut; Bibi, Bint=Girl; Bundook=rifle; term was hijacked by British soldiers, who Chabeli-sweetheart; Charpoy=bed; Chota began to use ‘strafe’ as a comic word to refer Wallah = little fellow; Cutch = inferior; to any harsh punishment or attack, whether Havildar =Sgt.; Jawan=soldier; Jildi=quickly; targeting the enemy (‘strafing the Fritzes’) or allum=understand; Pialla=Mug; Ram doled out by the British brass hats (high- Ram=hello; Shabash=bravo; Tik Hai=all right. ranking officers). In case of the Americans, during the First 5. THE SECOND WORLD WAR World War, xenophobic feelings bolstered by war-induced nationalism focused not just on World War II is the period when military learning English but also, driven by anti- terms develop due to modern technology, German sentiment, on discarding allegiances where rocket technology appears. The war led other than to the United States. The term to voluntary cooperation of distinct nations, kaput, was used to mock the Germans. The with allies like Italy and Japan that had their American slang was very much tied to the contribution not only to the modern warfare British one as both armies fought together. but also to changes in language, thus, in The American linguistic innovation was military terminology, especially in the air significant enough to have a major impact on force. Allied forced had to fight and cooperate, how the British soldier spoke, but not enough thing not easy to be accomplished from to overwhelm it. There were linguistic changes language point of view. in all domains, especially in aviation, where Differences in language were obvious and pilots of two English-speaking nations a certain need of a standardized corpus competed with each other in terms of emerged out of it. Americans and British had producing the most colourful language to their own ego when it came to language; minimize risk and fear. Many war terms military terms were added from both sides persisted until the World War II and beyond during the war. Language standardization 70 Management and Socio-Humanities appeared as a natural phenomenon, as allied Korean culture. Americans and South Koreans troops had to have common training, each and fought together, usually in the same unit, being every force category had to be trained called KATUSA (Korean Augmentation to the according to its specific mission. U.S. Army). Thus, linguistic differences were This period is one of memorable linguistic once again obvious as plenty of nations experimentation an innovation in terms of participated in the U.N. forces. The official slang. Furthermore, “World War II may be military language tended to include more remembered for a number of reasons, and initials and acronyms. By the 1952, we can probably the least of these is that it provided a notice terms like: MASH (mobile army king-size fund of new slang for the diversion surgical hospital), MORCs (Medical Officer of lexicographers” (Lighter, apud Dickinson, Reserve Corps) and DORCs (Dental Officer 2004:114). World War II represents the Reserve Corps). Stiff-sounding prefixes and starting point of the introduction of acronyms suffixes were also present: detrain, detruck and initials into language, especially into the that evolved into detraining point or American one. Although some traditionalists detrucking point. Articles of the time noticed consider that these terms do not belong to that the American vocabulary closely slang, the war was full of them e.g. G.I. resembled plain English. (government issue, later on synonym with The War in Vietnam soldiers used terms army), WAC (Women`s Army Corps), A.A. fire that were utilized in previous wars. But, this (antiaircraft; one of the war`s most persistent conflict also produced its own vocabulary, initials), etc., due to the fighting men that were based on a rough and direct jungle warfare markers on these type of slag military terms. As the Americans were defeated, the terminology. Thus, they adopted the technique terms are full of frustrations and cynicism. of similitude, used hidden similarities, The Gulf War produced new official abbreviations, compositions of words and jargon that seemed to be more vivid than ever. word formations being more freely used. It Thus, “hard” and “soft” targets became: was also a period when the American degraded, neutralized, suppressed, eliminated, vocabulary was enriched with verbs and cleansed, impacted, taken out, etc. phrasal verbs. It should not omit one very The Cold War language was shaped by important aspect, namely, that most of the huge military buildup and by the nuclear American soldiers came from different social threat. Acronyms, code words, jargon and categories, each and every person bringing his slang formed the military language spoken own distinct language that belonged to his during this war. native place. Even the term Cold War was created in World War I and World War II brought 1946 by Herbert Bayard Swope. He mentioned together people from different parts of the it to Bernard M. Baruch who used it in 1947 world. The period was followed by a great and made it known in 1948, during a statement social mobility that substantially contributed to to the Senate War Investigating Committee. It the decrease in differences between social represented the state of international tension accents, especially in the U.K. where all necessary measures were employed to achieve national objectives. 6. OTHER CONFLICTS On the other side, British soldiers` slang was also very colorful, many words being The Korean conflict was a really bloody derived from Hindu Indian and other African conflict, with slang words that were mainly dialects, or dating back to the Boer Wars, used during the World War II. This happened fought during 1880-1881 and 1899-1902 by because most of the American soldiers fought the British Empire against the two independent during the latter one. Nevertheless, new terms Boer republics, the Oranje Vrijstaat (Orange emerged, too, due to the new technology (it Free State) and the Republiek van Transvaal was the first time when jet fighters and (Transvaal Republic). They are called "the helicopters were used) together with the 71 The use of English vs. American military terms between the XVIIth and XXth centuries

South African War" as the population of South 'national language' is used mostly in formal Africa was also involved in the conflicts. contexts. If one were to ask whether English today can still be considered a national 6. CONCLUSIONS language, the answer is yes and no. It can still be considered a 'national language' by the The identification of military terminology British since many Britons still speak that development is a difficult process because language and the British government still language has a major role in influencing recognizes it as its national language. But for culture, culture, in its turn, shapes language the rest of the world, it can no longer be and thus, language change is a permanent considered a national language. Many people phenomenon throughout history. From this adopted English as their mother tongue or interconditioning, the impossibility to recover second language. English has become an the whole results, taking into account two international language or a lingua franca for entire dynamic variables. But, analyzing it in many people worldwide. It is now a national depth, we find, on the one hand, that language language not only of England but of countries is the culture (at the dawn of culture and like Singapore, India and so on. language, for a population living under war When we speak about modern warfare, time, it is natural for military terminology to military terminology is expanding rapidly, due have fundamentally influenced the to recent developments in all fields, especially development of culture), on the other hand in technology. Thus, we can notice that language is a form of culture expression, modern technology lead to language ensuring its transmission, flow, transfer of development, especially in the Airforce, as cultural signs and codes. This second self- new types of combat aircrafts and rockets have referential dimension, or metacommunication, been designed and put into practice. In this is somehow aware of what happens in the respect, specialized training of military pilots depths of language and culture. As Pyles and is involved in this particular area of interest, Algeo sustain, „change is a normal state of no matter the country they come from. This language. teaching of specialized terms should be Every language is turning into something standardized and done quickly in order to different, and when we hear a new word or a avoid fatal disasters like plane crashes due to new pronounciation or novel use of and old certain temrs misunderstandings. word, we may be catching the early stages of a American language holds supremacy in the change. Change is natural because a language military field, being the language of military system is culturally transmitted” (1993:13). treaties, of general orders and of regulations. Thus, the above mentioned authors see The U.S Army took part in all major conflicts language as „undergoing revision constantly; starting with the Revolution and continuing with language such revision is slower than with the War of 1812, The Mexican War, the with some other cultural activities”, such as Civil War, the Indian Wars, the Spanish- fashion, enternainment, etc. American War, World War I, World War II, Colonialism is an important factor that the war in Korea, Vietnam, the Gulf Wars and helped the English language spread widely. the Iraq War. English established itself on many parts of the Warfare and the military have greatly globe, from Australia, Southeast Asia, Hong impacted the English language throughout Kong, India, and Africa to North America. The centuries. Furthermore, the military language British government established schools in and terminology are very productive as it`s a these countries, which helped the language to language built during crisis situations, each expand. The governments of former British and every crisis creating in turns a certain colonies later adopted English as their national proper vocabulary and terminology. Many language. This phenomenon finally led to British military terms were born during the more varieties of English all over the world. In World War I and II, par of them being lost England, the so-called Standard English or with the age of modern mechanized warfare. 72 Management and Socio-Humanities

The Pidgin English spoken in the north-west 3. Crystal, David (ed.) (1997) The Cambridge Territory of New Guinea contributed Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: substantially to the British terminology. CUP. All members of the Commonwealth 4. F Dikinson, Paul [1994] (2004). War contributed to the military vocabulary, Slang.Washington D.C.: Brassey`s Inc. together with the Australians that supplied 5. Millward, C.M. and Hayes, Mary (1996). some humorous terms and phrases. A Biography of the English Language. An official standardized terminology does Boston: Wadsworth. not completely fulfill the needs of the fighting 6. Pyles, Thomas (1993) English Language. soldiers. Military slang is as old as the warfare San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. and it covers all aspects of soldiers` lives. 7. Wanklyn, Malcom&Jones, Frank (2004) A They are the ones who shaped language in Military History of the English Civil War. times of war, with nicknames, acronyms, London: Longman. abbreviations, etc. 8. Winship Stewart, Richard(ed.) (2005) American Military History: The United BIBLIOGRAPHY States Army in a Global Era, 1917-2003. Washington, D.C.: United States Army 1. Avădanei, tefan (1993). North American Center of Military History. Literary History. Ia i: “Chemarea” 9. ***. (1989). Webster’s Dictionary of Foundation Publishing House. English Usage. Springfield: Merriam- 2. Bowyer, R.(ed.) (2004) Campaign Webster Inc. Dictionary of Military Terms. Bloomsbury: 10. *** (1991) Dictionary of Military Terms. Macmillan. Novato: Presidio Press. 11. ***. (2006). NATO Handbook. Brussels: NATO Office of Information and Press.

73 Universitas Saxonum – A political and administrative institution of the Transylvanian Germans

UNIVERSITAS SAXONUM – A POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTION OF THE TRANSYLVANIAN GERMANS

Mariana BORCOMAN

Department of Sociology and Communication, Faculty of Communication and Social Work, “Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The German colonists of Transylvania received in the 13th century the right to manage their territories. Their religious organizational structures are very old (called capitles) and then their administrative structures follow: counties and districts. The German administrative territory was called fundus regius and it enjoyed numerous privileges granted by the kings of Hungary. In the 15th century Universitas Saxonum was established for the purpose of mixing the Germans’ political and administrative interests. After researching the structure of this institution in Sibiu, we have obtained a better understanding of their political, national and cultural features.

Keywords: kingdom, autonomy, institution, tax, council.

1. INTRODUCTION was to organize the towns according to the western patter and to insure economic Transylvania is located inside the prosperity. They were granted the right to Carpathian Mountains chain, and due to its settle down and organize themselves geographical positioning, natural resources autonomously by the Hungarian king Andrew and economic and human potential it has the 2nd in the year 1224. always been a focal point of the surrounding In the 14th century, Transylvania was powerful states. First, it stirred the interest of under full control of the Hungarian royalty the Hungarian kingdom, then of the Turks’ structured in two autonomous areas: the empire, and then of the Habsburgs’ empire. Szeklers’ area in the south-eastern part, and The young kingdom of Hungary, set up after the Germans’ in the south-western part. the 10th century, attempted to control de the Throughout the centuries, the two populations Country beyond the Forests, as Transylvania would strengthen their privileges. The rest of was called. Their military actions of the 10th the territory was organized in counties owned and 11th centuries focused on two directions: by noblemen loyal to the Hungarian territorial colonization and population’s authorities. conversion to Catholicism. They found here a In the early 16th century, Transylvania protho-Romanian population religiously drifts away from the Hungarian kingdom that affiliated to the orthodox Constantinople. The had been seriously damaged by the Turks’ tactics adopted by the Hungarians was based attacks, and for the next 200 years it would on bringing into these territories populations become an autonomous kingdom which loyal to the Hungarian kingdom. Thus, bought its autonomy by paying taxes to the Transylvania was colonized in two stages: Turks. This was the most prosperous, but also - the 11th and 12th centuries, when the agitated period in the province’s history, when Szeklers were brought here in order to protect its princes played an important role in the the borders of the new province; European political decision making. At the - the 12 and 13th centuries, when the end of the 17th century, Transylvania would be German colonists were brought here from the a part of the Habsburgs Empire until 1918. Flanders, Rhine and Saxony. Their main duty 74 Management and Socio-Humanities

Our article focuses on a fragment of enforcement of the Germans’ political position Transylvania’s history, that is, the German in Transylvania. administrative and political institution. In the 16th century, the economic power of the German towns was increasing. The 2. UNIVERSITAS SAXONUM Germans would support the Transylvanian rulers against the Turks, which would result in 2.1 The background of establishing the their significant economic strength. institution. The right to autonomous The decisive period of the university administration granted to the Germans upon establishment was the recognition granted by the colonization of Transylvania is the first the Hungarian king Matei Corvin on 19 argument to sustain the establishment of a October 1486. This was when the university political structure. Its name derives from the was organized according to some rightful Latin word universitas, which designates a principles, among which the most important political body with public law duties. The was autonomy, both in a territorial sense, and document issued by the Hungarian king in a personal-corporatist sense (Teutsch, Andrew the 2nd in 1224 stipulates the 2001:56). following: 2.2 The Germans’ University during the 1. the territory given to the Germans was Transylvanian principality period (the 16th bordered by Orastie, Baraolt and Drauseni; and 17th centuries) – a political institution 2. the yearly tax paid by the Germans was This period was when the university knew 500 silver marks; maximum development. Then the university 3. The province of Sibiu was ruled by a statute was drawn up and it stipulated the supreme judge elected by the Germans and following: who was named Comes Saxonum in the year 1. the university was managed by the 1477 to represent them to the political German head elected for a limited period; authorities; 2. the university gathering (made of the 4. the German population had to support representatives of all the counties and districts, the Hungarian king in combat with 500 as well as the judge, the mayor of Sibiu etc.) soldiers; met once a year, on 25 November, and made 5. only the king had the following rights: decisions regarding the most important issues; a. sealing; 3. the tax level was set up for each b. recognition of the elected administrative unit; representatives; 4. granting the right to organize fairs and c. salt exploitation; guilds as a legislative body; d. fair organization on the date 5. the approval of each locality’s proposed by the local authorities; ordinances and statutes; e. use of forests; ponds and hunting 6. legal duties as a superior court areas. (litigations between noblemen and German 6. the colonists alone had the right to communities, border delimitation etc.); decide who would be allowed to settle down The most important activity was the on their land; political one. After the battle of Mohacs and 7. the colonists had religious freedom and Hungary’s transformation into a Turkish their own priests provided that they paid their province, Transylvania had to perform its own annual tax to the bishop of Alba Iulia. political roles. Thus, its representatives had to Another argument to support the travel to Rome, as the letter of Michael Gereb establishment of a political body was the of Sighisoara reveals. He asked for the Sibiu unification of the political forces in Capalna in magister’s recommendation in order to visit the year 1437 – the so called “unification of the pope (Statarchive Wien, d.14/f.79), and so the three nations” in front of the Romanians. It did the university when protecting the was a defense alliance that led to the Germans’ rights. In the second part of the 16th century, the university representatives 75 Universitas Saxonum – A political and administrative institution of the Transylvanian Germans strengthened their right at the meetings of catholic clerks loyal to Vienna and unaware of Turda and Sighisoara. At the same time, two the Transylvanian realities. major towns fought for supremacy: Sibiu and The university would be forced to apply Brasov, simultaneously with the Lutheran the Edict of living together issued by Joseph reform spreading among the German people. the 2nd on 4 July 1781, which “granted all the By using its economic power, Brasov local people the right to citizenship and succeeded in obtaining a short-lived support ownership, regardless of their religion or from the king Ioan Zapolya in order to gain denomination” (Vlaicu, 2000:12). In the next supremacy. However, Sibiu returns to its century, the university would be served by previous privileges as the Germans’ political Romanian clerks, too. and cultural center. The archive of Vienna The relationships between Vienna and the preserves numerous documents connected to Germans became stronger after 1650: on 5 the activity of the German University. The January 1701, Johann Sachs of Hassalch activity of copying these documents was informed Leopold the 1st that shelter was undertaken by the German leaders for back up provided for the Wallachian prince Constantin purposes (Statarchive Wien, d.14/f.359, f.310). Brancoveanu and his family in Brasov and The university makes decisions in asked that his family rights be enforced confessional problems such as the recognition (Statarchive Wien, Konv.A/f.387). of a Evangelic church in 1557 after the 2.3 The dissolution of the University. confession of Augsburg in connection with the After 1876, the system of administrative superintendents and bishops’ roles within the autonomy in the territory of the Habsburg parishes (Dangsch, 1990:197). Also, the Empire was dissolved, and the old institutions university made decisions in the field of were replaced by the ones belonging to the education thus controlling the community’s court of Vienna. moral and spiritual life. The council of the Half of the University’s fortune was owned Principality of Transylvania was attended by and controlled by the Institution of the 7 officials appointed from Sibiu. In a document Judges (Orastie, Seica Mare, Cincu, Sebes, dated 1744 the German delegates are listed: Rupea, Miercurea and Sighisoara). It also Georg Kelp – official of Sibiu, Stephen controlled the trades and tax collection in the Weingarten – notary of Sighisoara, and passings of Talmaciu and Turnu Rosu. Michael Schwartz – juror of Rupea. The The role of the University in controlling document was signed by the empress Maria the royal land is illustrated by a document Theresa (Statarchive Wien, d.18/f.270-285). In dated 25 February 1729 dealing with tax the second part of the 17th century the control distribution in the territory and issued by the of the university belonged to some influential emperor Carol the 6th (Statarchive Wien, families of Sibiu, who acted to the detriment d.12/f.123). of the ordinary people. The university then Once the Austrian – Hungarian regime was became a truly modern institution representing established, the Germans built high hopes. the interests of a nation. They hoped to have their medieval rights and In the archive of Vienna there is a privileges renewed, but they were annulled document: a petition of a royal judge of Sibiu, instead. Thus, in 1868 a foreign representative who demanded that the tax from the German was appointed to rule the University instead of territory be collected by their representative as a German one. This man called Moritz the council of Turda had confirmed followed the orders he received from Vienna. (Statarchive Wien, d.18/f.862-863). On 28 March 1869 a new reform placed all the In the 18th century the situation changed. county and district clerks under the control of The court of Vienna set up many bodies that the Ministry of Home Affairs and the military replaced the local ones: the Transylvanian commissioners. The aim of Kalma Tisza’s government, the Aulic Chancellery, the regime was to remove the Germans’ autonomy Treasury, the Royal tables and the province and to turn the territory into a Hungarian one. administration. All of these were served by His actions resulted in the law of March 1876, 76 Management and Socio-Humanities which stipulated that the University and the the Germans were catholic, but they joined the Institution of the seven judges be dissolved. evangelic church as soon as the reform began. The faith of the considerable university The religious structures coincided with the fortune was discussed by a commission of the administrative ones, and they were grouped Ministry of Home Affairs until 1883. The mainly in the south-western part of amounts of money, which had been allocated Transylvania. They were ruled by a county or to educational establishments such as Honterus district judge and a royal clerk. The initial High School of Brasov or the Greek Catholic religious and administrative center was Sibiu, schools of Sebes and Orastie, were where the Germans’ representatives were confiscated. A small part of this fortune was elected and Universitas Saxonum was set up divided between the Evangelic school of Sibiu for political and administrative reasons. It and the Romanian high school of Orastie. functioned for 400 years. After 1876, when the Many other real estate properties of the royal land was dissolved, the university would university were confiscated, and apparently continue to coordinate the activity of the only one house was preserved in Sibiu. This is Germans’ schools and evangelic churches. where the archives were preserved until the year 1900, when they became part of the state BIBLIOGRAPHY archives. The role played by the university was 1. Dangsch, Walter. (1990). Die therefore an essential one as it was a unifying Nationuniversität der Siebenbürgersachsen factor in terms of the medieval autonomous im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. In structures. Gruppenautonomie in Siebenbürgen. Köln: Köln Verlag. 3. CONCLUSIONS 2. Teutsch, Günther. (2001). Legiferarea statutară şi jurisdicţia ca atribuţii The colonization of the German population fundamentale ale Universităţii Saşilor. In in Transylvania was a decision made by the Transilvania şi saşii ardeleni în Hungarian royalty in order to ensure the istoriografie. Sibiu: Hora. economic development of these territories. At 3. Vlaicu, Monica. (2000). Univeritas the same time, the Germans were granted the Saxonum. Convergen e transilvane, right to settle down in southern Hungary. The vol.8. structure of their villages and towns had a 4. Haus, Hof und Statarchiv Wien fond. 95/1 strong western flavor and resulted in the doc. 14, fond. 97, doc. 12, 18, fond. 424, development of commerce and crafts. Initially, Konv.A. doc. Inedited documents.

77 The impact of international organizations on global security

THE IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ON GLOBAL SECURITY

Oana-Andreea PIRNUTA*, Dragos Nicolae SECAREA**

*Department of Literature and Cultural Studies, Faculty of Languages and Literatures, “Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania, **Department of International Relations, Political Sciences and Security Studies, Faculty of Socio-Humanities, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania

Abstract: The present paper deals with the impact of the international organizations on global security. The paper aims at defining the concepts of security and international organizations and describing the present global security context. The present paper also analyzes the most important organizations and their impact on the security environment. The main elements of this analysis assess the importance of such entities in the process of maintaining and improving the actual security context.

Keywords: global security, international organizations, NATO, UN, EU, impact .

1. INTRODUCTION Many specialists think that this battle is going to be less important concerning the fact The early 21st century has marked the that, unfortunately, the world is heading beginning of a new era, the war against towards a new World War. This fact is terrorism. This conflict was initiated after the underlined, for example, by the situation 9/11 attacks. The battle is carried by the between Iran and the Occident, the tensed members of different terrorist organizations relations between Turkey and Syria, or by the who stipulate that they defend the Islam economic problems (it is worth to mention against the diabolic influence of capitalism here the financial crisis from the Euro zone), symbolized mainly by the United States of conflicts which could easily become global. America and an alliance formed by many In the present-day world, the main shift is Occidental countries (but also states like from unipolarity (represented by the United Turkey, for example) which act under the States of America) to multipolarity (identified umbrella of the North Atlantic Treaty with China, India or Brazil, which are Organization. countries that have regional superiority and The last decade was marked by two major soon will play an important part at global level wars taking place in Iraq and Afghanistan, when referring mainly to the decision-making both of them having a debatable outcome. For process). In this particular context, it looks example, on the one hand, many specialists that the international organizations will have from Washington D.C. consider that the Iraqi an increasing role in the dynamics of global campaign was a great success, but on the other security. hand, other experts think that the war was a failure, which can be compared with the 2. SECURITY AND INTERNATIONAL Vietnam War. ORGANIZATIONS But is the war against terrorism going to remain the main threat to the international Firstly, it is important to define the concepts security environment in the following of security and international organization. decades? Probably not. The English specialists describe 78 Management and Socio-Humanities security as representing all means designed to (the World Health Organization, the protect persons and property against a wide International Monetary Fund) and range of contingencies, such as: murder, fire, intercontinental, regional as well as sub- accident, espionage, sabotage, subversion or regional organizations with multiple objectives unprovoked attack (Bădălan & Bogdan (the European Union, the Organization for 2009:17). Security and Co-operation in Europe), with a This concept is also defined as being in single objective (the Danube Commission) as opposition with insecurity, which directly Eugen Bădalan et al. consider (2009:105-106). influences security. For example, people are On the other hand, when dealing with concerned about their individual security, then NGOs, it is important to mention that only about the national security – all the measures 10% of these organizations have global designed to protect elements as suzerainty and identity. Also, most of the NGOs are situated national independence, territorial integrity or in North America. The NGOs can mediate internal order (guaranteed by the constitution) agreements (between states) in issues which – and regional security, namely, a strong are considered to be nongovernmental (for relationship between the states which are example, the social integration of people who situated in a certain part of the globe. have AIDS). Also, this concept can be analyzed from As previously mentioned, these different points of view. Thus, there could be organizations will have a major influence on different types of security: political, military, the global security. But how does the world economic, social and environmental ecurity look like nowadays? (Bădălan & Bogdan 2009:25). Among the regional powers, it is worth to As for the international organizations, the remember the European Union, China, Russia, United Nations statistics reveal that in 2005 Japan or India. There are also states which there were approximately 5,700 have developed in certain fields offering them intergovernmental organizations and 28,000 the power to influence, in a certain way or NGOs. The existence of the international another, the international environment organizations depends on elements, such as: (Bădălan et al., 2009:10). the existence of multilateral treaties, the Such a power is, for example, Pakistan, existence of common objectives or goals and which stand nowadays for an important the existence of a private constitutional nuclear power. Also, most of the states still structure (Besteliu, 2006: 10-11). have to deal with a global economic crisis, this The intergovernmental organizations are situation being an important problem formed by states. They have specific decision- especially in the Euro Zone. This fact is making mechanisms, but also headquarters. underlined by the rating agencies. Standard They deal with global issues from different and Poor’s has penalized important states like domains, such as: economy, education, and France and Austria. Greece is still on the edge criminality. of the precipice, facing the risk of entering in It is worth to mention that the UN is the default. Other countries have been included in only organization which has global identity. the “junk” category (not recommended for The other organizations, representing investments). approximately 97% of the total number, have Some European leaders tried to implement limited objectives when it comes to the drastic austerity measures. But on many number of their members and the domains occasions, these measures created social they operate in. issues. The populations were not satisfied and These organizations could be analyzed this led eventually to the replacement of many taking into account the following governments. And things are not better in classification: global organizations with other regions. A good example in this sense is multiple objectives (the United Nations, the the United States of America, which lost its United Nations Educational, Scientific and maximum rating last year and is still Cultural Organization), with a single objective struggling. 79 The impact of international organizations on global security

Of course, the world has to encounter other alliance initiated by these states) against the types of problems, such as: political instability, Soviet threat. terrorism, drugs, corruption, organized crime, One year later, the USA, Canada, the degradation of the natural environment or Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Portugal the depletion of natural resources, religious joined the alliance and in April 1949, NATO and ethnic conflicts, computer crimes or was officially created. overpopulation (especially in countries which It is considered that NATO passed through are considered to be third world states). three stages of evolution, the first one being There are many regions where a war could represented by the Cold War (the annihilation outburst and this conflict could rapidly spread of the nuclear threat), the second one like a deadly disease, thus getting a global highlighting the end of the Cold War (NATO identity. These regions include countries, such wanted more partnerships with different as: Iran, Syria, Yemen, Afghanistan, North countries and created better mechanisms of Korea or Columbia (drugs). But who are the crisis management) and the third one being the organizations who have a decisive role in the period situated after the 9/11 events equation of global security? (interventions in regions which do not belong to NATO). 3. ORGANIZATIONS WITH GREAT It is also worth to mention that NATO IMPACT ON GLOBAL SECURITY made several partnerships with states which do not belong to the alliance (Russia or Ukraine, The United Nations has approximately for example), in order to strengthen the 190 members. Its role is to maintain peace and security environment. the global security, to create and improve the Among the most important operations economic and social co-operation, to protect made by NATO, it is important to mention the human rights and the fundamental liberties those from Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq, Afghanistan and to develop friendly relationships between or Libya (it is to be expected, in the next the nations (Besteliu, 2000:156-158). period, an intervention in Syria). The UN was founded at the end of the The European Union has also a regional WWII. Its main institutions are The General identity, but recently, the EU leaders have Assembly, The Security Council, which has 15 assumed more and more actions in the areas members who can approve a military and states outside the Union. It could be said intervention, the Economic and Social that the idea of creating such an organization Council, the Trusteeship Council and the (according to the American model) existed International Court of Justice. In the past, the even before WWII, one of the promoters of the UN has intervened in conflicts like those from alliance being the former British Prime Congo, Suez Chanel, Indonesia, Yemen, Minister Winston Churchill. Afghanistan, Iran-Iraq, Korea War, Kuwait These organizations were officially created War, the Balkans. in 1957, when Belgium, France, Italy, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West has a regional (Euro-Atlantic) identity, but Germany signed the Treaty of Rome. In 1973 specialists say that the role of this organization Denmark, England and Ireland entered the is very important nowadays because it alliance. In 1979, there took place the first intervenes in regions where there is no threat elections for the European Parliament. In 1992 for the members of the alliance. This thing is the Maastricht Treaty (the Treaty on EU) was possible because of NATO’s capacity of signed and in the 1999 the European unique initiating interventions anywhere on the globe monetary system was adopted. (with the approval of the UN, of course). Nowadays, the EU has 28 members. The The alliance was created a few years after main institutions of the EU are the European the WWII. In 1948, Belgium, France, Holland, Council, the Council of Ministers, the Luxembourg and Great Britain signed a treaty, European Commission, the EU Parliament and which created a defense system (through an the European Court of Justice. The EU has the 80 Management and Socio-Humanities capabilities and resources to ensure and important also to mention that a crucial role consolidate the security level in vulnerable will be hold by regional and even sub- regional places (for the global security), like the Orient organizations. or Central Africa. In the past, the European The most important aspect is that the world leaders sanctioned (through economic is in a transitional period (nobody can say for embargos, for example) states, such as: Iran sure what is the direction) and the international (in 1980), Israel (1982), Iraq (1990), or organizations will be a vital component in the Yugoslavia. process of guiding it. The Organization for Security and Co- operation in Europe also has, theoretically, a BIBLIOGRAPHY regional identity. But, just like the EU, the OSCE has the necessary capacities of making 1. Bădălan, Eugen & Bogdan, Vasile. (2009). interventions at global level. Organizaţii şi structuri de securitate. It is worth to remember the organization’s Bucharest: Military Publishing House. interventions in Albania (1997), Kosovo 2. Bădălan, Eugen, Zaharescu, Laurian (1997), Bosnia (1995), Croatia (1996), Bogdan, Vasile. (2009). Sisteme globale de Macedonia (2001) or Central Asia (Tashkent, securitate. Bucharest: CTEA. Almaty, Dushanbe). 3. Miga-Be teliu, R. (2006). Organiza ii Because of the actual economic context, it interna ionale interguvernamentale. seems that the International Monetary Fund Bucharest: C.H. Beck. (funded in 1944, nowadays having 184 states) 4. Moise, Leonida (2008). Introducere în will have a major impact on the global security teoria relaţiilor internaţionale. Bucharest: level. This is because the survival of many Paideia. states, which are facing economic problems, 5. Pîrnuţă, Oana-Andreea & Boşcoianu, depends on the loans from IMF. And this Mircea (2011). International Security means that these countries will implement Repatterned by Globalization. International even draconic austerity measures in exchange Conference Security, Management and for this aid. Society 2011 held as part of CATE 2011, Brno: University of Defence Press. 4. CONCLUSIONS 6. Pîrnuţă, O.A., Nečas, P., Boşcoianu, M. & Secărea, D.N. (2011). The Impact of It is clear that international organizations Technological Synergy on the Military like the UN, NATO or IFM will have an even Management in the Context of greater role in what is considered to be global Transformation. Science & Military, Nr. 2. security simply because nowadays the states Litpovský Mikuláš: Armed Forces are not able to deal alone against different Academy of General M. R. Štefánik. threats (economic, politic, military, etc.). It is

81 Risk assessment strategies against money laundering and international terrorism financing

RISK ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES AGAINST MONEY LAUNDERING AND INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM FINANCING

Ovidiu MOŞOIU

Department of Specialty and Military Instruction, Faculty of Aeroanutical Management, „Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: In the context of geopolitical and socio-economic situation, organized crime, money laundering and international terrorism have taken on new meanings, extending their scope at an alarming level, designed to challenge the construction of the rule of law and democratic countries. Most professionals and researchers in criminology believe that the source of such facts lies in the perpetuation of deficitary structures in politics, economy and law, in the maintenance of increasing social and economic disparities among individuals, groups and communities and increasing social and ethnic conflicts and tensions.

Keywords: money laundering, illegal financial system, tax evasion, organized crime, international terrorism, means of transnational terrorism infiltration in the economy.

1. APPROACHES TO MONEY regulations and banking regulations of the LAUNDERING AND TERRORISM countries in which these capitals are produced. FUNDING, IN THE CONTEXT OF While the conceptual difference between licit FINANCIAL CRISIS AND ILLEGAL and illicit financial flows is clear, the FINANCIAL FLOWS distinction between the two categories discussed in statistical terms is difficult. Not to Making recommendations on preventing mention that the available statistical data are and combating money laundering and terrorist often incomplete or inaccurate. In fact, there is financing must necessarily start from a deep no official statistics on the existence of illicit analysis of factors generating the dynamics of capital flows because they are not detected. this phenomenon, because the characteristics Empirical studies (UNDP, 2011:16-17) on are specific to each country. The key feature of illicit financial flows indicate the possibility to illicit financial flows and illicit capital flows is classify the generating factors into three broad being hidden among the official records of the categories (Figure 1): macroeconomic factors, country of origin. Illegal capital gains obtained factors dependent on the structural by placing such capital abroad usually do not characteristics of the national economy, return to their country of origin. factors related to global governance. Illegal capital can be generated through Illicit capital holders, capital which is series of means and operations which are not obtained as a result of committing crimes, are to be found in national accounts or payments careful to hide these funds rather than to balances. Some examples are illegal products maximize the official rentability rate. Also, the trading, smuggling, corruption, currency holders of such funds are not interested in the movements, tax evasion, hawala transactions evolution of the fiscal deficit, economic growth and more. It is obvious that most of the and external debt of the country of origin, financial flows that are not captured by which is increasing due to the economic official records are unlawful and violate civil activities in the field of underground economy. and criminal laws of states, fiscal and customs 82 Management and Socio-Humanities

Illicit financial flows are increased by money through several jurisdictions; the structural factors such as rising income individuals involved engage in a variety of inequality, the rate of artificial and unsustainable criminal activities either as traffickers or as economic growth, the increasing international members of criminal syndicates. In this regard, trade without legal supervision etc. the line between money laundering and terrorism financing becomes thinner as Illicit financial flows terrorists often participate in the crime area and cooperate with criminals to get money and weapons. Based on these features, a meaningful risk Macroecono- Structural Global assessment strategy regarding money mic factors characteristics governance laundering and terrorism financing at state level should take into account the following three categories: geographic risk and country risk, business risk, production and trading risk. • fiscal deficits • inconsistent • coruption • variable high economic reform, • business area Companies whose important customers are inflation without real basis • underground located in countries that have not implemented • overvalued • unsupervised economy exchange rate international trade • political an adequate strategy to prevent and combat • negative rates of • artificial instability money laundering and terrorist financing will profitability economic growth need to consider additional rules on customer • economy growth • external debt knowledge and risk management procedures to monitor money laundering. High risk countries are considered to be those that: use cash as the main exchange Figure 1. Generating factors of illicit financial flows. (Source: UNDP, 2011:17.) mean, have an unstable political regime characterized by high corruption both in the It is obvious that there is a strong public and private sectors, are known as drug- interaction between the three categories of producing or transit countries for drug factors. For example, overvalued exchange trafficking, have been categorized as countries rates stimulate the development of a parallel with major abnormalities in preventing and foreign exchange market, with significant combating money laundering and terrorist effects on the growth of the underground financing. economy activities, including corruption and Risk assessment on money laundering and income distribution distortion in society. terrorist financing clasify countries worldwide There is also a strong interaction between as follows: countries with high risk, medium macroeconomic context and the business risk or low risk. These attributes are assigned climate. Promoting sustainable growth based on publicly available information that economic policies (sustainable fiscal deficits, can be found in the following documents: low and stable inflation, attractive interest - blacklisted countries at high risk of rates, etc.) may attract significant foreign money laundering and terrorist financing, direct investment, while an unstable economic published periodically by the Financial Action policy, severe macroeconomic deficits Task Force (FATF) (includes recently discourage such investments. Moreover, removed countries ); corruption increases the cost of business - mutual evaluation reports of the FATF, development, reducing the country's ability to the World Bank and IMF on money laundering attract investors. and terrorist financing; the USA Patriot Act, Money laundering and terrorism financing Section 311 designates the most vulnerable have some common aspects (Schneider, countries to money laundering; 2010:3): they use different types of transfers - OECD blacklist of countries that promote and electronic payments systems to move negative tax practices;

83 Risk assessment strategies against money laundering and international terrorism financing

- USA list of drug producing countries and individual, organization or public person, by drug transition countries; avoiding the mandatory inspections required - U.S. list of terrorism sponsors; by specific legislation in the area. - the annual reports of the State Products and services that involve high risk Department of the U.S. regarding the risk of of money laundering are those in whose money laundering and terrorism by countries, process of production and / or trading an reports of the European Council, Transparency intermediary element occurs, on an ongoing International and other similar bodies; basis and without any constraints. In other - management system and country rating of words, selling / trading these products national banks. interposes an intermediary whose identity is There are different characteristics that usually unknown. make a business to be considered risky. For Movement of products / services ensures example, casinos and gambling are preferred rapid movement of large volumes of funds or targets for money laundering because in this transactions, or both, hiding the real source of activity field there is no developed culture on these funds. Such operations allow anonymity preventing and combating money laundering. and cash converting into financial instruments. Such activities, which convey significant cash Individual and business accounts are likely to amounts, should be carefully monitored. host such transactions. Offshore banks provide a wide range of Because the final goal is always obtaining financial services under the protection of profit and because the source of the funds and privacy and secrecy. Professionals facilitates the financing is often "legitimate" the purpose the creation of genuine money laundering of terrorism financing is different from money vehicles. When the illegally obtained amounts laundering, in each case, both criminals and of money are used for the purchase of real terrorist organizations, transfer money from estate, luxury cars and various items, it is one country to another in order to conceal any likely that this action represents a net loss to traces. the economy. Due to this fact and because some of the These principles do not apply in the performed operations refer to people that are context of illegal monies invested in on the lists, the role of banks and other legitimate, legal business. On the other hand, financial institutions - in particular, currency unfair competition generated by these amounts exchange houses, financial investment of money in that industry / branch induce companies, insurance companies and quick potentially disastrous effects for honest money transfer operators - is essential in operators in this area. Similarly, but in purely combating terrorist financing. economic perspective, it may be considered The instruments used in order to combat that the entrance into the country of large terrorism financing are similar to those used amounts of money to be washed would against money laundering: standard norms generate an overwhelmingly positive effect. about the client, continuous monitoring of However, this kind of input creates unfair specific transactions (such as fast transfer of competition in the economy for legitimate money and transfers via SWIFT) and norms operators and facilitates corruption about the accounts of customers who have as proliferation. partners persons located or that come from Businesses that use cash funds allow countries with an increased risk of terrorism. masking money obtained from illegal activity Banks and other financial intermediaries into deposits containing money produced in are required to focus in particular on non- legal activities. This is why the U.S. Bureau profit and charitable organizations and on their for exchange control published a list of high- activities or operations related to them by: risk businesses of money laundering. - the existence of non-profit organizations Individual risk which an entity can expose without being able to justify the connections itself to refers to the potential risk of between them (organizations that have the facilitating a terrorist transaction by any same address, same managers or staff, transfer 84 Management and Socio-Humanities money towards each other or use the same and the European Insurance and Occupational intermediate in their dealings with the Pensions Supervisors (in operation since 1 financial system) nonprofit organizations that January 2011). In addition, the European operate across sectors or countries under Commission proposed a series of measures different names; that having as their object rating agencies, - large amounts of money (especially cash) capital of the banks and audit reform. declared as being collected from various European Systemic Risk Board monitors individuals or communities of a certain the entire financial sector in order to identify ethnicity or religion; amounts of money that potential problems that could lead to a future do not seem to have any economic justification crisis . It works in close collaboration with the regarding the purpose and the activity of the new European Supervisory Authorities. declared non-profit organization or regarding In addition to coordinating and monitoring the community from which the funds national authorities these new bodies will work apparently came; with other authorities around the world to - sudden rise in the frequency of financial ensure a better global supervision. In Romania, transactions and amounts of money credited to money laundering for financing international non-profit organization, or conversely, the terrorism is regulated and sanctioned by law no. non-profit organizationhas in the current 230/2005, for preventing and combating money account funds that have been kept for a long laundering and the establishment of measures for period of time; preventing and combating terrorist financing. In - operations or transactions to or from 2011, taking into account the recommendations countries of high risk; operations of the same included in the, MONEYVAL European type performed in their own name by the Council report concerning the third round of the directors of non-profit organizations coming detailed assessment of Romania in the fight from such countries. against money laundering and terrorist Identifying transactions with funds suspected financing, the law was amended and to be linked to acts of terrorism involves supplemented by Law no. 23S/2011. transmitting a report to the appropriate competent authority. Other types of professions 2. INSTITUTIONS INTERESTED IN or activities which fall under the same incidence COLLECTING AND PROVIDING DATA of combating money laundering should consider CONCERNING THE FREQUENCY OF getting involved in activities intended to OCCURRENCE OF MONEY contribute to the development of laws, LAUNDERING FOR THE FINANCING regulations and guidelines to combat money OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM laundering and terrorist financing. The financial crisis has revealed quite Until 1970 statistics of were widowed clearly the limits and sometimes the opportunity to examine crime patterns. deficiencies of the surveillance system used in Collection of data concerning crime was poor, Europe. However, they could not identify without the possibility of electronic excessive risks. The supervision and control transmission and processing. In 1974 Professor did not intervene in time. Coordination among Walker started the first research project on national authorities was far from optimal when crime in Australia, his research was based on transnational financial institutions were faced data collected from individual reports of the with problems, despite the fact that these Metropolitan Police. institutions were becoming more numerous. In Romania, terrorism is included in the The Union's response to these serious category of threats to the national security by Law problems was the introduction of completely no. 51/1991 concerning Romania's national new supervisory structures adapted to the security. Subsequently, by Law no. transnational nature of financial transactions 14/24.02.1992 regarding the organization and namely the European Banking Authority, the functioning of the Romanian Intelligence Service, European Securities and Markets Authority preventing and combating terrorism is the express 85 Risk assessment strategies against money laundering and international terrorism financing responsibility of this service. Also, for combating similar bodies that protect the ethics and terrorism, Romania has effectively committed to integrity of the profession; the International campaign against terrorism - banking associations and other financial through military participation, being a major organizations whose concerns include ensuring landmark of Romania's National Security the stability and credibility of the national Strategy. Romania has also acted and shall act financial system; within NATO, the European Union and other - national statistical institutes responsible for international organizations towards promoting compiling statistics on important developments and consolidating democracy, supporting of society, including the economic ones. governments and security and defense institutions Unfortunately, both at national and in the fight against terrorism, participating in international level such bodies / institutions do multinational operations, comprehensive not develop reliable and complete statistics assistance in the process of prevention, concerning illicit financial flows and money counteracting and post-conflict reconstruction laundering. (H.G. no.21/2001). The analysis of crime trends Most of them do not even centralize such at a national and international level had started data. The situation can be attributed to the fact from the data provided by national police that until recently it was not treated as money authorities on identified crime, but the laundering phenomenon itself but was processed information raised problems of approached tangentially related to other crimes. reliability and international comparability, As identifying and capturing an offender can be especially since national statistics were the first step towards dismantling a criminal dependent on the availability of victims to networks, similar attempts to identify money report crimes. You might think that data laundering can lead to the discovery of drug regarding crime are collected and centralized offenses, for example, and vice versa. by all interested institutions. By definition, the phenomenon of money We refer in particular to the following laundering manifestation indicates a prior categories of institutions / services / persons: offense that is included and highlighted in the - police services that should be concerned statistical processing and can be monitored in by monitoring their own achievements order to assess progress over time. Given the fact recorded on line of identifying and bring to that the estimation of revenue generated by prior justice the perpetrators and publish such data crimes is very difficult (for example, the crime as very important performance indicator; of drug trafficking) is understandable why - the prosecution and prosecutors should organizations like those listed above are also monitor the achievements of convictions, reluctant to provide estimates of the share of so namely to make sure that offenders are illicit financial flows caused by such crime and appropriately punished, depending on the involved in money laundering operations. nature and seriousness of the offenses However, the existence of a problem of committed; great importance, money laundering, is - criminology and forensics services whose unanimously accepted. International organisms, mission is to prevent and counteract organized governments, financial institutions etc. are crime activities in the area and reduce their willing to spend heavily in the implementation impact on society; of strategies of preventing and combating the - Border Guard, Coast Guard and National phenomenon, though they _ do not certainly Customs Authority, whose responsibility is to know its extent. Furthermore, they are not able protect national borders and that represents the and do not have the capacity to check if the first and last redoubt of defense against problem is extending and it takes the allocation transnational organized crime; of additional funds in order to fight the - National Agency for Fiscal Administration, phenomenon, or if the size of was limited as a whose job is to ensure that all incomes are taxed; result of effective strategic measures. In the - attorney bars, associations and legal contemporary era it seems unreasonable to exert unions, accouters and appraisers, and other 86 Management and Socio-Humanities so much effort in tackling money laundering that have not established a system of without having to confirm their effectiveness. integrated management of strategic To finish with explaining the reasons that information); caused us to state that official statistics are not - effects generated by money laundering on useful in estimating illicit financial flows / the economy cannot be estimated accurately money laundering we must underline that there based on the information available (given that are no such statistics actually. the estimation of prior revenues generated by There is published data concerning crime is very difficult is explainable why individual cases, that confirm the existence of concerned national and international bodies the phenomenon, but not its magnitude. are reluctant to provide estimations of the Furthermore, because in the investigation of proportion of illicit financial flows produced money laundering are involved several by the various operations involved in crime institutions (police, forensics, criminal and money laundering and official statistics investigations, prosecution, etc..) and several are virtually useless); procedural stages of legal research are held, - quantifying the volume and dynamics of published data are provided simultaneously by money laundering is a constant need for several institutions, sometimes decision-makers involved in developing overlapping which makes any form of analysis policies to prevent and combat the extremely difficult. phenomenon, it is required a considerable improvement in the processes of collecting and 3. CONCLUSIONS providing adequate data on the effects of crime suspected and / or proven and the frequency of Analyzing the issue of money laundering money laundering in different criminal and its impact on international terrorism environments. financing one considers that at least the following conclusions can be drawn: BIBLIOGRAPHY - money laundering or financial flows generated by organized crime are extremely 1. Frunzetti, T., Zodian, Vl. (2011). Lumea difficult to quantify, certainty exists only with 2011. Enciclopedie politică şi militară. regard to the existence of the phenomenon that Bucharest: CTEA. varies from one country to another; 2. Fulga, Vasile. (2009). România raportată - traditional methods, case studies, la fenomenul terorist interna ional. quantitative estimates econometric models for Bucharest: CTEA. quantifying the size of the underground 3. Giraldo, J.K., Trikunas, H.A. (2007). economy tend to underestimate or Terrorism financing and state responses: a overestimate the contribution that money comparative perspective. Stanford, CA: laundering has in exacerbating the Stanford University Press. phenomenon. 4. Masciandaro, D. (2007). Black Finance: - the Walker pattern still seems to be the The Economics of Money Laundering. most reliable and robust method of estimating Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing global financial flows generated by money Ltd. laundering, although the microeconomic 5. Popa, tefan, Cucu, Adrian. (2000). foundation is built on ad-hoc variables Economia subterană i spălarea banilor. Although plausible the variables of the model Bucharest: Expert. they are still arbitrary. 6. Schott, P.A. (2006). Reference Guide to - estimating the size of funds of organized Anti-Money Laundering and Combating crime (money laundering volume) is an the Financing of Terrorism, 2nd edn. extremely difficult task mainly due to lack of Washington, DC: World Bank/IMF. adequate data, both at national and 7. Schneider, Friedrich. (2010). The Financial international level (one of the reasons for this Flows of Terrorist Organizations: is the lack of unity and transparency of states, Aliterature Review and Some Preliminary 87 Risk assessment strategies against money laundering and international terrorism financing

Empirical Results. IZA Discussion Paper. 13. ***. (2001). H.G. no. 21 on Romania's No 4860. participation along with NATO states on 8. Suceavă, I, Coman, Fl. (1997). combating international terrorism. Official Criminalitatea şi organizaţiile internaţio- Gazette, no. 589. nale. Bucharest: Romcart Exim. 14. ***. (2003). Law no. 39 on preventing and 9. United Nations Development Programme combating organized crime. Official (UNDP). (2011). Discussion Paper, Illicit Gazette, no. 50. Financial Flows from the Least Developed 15. ***. (2004). Law No.535 on Preventing Countries: 1990 – 2008. Washington, DC: and Combating Terrorism. Official UNDP, Bureau for Development Policy. Gazette, no. 1161. 10. Voicu, C. (2006). Criminalitatea 16. ***. (2005). H.G. no. 1272 for approving organizată în domeniul afacerilor. the list of natural and legal persons Bucharest: Pildner Publishing House. suspected of committing or financing 11. Yaniv, G. (1999). Tax Evasion, Risky terrorist acts. Official Gazette, no. 973. Laundering and Optimal Deterrence 17. ***. (2008). O.U.G. no. 202 on the Policy. International Tax and Public implementation of international sanctions, Finance, vol.6. namely Resolution No. 1373/2001 of the 12. ***. (2001). O.U.G no. 159 for preventing Security Council of the United Nations on and combating the use of financial banking combating international terrorism. Official system to finance terrorist acts. Official Gazette, no. 890. Gazette, no. 802. 18. ***. (2008). National Strategy for Accession to Schengen 2008-2011. Official Gazette, no. 832.

88 Management and Socio-Humanities

METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND SOURCES OF MONEY LAUNDERING USED FOR FINANCING INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

Ion BĂLĂCEANU, Eugen POROJAN

“Center for Analysis and Security Studies” Association, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: In order to study the way in which in the contemporary world profits are 'washed' as a result of illegal activities and the routes that money go through, involves complex investigations and a considerable amount of work. Countries that have regulated as a independent criminal offense, the offense of money laundering, have also included in its scope those actions taken to achieve hiding the illicit origin of values from committing this offense. The mixing of legal and illegal profits and the reporting of the total earnings from the business as the legal means for money laundering. Through this practice, all cycle stages of money laundering are combined .Financial funds are spaced from crime, hidden in legitimate business accounts and then brought back to the surface as legal earnings of a company. The reason is plausible: maximizing profits and available cash.

Keywords: organized crime, illegal financial system, tax evasion, money laundering, transnational terrorist infiltration in the economy.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. MONEY LAUNDERING METHODS AND ROUTES OF ILLICIT FUNDS In specialized literature "the method of USED FOR FINANCING money laundering," means the individual INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM techniques and recycling schemes. A technique of money laundering, is a single In order to achieve an effective study and procedure, while a schema involves a series of to understand the specific routes followed by procedures whereby the profits of an illicit illicit funds, it is necessary to highlight the operations are translated into legal profits. way in which members of criminal Money laundering is more than just organizations work when it comes to recycling contraband or conceal illicit funds, although illicit amounts of money, in order to give the such actions may constitute essential appearance that those funds are obtained components of the process. A logical way to legally. In practice several ways of money distinguish money laundering from one of its laundering, are known, as follows: component parts is to emphasize the a) Money laundering involving politically difference between hiding the existence of exposed persons (PEP). According to members money resulting from crime and disguise their of the Committee of Experts for evaluating the nature. implementation of the anti-laundering measures1, Some of the most popular illegal corruption and bribery offered to public officials operations, such as drug trafficking continue are two of the four sources of dirty money, the to be profitable, but a relatively new phenomenon is the transport or trafficking 1 illegal immigrants. This activity, which It is a Sub-Committee on Crime Problems (CPDP) body of the European Council. The Committee of combines the growing movement of people Experts presented for the first time, typologies of with criminal activity is often characterized by money laundering in 1998. Today checking the a deeper involvement of organized crime implementation of this measures by States to prevent groups. and combat money laundering fall within the functions of MONEY VAL. 89 Methods, instruments and sources of money laundering used for financing international terrorism other two sources being drug trafficking and types of money laundering: money laundering human trafficking (PC-R-EV, 1998:1). In terms obtained through corruption, by association of financial offenders, drug dealers or with a politically exposed person; laundering traffickers, the criminal activities undertaken money from embezzlement, money laundering by them are exposed to lower risks if certain obtained through diversion of public funds public figures are persuaded to cooperate. through the family members of a PEP, money Therefore, corruption of civil servants has laundering obtained through high-level become an important part of the criminal corruption. activity. The bribe often takes the form of b) Money laundering through real estate cash, forcing the recipients of these "gifts" to investments - investing money in real estate is strive in order to launder illegally obtained a technique frequently used for money revenues (PC-R-EV, 1998:1). laundering. As recently confirmed by the Depending on the degree of the socio- FATF, these investments are a classical economic development of a country, four method, tested in a while to launder illegal types of corruption have been identified money. The typological review of cases (Johnston, 2007:23): corruption related to the reported by CTIF-CFI confirms that several exercise of a dominant area; group leaders techniques used for laundering money of illicit corruption, corruption commonly used by origin involves the real estate sector. The used criminal groups, corruption of high public techniques, vary from relatively simple to very officials. Is not neglected the fact that due to complex, involving large sums of money. the special status of politically exposed Details regarding these techniques are persons, some financial institutions are described below. The use of non-financial tempted to give them a wide margin of professions - to evade anti money laundering discretion in carrying out financial activities, measures, those who carry out this activity had discretion that can sometimes be used for to develop increasingly complex methods. criminal purposes (FATF, 2004:19). Criminals who wanted to recycle criminal According to experts of the Financial Action income have oriented towards the experience Task Force (FATF) the sources of illegal of the professionals. This trend has been money subjected to recycling by politically observed internationally and is becoming exposed persons are not only bribery, the increasingly common in money laundering receival of undue benefits or rewards obtained operations. Lawyers, notaries, accountants and illegally. Politically exposed persons from other professionals perform a series of tasks countries where corruption is endemic are that criminals target them in order to use their likely to be directly involved in running knowledge and to put in place a money criminal activities related to organized crime. laundering mechanism with an illegal origin. On the other hand, in almost every country The typological review of recorded cases has politically exposed persons can be identified focused on the services most used by those carrying out suspicious activities (FATF, who recycle the money. These are explained 2004:19). According to FATF experts, there below in accordance with the extent to which are at least two ways of detecting the illegal non-financial professions are involved in activities of politically exposed persons. The money laundering ranging from minimal to first is the change of power in a country in very intensive. which a PEP operates illegally while the Submission to the financial institutions - in regime that succeeds to power promotes a order to avoid awakening suspicion about their policy of settling of scores. The second way criminal activities, those who recycle money concerns the discovery of some indicators use non-financial professions to be presented regarding the conducting of suspicious to financial institutions. When a person transactions in financial activities carried out engaged in non-financial profession presents by them (FATF, 2004:22). Depending on the the client of a financial institution, this client criminal culture of various politically exposed will present credibility due to the ethical persons, FATF experts have identified four standards associated with such occupations. 90 Management and Socio-Humanities

Engaging in real estate transactions - property, especially where there is no clear different non-financial professions were faced economic justification, should lead to further with money laundering activities because of investigations authorized entities. the key role they play in such transactions. Buying or selling above or below market When they are exercising their profession they value - it was discovered that another technique are in a favorable position to record any used in money laundering through real estate irregularities that would create suspicions investment is the sale or purchase of a property regarding money laundering. above or below its market value. It is also Execution of financial transactions -, non- suspicious the repeated sale of a property with financial professions can perform various unusual profit margins when one can not provide financial transactions for their customers (eg a plausible explanation for these transactions. cash deposits, issue or withdrawal of checks). Using intermediaries for real estate They can also carry out transactions through acquisitions - in some cases, the person involved accounts opened in their name, but for those buys properties on behalf of third-parties, with who recycle money. Using the account of a which he has no connection. Thus the person non-financial professional as transit account is who recycles money wants to hide the meant to conceal the identity of the ultimate connections between him and transactions used beneficiary and the link between the illicit for "laundering" money, using a middleman or a origin and the destination of the funds. front man. Establishment of corporate structures and The use of suspense accounts - another legal financial constructions - those who identified technique used in money laundering recycle money also turn to non-financial is the use of suspense accounts. Funds usually professions to establish corporate structures arrive in the accounts by deposits, transfers, and legal financial constructions to make checks or international transfers. They never transactions as obscure as possible. Complex remain in the same account for a long period corporate structures and legal financial of time. Analyzing these accounts has led to buildings are designed to conceal the true the conclusion that they were formed solely identity of the beneficiaries. Some files for the purpose of such transactions. concerning the use of the established legal The distorted use of mortgage - financial construction of self non-financial contracting a mortgage loan repaid through professions have shown that they can play an bank deposits is a technique through which active role in money laundering. money illegal origins is injected into the The use of corporate structures - the use of financial system on a regular basis, with the fake companies is a money laundering aim of recycling it. technique that hides the origin of the funds and c) Laundering money resulted from which increases the anonymity of transactions corruption uses the following techniques at partners or beneficiaries. When using shell least: companies concerns should arise regarding Banking Transactions - those who recycle financial institutions and non-financial money originating in corruption prefer to use professions. Beyond buildings using off-shore the banking system in their operations. They companies, financial experts and lawyers are often use bank accounts for the sole purpose of sometimes used to make the scheme more engaging in used in money laundering process. complex and less transparent. Using obscure Making liquidity transactions and legal structures, such as trust funds, helps international transfers - the classical scheme hiding the identity of the real beneficiaries. of these operations generally consists either of Acquisition of immovable property of great cash deposits followed by transfers abroad or value - through the purchase of immovable from transfers outside the country followed by property of great value, large sums of money cash withdrawals. The purpose of making cash from criminal activity can be converted into deposits and cash withdrawals is to disguise bona fide securities and invested in the legal the origin and the destination of the funds. economic system. The acquisition of such Using international transfers allows one to add 91 Methods, instruments and sources of money laundering used for financing international terrorism a transnational dimension to the operations, in reality or are held in values and quantities order to cover the traces. It is well known that different from those contained in the financial those who recycle money prefer to delimit the documentation submitted to the custom criminal activity from money laundering . authorities. In this context, certain company Using third-party or non-financial will proceed to a purchase from the country in professions - although in most cases money which it is established, e.g. a machine , in laundering is carried out by corrupt individuals exchange for a certain sum (which comes from there are plenty of situations where such illegal activities). Subsequently, this good is activities are carried out by third-parties, such subject to a succession of sales of several as family members or close people , especially companies that actually were created when involving politically exposed persons. specifically for this purpose. Successive sales The private banking - private banking system finally lead to a dramatic and artificial increase has been used for money laundering operations of the value of the machine, which is finally related to corruption. Most reported cases have exported and financial authorities of that shown the use of banking services abroad. particular state shall be obliged to reimburse The use of suspense accounts, shell the VAT, which is often 2-3 times higher than companies and offshore companies - in many the real value of the exported machine. cases complex techniques of money laundering Moreover, the overseas company unit which is are used in order to increase the difficulty in acquiring the machine is property of the same detecting these operations. Thus, some people criminal network so the initial capital used to open accounts abroad in the name of ghost purchase equipment can Sbe recycled back companies, which use them as transfer accounts home and can be introduced without problems to move funds from and / or to foreign countries, in the legal economic circuit. especially offshore centers. Legally addressing the phenomenon it Investments in real property, real estate becomes evident that on the one hand the state and insurance business - these allow large is subject to VAT liability of certain economic masses of illegal money to be wagered legally and financial offenses (forgery of official in the financial circuit. documents, forgery, fraud and so on), and on d) Money laundering originating from the other hand recycling and reintroducing the fraud - people who recycle money arising initial capital in the economic circuit leads to from fraud using the following techniques: the offense of money laundering. Using the banking system, respectively e) Money laundering originating from through the accounts they have opened in more drug trafficking - in the drug business drug than one bank units - opening a large number of dealers earn relatively small amounts money accounts at the same bank branches and disposal but in many locations. The money thus obtained of repeated transfers of large sums of money are invested in activities such as restaurants, between accounts, frequent deposits of cash on very suitable for money laundering. The behalf of clients by third parties, without advantage is that the flow of circulating money apparent connection with the recipient account is very large. Criminals can also periodically are some of the techniques used. declare additional revenue in addition to legally Investing money from fraud involves the obtained revenues. The disadvantage is that purchase of land or buildings which are then illicit money are taxed along with legally resold for profit. obtained capital. Mixing legal money with Simulation of trade and international illegal money has the advantage that it provides economic and financial operations - this almost immediate explanation for the origin of involves using commercial relations that any large sums of money - profits arising from country has, while conducting false financial lawful activity. operations . Thus, the operators involved in The method used is chosen depending on money laundering, in agreement with some the criminal activity and institutional status of "trading partners" conduct extensive import- the country in which illegal money are export activities that either do not occur in obtained. Also, money deposits (so called 92 Management and Socio-Humanities smurfing method) and illegal gambling are Romanian citizens and foreign residents in often used. Obviously these methods clearly Romania in activities subsumed / associated show that there are many ways to recycle with international terrorism, regardless of the money. As mentioned, it would be much easier area of development, the objectives or their to reduce criminal activity than to fight against targets, participation in international efforts to these methods. prevent and combat terrorism in different Fight against terrorist financing concerns geographical areas. worldwide organizations including the At the same time, nationally, the crime of International Financial Action Task Force "terrorism financing" is incriminated in the (FATF / FATF) which decided to extend the Article 36. 1 of Law no. 535/2004 on preventing mandate at a special session in Washington in and combating terrorism, article referred by October 2001. Thus, the FATF adopted a set of Special Law no. 656/2002 on preventing and nine Special Recommendations to stop terrorist sanctioning money laundering as well as on organizations in obtaining and transferring funds establishing measures to prevent and combat for their criminal activities. Such terrorist financing, as amended and recommendations are the new international supplemented, at art. 2 letter. a1: "Providing a standards for combating terrorism. These terrorist entity movable or immovable goods, countries prohibit the use of alternative money knowing that they are used for supporting or transfer and other informal or underground committing terrorist acts, and acquiring or banking systems. In addition FATF called on its collecting funds, directly or indirectly, or members to strengthen customer identification performing any financial operations bank to measures for wire transfers and prevent finance terrorist acts, shall be punished with charitable donations to be used for terrorist imprisonment from 15 to 20 years and financing activities. In this respect the FATF has interdiction of certain rights." invited countries to ratify the UN Convention the Activity of money laundering is Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and inseparably linked to organized crime, because implement relevant Security Council resolutions. organized crime activities generate large In Romania, the issue of terrorism is amounts of money, which, in order to be used addressed from the prevention perspective , should be washed to conceal their illegal which involves focusing on preventing origin. Large amounts of money from illicit terrorist activities, human resources supply, affairs are used for internal expenses of the logistics and finance. Consequently, the criminal network, which consist of payments institutions involved in the National System paid to suppliers, associates and for bribing for the Prevention and Combating of officials - distribution of the money does not Terrorism (NSPCT) actively participate leave too many traces, as the money enter the according to areas of competence to halt the circuit legal directly as current expenses. activities of terrorist groups funding , working Phenomenon of money laundering has with the National Office for Prevention and made geographical boundaries to become Control of Money Laundering in the practically insignificant because members of identification of suspected terrorist financing criminal organizations prefer to send their operations. National Strategy for preventing illegal income to countries where measures to and combating terrorism (since 2002) and Law control this crime are little or no effective. no. 535/2004 on preventing and combating Under these circumstances, illicit income is terrorism set the following major objectives and sent to Central and Eastern Europe or to supporting actions in preventing and combating countries with poor law in Asia and Africa and the financing of terrorism: protecting national is deposited in the financial centers and banks territory associated with terrorist activities, in territories known as "tax havens" where protection of Romanian citizens and foreign anti-money laundering regulations are objectives of activities subsumed / Associated ineffective. The relationship between terrorism regardless of origins and forms of terrorism, organized crime and crime can be manifestation, preventing the involvement of described according to Figure 1, as follows: 93 Methods, instruments and sources of money laundering used for financing international terrorism

Use of terrorist Criminal activities tactics for operational for operational purposes purposes

Organized crime Terrorism

„Black hole” Criminal organization Terrorist group Syndrome alliance alliance

Politics crime Commercial terrorism

Figure 1. Relation between terrorism, organized crime and crime

Sources of terrorist financing are used the public sector and financial and audit through formal and informal systems , come in a control of economic activities in order to variety of origins, from crimes or not. The most prevent tax evasion and eliminate or reduce important are: human - individual and common economic underground activity. Creating a (corporate) voluntary contribution; Diaspora force "of intervention" for the tax sector in (migrant communities with voluntary order to combat money laundering (a kind of contributions) ; ethnic and religious support tax Interpol). (donations and contributions from people with religious and ethnic affinity) ; state partnership BIBLIOGRAPHY (the state supports the terrorist group ) ; public and private donors and individual donors 1. Frunzeti Teodor, Zodian Vladimir. (2011). supporting terrorism, social and religious Lumea 2011. Enciclopedie politică şi organizations; high-level organized crime (fraud, militară. Bucharest: CTEA. drug production and trafficking, kidnapping, 2. Fulga, Vasile. (2009). România raportată armed robbery, person trafficking); investment la fenomenul terorist internaţional. and legal affairs (money are used for the Bucharest: CTEA. acquisition of companies and their involvement 3. Johnston, Michael. (2007). Coruption and in profitable business to fund terrorism) ; NGOs its types. 300. and community organizations (terrorist 4. ***. (1998). The Summary Report of the organizations create phantom organizations that PC-R-EV- Typologies Exercise (PC-R- receive funds from twin NGOs from other EV). countries or infiltrate into community 5. Popa, Ştefan, Cucu, Adrian. (2000). organizations that receive funding). Economia subterană şi spălarea banilor. Bucharest: Expert Publishing House. 3. CONCLUSION 6. Suceavă, Ion, Coman, Florian. (1997). Criminalitatea şi organizaţiile To improve the methods of preventing interna ionale. Bucharest: Romcart money laundering the governmental authority Exim. must be very receptive to the use of the most 7. Voicu, Costică. (2006). Criminalitatea appropriate financial mechanisms and organizată în domeniul afacerilor. taxation, leading to discouraging crime and to Bucharest: Pildner. encouraging the timely reporting of unusual 8. ***. (2004). FATF Report on Money transfers / illegal money. An effective Laundering Typologies 2003-2004. mechanism for capital and financial markets is Polilically Exposed Persons Section. necessary in order to implement a complex and [online]. FATF. URL: http://www.fatf- continuous supervision the ongoing money gafi.org/dataoecd /19/11/ 3362 4379.PDF. laundering used for financing international [consulted on September, 2012]. terrorism. Extending control of corruption in

94 Management and Socio-Humanities

POSSIBILITIES OF COUNTERING THE AIR THREAT AND PREVENTION AGAINST IT

Tomáš SCHÓBER*, Blažej LIPPAY**, Pavel NEČAS***

* CGCI (Central ground-controlled interception), Operation Centre, Zvolen, Slovak Republic, ** National Security Authority, Bratislava, Slovak Republic, *** Armed Forces Academy of General M. R. Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic

Abstract: This article elaborates on all possible air threats, especially the most lethal once, which can cause a serious damage to civilians and national economy – the renegade planes. Safety management system with all its parts is described in the article as the best prevention and protection measure, as well as Quick Reaction Alert procedures, as a last valid tool to face such menace.

Keywords: threat, security, decision making process, safety management system, renegade, quick reaction alert.

1. INTRODUCTION that with the expected growth in air transportation, we will need to make further Civilian aviation is a target of special efforts in adopting new measures to continue importance for terrorists, given the global improving aviation safety. impact of such attacks. Every terrorist attack The use of Safety Management System in the air focuses the attention of the world (SMS) at air traffic management (ATM) can through news coverage and around-the-clock contribute to this effort by helping detect and publicity. Even now, in times of extensive correct safety problems before they result in intelligence and military counter-terrorist aircraft accidents or incidents. activity, it is very difficult to detect and to identify terrorists, and it is often impossible to 2. TYPES OF THREAT SCENARIOS blame concrete persons and organizations for attacks that occur. When considering the most probable Without any doubt, the issue of security is threats to in-flight security in the 21st Century, considered to be a major concern for air we may sum up four most probable threat transport. Consequently, terrorism is scenarios. These include cyber attacks, bomb considered to be the most serious threat to air warnings, “conventional hijacks”, and last, but transport. Many agree that this threat is real, not least, 9/11 type attacks. However, it is persistent, evolving, sophisticated and hardly need to say that these are the most probable predictable. Terrorists use asymmetric and the length of this article does not permit methods which are difficult to reveal and us to focus on all possible threats. defend against them. The seriousness of this In terms of the first listed threat, a cyber threat to air transport, as well as national attack, it is necessary to make clear that security, was demonstrated by terrorist attacks aviation is far more than just planes. It is a on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on sector, which safety and fluency is supported September 11, 2001. A response to 9/11 by a large scale computer network. Every part attacks called for a change in methods, of this network, whether it includes radar, link, trainings and procedures in air traffic and phone lines, which make the entire system management. Now, ten years after, it is clear operable and safe is a potential target. 95 Possibilities of countering the air threat and prevention against it

Cyber attacks have become a global in-flight security incidents are managed has pandemic and no system is immune to them. It greatly changed since the tragic events on is realistic to imagine that hackers would be 9/11. It was the day a civil aircrafts were used able to remove all the protections of a traffic as weapons of mass destruction for the first collision avoidance system (TCAS) which can time in history of aviation. In response to these lead to mid-air collision. A hack into the ATC attacks, NATO has developed a new concept system and consequent misuse of sensitive called “Renegade” for dealing with such a data is something that really needs to be threat. Officially, NATO defines renegade as addressed. In better case it would interfere an aircraft operating in such a manner as to with the ability of controllers to handle their raise suspicion that it might be used as a job and result in massive delays and weapon to perpetrate a terrorist attack. restrictions in air traffic. In the worst case, Important to know is the fact that renegade is especially in combination with jamming up the legislatively considered as civil threat, not the radio frequency, the consequences can be fatal. military. Hence, not NATO, but the nation Besides a loss on human lives, it is logical to itself is responsible for determining the best predict that an economic impact of taking way of action against renegade. Of course, the down the ATC systems would be tremendous. decision to launch the quick reaction alert Bomb warning represents another type of interceptor (QRA/I) is always made by threat. A protection against bomb warning lies appropriated NATO agency, but after mainly on shoulders of ground (airport) successful interception and identification of a security. Only consistent, multilevel suspected aircraft the authority is given to monitoring and scanning of passengers and national command and control centre. Thus, cargo, including banning of all dangerous, the decision to use of weapons and engaging suspected and unaccompanied freight the aircraft lies on the national authorities. shipments could reduce the risk of further such This is because each country has a different events. Intelligence is also one of the key law system, which can differ in such a factors and way how to discover something sensitive issues. doubtful. Attacks on the World Trade Center and Another type of threat is a “conventional” Pentagon and dozens of exercises pointed out hijack. In this case the compliant aircraft is on the biggest problem concerning the chain of directed to designated or required airport with transferring of authority and decision making specialist facilities on the ground to deal with process – time. Time in combination with high siege and negotiations. ATC must promptly speed of the renegade, bad weather conditions, inform all inbound traffic about closure of limited situational awareness and time- airport and surrounding airspace. This may consuming decisions could pose a serious result in significant reduction in capacity due danger especially for smaller countries. to diversions and other restrictions related to Therefore, many nations have signed bilateral ATM. Active defense is based on awareness agreements to cope with cross-border and training, but particularly on use of aircraft incidents. However, this is not enough. The protection officers and locked cockpit doors. international dimension of in-flight security The fourth type of a potential threat is incidents requires coordination at European “9/11” type terrorist attack, which is the main level. If we compare the flight paths of 9/11 type of the threat discussed in this article. aircrafts onto a Western or Central Europe, three or in the worst case five countries would 3. RENEGADE AIRCRAFT be affected by occurrence in a short time frame. One of the main dilemmas regarding in- Within the geographic and political flight security is determining an optimal level conditions of European territory, it is generally of integration of security systems and agreed that there are two options to face this procedures, in order to ensure the speed and challenge. uniformity of protective actions. The way how 96 Management and Socio-Humanities

The first option is to establish a specific should play only supporting role and facilitate transnational joint Pan-European office on the decision making process. juridical base, which would replace national One should keep in mind that there is no Governmental Authorities (NGA) in decision uniform procedure regarding the renegade. making process. Such office would have full Each situation will be always assessed on QRA(I) command competence, but should individual basis and civil just like military respect national legislations in particular controllers must trained to identify suspicious manner with renegade handling. Advantage of behavior and to work in close cooperation. this approach is a possibility of immediate Segregation of airspace around the suspected action against the threat thanks to all relevant aircraft made by civilian ATC is essential for information being “in one place”, minimal rapid approach of the military QRA. downtime and Europe-wide impact. Although, Differences in directives, procedures and rules this option would be very effective, it is highly between these two agencies creates immense unlikely that countries would be willing to problem, which could in some circumstances give up their national powers in favor of this lead to hazard and safety incidents. Therefore, office. an effective SMS must be put in place. The second option is far more complex. It would require a close coordination and 4. SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM cooperation between all participants dealing with international menace. EUROCONTROL1 In order to counter air terrorism, the world and NATO just started to work together and community has strived to create rational and created the NATO EUROCONTROL Air commonly accepted judicial processes and Traffic Management Security Coordinating technical regulations. These „anti-terror Group (NEASCOG), with the mission to procedures“ are being updated as a result of ensure the necessary close coordination and previous, mostly tragic, terrorist attacks, in development of all related security activities order to prevent similar events from occurring with the aim that the member nations of each in the future. Unfortunately, these international organization reach converging views. The regulations have not fully eliminated the NEASCOG promotes, develops and supports threats against aviation. The International effective pan-European security measures in Civilian Aviation Organization (ICAO) plays two focus points. Firstly, it provides a an important role in current counter-terrorist technical support enabling secure and real time operations, primaril-y through elaborating and dissemination and share of information of the finalizing the appendixes and situation on board. Secondly, it establishes a recommendations to existing conventions by framework for dealing with in-flight security means of SMS. Effective use of SMS is a basic incidents via high level concept – Airspace requirement for any modern business. It Security Incident Management (ASSIM). consists in a set of coherent policies, The objective of this concept is to support procedures and practices for effectively the decision making process by providing the managing the safe operation of any business. It national authorities responsible for airspace is not a surprise that the same must be applied security with real time reliable information in an aviation industry. about airspace security incidents. NGAs are ICAO defines SMS as a systematic considered as the end user and the rest actors approach to managing safety including the necessary organizational structure, accountabilities, policies and procedures. In 1 EUROCONTROL - European organisation for the other words, SMS is a systematic, safety of air navigation, is an international organisation comprehensive process for identifying, with 39 European member states, with the intention of managing and removing safety risks, but its creating a single European upper airspace and main goal is not to remove all safety risks, but supporting its member states to achieve safe, efficient and environmentally-friendly air traffic operations manage them under organizational control. across the whole of the European region. SMS is a complex system consisted of 97 Possibilities of countering the air threat and prevention against it subsystems covering wide spectrum of various analyses, training methods, risk managements 4.2 Risk Management. and multiple procedures. In respect to a renegade aircraft, a reader Risk management is a process of should especially pay an attention to following identification, analysis, and elimination or elements of SMS: mitigation of hazards to an acceptable or tolerable level. The objective of Risk 4.1 Security Incident Management. management is to ensure that the risks associated with hazards to flight operations are In-flight security incidents are time critical systematically and formally identified, events that require strong coordination among assessed, and managed within acceptable different actors and the gathering and safety levels. validation of nearly real time information for The complete elimination of risk in decision making process. The main points of aviation operations obviously is an view to handle a security incident include: unachievable and impractical goal. As not all • Optimizing awareness - identification risks can be removed, nor are all possible risk of suspicious aircraft, incident notification, mitigation measures economically practical. In information dissemination, maintaining other words, it is accepted that there will be awareness; some residual risk of harm to people, property • Information requirements - relevant or environment, but this is considered to be information needed to manage and resolve an acceptable or tolerable by the responsible incident; authority and the society. Risk management is • Time factor - required information the main component of the SMS and plays key must reach the appropriate recipient on time to role in addressing the risk in practical terms. In be able to provide adequate response; general, it is a structured approach and • Technology support - automation and systematic action aimed to achieve the balance encryption facilitate information exchange, between the identified and assessed risk and reduce delays and guarantee confidentiality. practicable risk mitigation. Information about situation on board is Risk management consists of three essential and must be gathered both from civil essential elements: and military line. A pilot in command is the • Hazard identification - Identification of key actor, and measure to support him must be undesired or adverse events that can lead to the implemented according to pre-defined occurrence of a hazard and the analysis of scenarios when possible. Risk assessment mechanisms by which these events may occur should evaluate what is the real threat posed and cause harm. Both reactive and proactive by the aircraft in terms of its endurance, methods and techniques should be used for objectives at range, aircraft behavior (i.e. deep hazard identification. descent), confirmation of legitimate pilot in • Risk assessment - Identified hazards command or pilots’ intention and information are assessed in terms of criticality of their about the flight - type of aircraft, nationality, harmful effect and ranked in order of their operator, passengers on board, nationality, risk-bearing potential. They are assessed often VIPs (very important persons), children. by experienced personnel, or by utilizing more Several criteria for suspicious behavior have formal techniques and through analytical been identified, but the list is not and can expertise. The severity of consequences and never be exhaustive. Training, security the likelihood (frequency) of occurrence of awareness and best judgment of pilots and hazards are determined. If the risk is controllers are therefore a key factor to considered acceptable, operation continues manage such situation. without any intervention, if it is not acceptable, risk mitigation process is engaged.

98 Management and Socio-Humanities

• Risk mitigation - If the risk is considered to be unacceptable, then control measures are taken to fortify and increase the 4.4 Disseminating Safety Information. level of defenses against that risk or to avoid or remove the risk, if this is economically Every workplace or a position should be the feasible. focal point for safety-related information — hazard reports, risk assessments or safety 4.3 Risk Analysis Simulation. analyses. Some messages are urgent (before the next flight), some are directive, some are Simulation of various scenarios is the best for background understanding, some are way how to arrange new procedures and seasonal, etc. In most cases, the personnel do challenges concerning not only day-to-day not have time to read all the information, so business, but especially those ones not they are usually divided into two types. Safety exercised in real traffic. The figure below critical information, which are an urgent safety represents an optimal scenario simulation information disseminated by direct messages procedure: (oral, written or electronically) or so-called „Nice-to-know“ information. These are mainly MODIFY incident reports, safety studies, aviation Define risk scenario journals, proceedings of conferences and symposia, manufacturers’ reports and training videos. 4.5 Renegade Decision Procedure – Target Management. Select model/parameters MODIFY

For every air traffic controller (ATC), time is always the biggest constrain when solving an extraordinary or threat situation. People Execute simulation need enough time to analyze, to decide, and to provide another site with important information. The decision process always suffers from lack of time and obviously brings human errors which can lead to accidents or Evaluate results/credibility even fatalities. Correct defining of probable target (according to predicted course, intelligence info or terrorist demands via radio/ visual signals with QRA), using proper counter-measures, analyzing overall risk and Application of results severity of consequences brings stress and errors. There are so-called decision-making supports helping the ATCs used both in military and particularly in civilian sector. Fig. 1. Optimal scenario simulation process SMS is combination of risk and quality management methods in order to achieve the Valid results are recorded and lead to safety goals and provides the organizational change, update or redesigning of existing framework to establish and foster the procedures, system upgrades. Keeping up the development of a positive corporate safety pace of safety as the ability to adapt to new culture. challenge requires steadily growing investments.

99 Possibilities of countering the air threat and prevention against it

5. AIR POLICING AS AN lack of suitable aircrafts or simply because of INDISPENSABLE CONTRIBUTION TO an absence of air force. They are either SAFE EUROPEAN SKIES covered by neighboring alliance member with adequate „equipment“, or by other NATO Airspace Security comprises safeguarding country fighters sitting directly on their of the airspace of responsibility from airports on rotational basis. Apart from unauthorized use, intrusion, illegal activities or financial aspect in both cases, the first any other violation. This involves managing possibility is very ineffective due to longer the airspace to prevent, detect and resolve distances QRA must overcome to reach the where possible airborne threats. To determine violator. a sufficient level of security depends on the actual threat scenario and can heavily impact 6. CONCLUSIONS normal life conditions. It is the responsibility of the relevant international and national civil Aviation targets must be still considered to and military authorities to implement the be highly tempting objects for terrorists. appropriate security measures in response to Aircraft cannot be stopped in mid-air, thus, the the actual threat scenario. final effects of attacks against aircraft are both Hence, importance of Air Policing and the highly destructive and extremely dramatic. At requirement to have air defense assets present, national authorities responsible for available at short notice remains fundamental. security of national airspace are more sensitive For this purpose NATO has at its disposal a to any indication leading to security disquiet, comprehensive system of air surveillance and i.e. loss of communication with aircraft airspace management means as well as QRA (COMLOSS), transponder switch off or assets for immediate use. By means of radar wrongly set deviation from flight plan or any sites, remote data transmission and central suspicious behavior. Nowadays, interceptions command and control centers the Alliance against aircrafts with problems mentioned ensures constant control of its entire airspace above are more frequent and very often to react within seconds to air traffic incidents practiced as live exercise or simulation. in the Allies’ airspace. This structure of Combating air threat requires the use of a weapon systems, control centers and wide range of organizational and technical procedures is referred to as the NATO efforts based on appropriate legislative Integrated Air Defense System (NATINADS). solutions. While terrorist actions are very hard During the Cold War, Air policing was set to predict, universal international legal up as the key air component deterrent against measures that are designed to help protect an adversary mounting a surprise conventional aviation from illegal interference has been put air attack against the territory of the Alliance’s in place. The successful achievement of the members. This role has marginally persisted ATM Security Concept and precise usage of up to this date, but new spectrum of air SMS will allow the responsible organizations policing operations has emerged as a result of to focus on the security threats to the ATM changed threat assessment. system and find viable solutions to make it as Today, the focus is to deter a 9/11 type least vulnerable as possible. The current terrorist attack, verification of questionable strategy and the recent evolution towards flights and help the aircrafts in emergency. single European sky underline the importance Therefore, the NATINADS should be of civil-military interoperability. The restructured to provide optimal air defense application of a more dynamic use of airspace capability against new threats combining SMS will lead to a mixed air traffic environment with civilian and military procedures. It is vital where all airspace users – civil and military - for each country to have supersonic fighters share the same airspace. In this mixed capable conducting these missions. environment it is of utmost importance that Unfortunately, some nations cannot provide civil and military aviation cooperate and themselves air policing missions because of 100 Management and Socio-Humanities coordinate through the use of appropriate Time of the Fundamental Changes in a interoperable systems. Global Security Environment. Journal on The organizational activities dealing with Law, Economy and Management, roč. 1, č. aviation security should also embrace 1. 61-66. prevention against terrorist assaults. Therefore, 5. Morong, S. (2011). Identification of in terms of European continent, there is a need secondary material resources in crisis for inter agency collaboration, coordination management in peace. Public management and communication – common situational 2011: funkcjonowanie organizacji awareness and real time exchange of security publicznych w dynamicznym otoczeniu II information. Another need is for cross-border, międzynarodowa konferencja naukowa: pan-European coordination/co-operation and Szczytno: Wyższa Szkoła Policji w multi agency approach at national and Szczytnie. international level concerning both civilian 6. Olak, A. (2012). Bezpieczeństwo i and military components. zagrożenia społeczne - Zarys problematyki. Rzeszów: AMELIA. BIBLIOGRAPHY 7. Ušiak, J. (2011). Theoretical Definition of Security from the Perspective of Non- 1. ERRIDS. (2005). Management Briefing, military Aspects, Research of non-military EUROCONTROL. Brussels. aspects of security. Banská Bystrica: 2. ICAO. (2006). Safety Management Manual Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici. (SMM), Doc 9859. Quebec: ICAO. 8-33. 3. ICAO. (2008). Threat and Error 8. Zajas, S. (2009). Countering Air Terrorism, Management (TEM) in Air Traffic Control, Connections. The Quarterly Journal, Vol. Cir 314. Quebec: ICAO. VIII, No 4, Fall. 1-10. 4. Ivančík, R. & Kelemen, M. (2011). 9. ***. (2009). Airport Cooperative Research Defence and Security of the State in a Program Volume 2. Washington, D.C.

101 Selected aspects of aviation equipment disposal issue

SELECTED ASPECTS OF AVIATION EQUIPMENT DISPOSAL ISSUE

∗ ∗ ∗∗ Ivan KOBLEN, Libor TALPAŠ, Ján JURČÁK

∗ Faculty of Aeronautics of Technical University, Košice, Slovak Republic , ∗∗ Cadets Company Commander, Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic

Abstract: The main aim of paper is to inform on importance and selected aspects of aviation equipment disposal issue. The first part of paper describes the system life cycle stages, including disposal stage and its specifics. The authors are focusing on the explanation of the main reasons and possibilities in the disposal aviation equipment area. The paper inform on the aim and mission of the main global aircraft producers effort and initiatives in this area - Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA) as a Boeing initiative and PAMELA (Process for Advanced Management of End of Life of Aircraft) project as an Airbus initiative. Due to importance of composite material, which will be the main structure material of future aircraft, the author introduce selected information on aerospace composite recycling issue.

Keywords: life cycle stages, disposal, aviation equipment, dismantling, recycling, composites, projects.

1. INTRODUCTION • Production; • Utilization; The progress of air transport have brought • many advantages and also some Support; disadvantages. Every airliner must have a plan • Disposal (Retirement). of disposal aircraft from their aircraft’s fleet. Each stage represents one essential period The age of an aircraft depends on factors of the life cycle of a system. The partitioning including the chronological age, the number of of the system life cycle into stages is based on flight cycles, and the number of flight hours. the practicality of doing the work in small, Although the aviation equipment is repaired, understandable, timely steps. Stages, in each aircraft reaches the point where further addition, help address uncertainties and risk maintenance will lead to economic losses, associated with cost, schedule, general inefficiency and unreliability of the aircraft. objectives and decisions making. Each stage has a distinct purpose and contribution to the 2. LIFE CYCLE STAGES whole life cycle. The above mentioned stages of system life Every system-of-interest, including cycle are valid also for the aviation equipment, aviation system, has a life cycle. The main but we must take into account the particular document regarding the system life cycle issue specifics towards both the upgrading is the international standard ISO/IEC 15 288 /modernization process (which would be “System Engineering-System Life Cycle started during appropriate time of operation Processes”. In accordance with this standard (utilization), not closely before end of aircraft the whole system life cycle is dividing into a technical life) and process of aircraft aging set of six stages consisting of relevant /reaching the aircraft end-of life point limit. processes and activities (ISO/IEC 15288): Very frequently the process of aircraft • Concept; modernization (with aim to meet the new requirements, to replace aging and unreliable • Development; 102 Management and Socio-Humanities equipment and components, to increase and parts assembling. After production and aircraft reliability, maintainability and testing the product is sold to airliner. Airliner sustainability, to reduce the total life cycle cost starts the Operation (Utilization) and Support a.o.) has been linked with process of technical stages. The aircraft is used for purposes for life extension. which it was designed and manufactured. The life cycle thinking from Production When the aircraft reaches the end-of life point stage is shown on Figure 1. The production limit, the Disposal stage is started. Every stage starts when the raw material is extracted assigned organization and participant is and processed to the particular material. responsible for the particular life cycle stage Manufacturer of aircraft and aviation and relevant processes and activities during equipments continues in the following this stage. activities: product design, product manufacture

Fig. 1 Life cycle stages from production stage

3. DISPOSAL OF AVIATION • Decision to replace the obsolete EQUIPMENT -THE MAIN REASONS aircraft or to replace aircraft fleet from other AND POSSIBILITIES reasons (ineffectiveness of fleet, low demand of air transport, accidents, et cetera). Each product (include aircraft) passes a life Currently over 2,000 aircraft are in storage cycle. The process of disposal of the aircraft is world-wide, and the number of military the final phase of the life cycle. Like all aircraft in storage is considerably greater. Over products, civil aircraft come to the end of their the next 20 years, approximately 5,000 useful working lives. The reasons for this may commercial airliners are expected to be include: withdrawn or retired from service at a rate of • Increasing maintenance (operating) and approximately 250 per year (Towle, 2007). repair costs; Current technological development has • Difficulties to meet new/changed meant that there is a situation where a moral legislative and environmental requirements; depreciation is not identical to the physical • Difficulties to meet upgrading depreciation. Science and technology plays a requirements and expensive technology major role in determining the end of life value upgrades; of an aircraft. • Difficulties with the production and As with any product, an aircraft depreciates procurement of spare parts; in value with time. The reduction in value • Increasing content of time or service arises from a number of factors including the expired parts; increased cost of maintenance, repair and upgrading to comply with legislation. At some

103 Selected aspects of aviation equipment disposal issue stage, maintenance, repair and upgrading will decrease over these years, parking fees become uneconomic and at this point the and maintenance costs have to be paid and the owner will consider taking the aircraft out of condition of the aircraft worsens. The biggest service. The term „End of Life Management cost factor, however, is the cost of ownership. Framework“ has been used and applicable in The longer an aircraft is parked, the harder this specific issue. it will be to obtain a good price. Especially When the aircraft reaches the end of when more and more of that type of aircraft technological life, the owner of aircraft in are withdrawn from service and are offered on cooperation with aircraft producers has the the market. Storing an aircraft is expensive and following possibilities: will often result in selling the aircraft for a • the aircraft is stored at the special value lower than could be reached when parking areas or at the boneyard; disassembled directly after the last flight, • the aircraft is stored, the usable parts especially when the cost of parking, until the are taken out and then will create a wreck; aircraft is sold, is incorporated in the financial • the aircraft is disposal and usable parts balance. The largest boneyards are in deserts are recycling. (Figure 2), because the progress of corrosion Many aircraft owners are trying after in hot and dry places is slighter than the places reaching the end of aircraft technological life with normal or wet climate. The other benefit to find a new operator or new owner. If no or reason why the aircraft are storaged at the new operator is found before the aircraft's last boneyards is a visual pollution. These service flight, the aircraft will often be stored boneyards are usually too far from the cities. somewhere waiting for a new user, sometimes The boneyards have been in operation from for years. Fact is that the value of the aircraft 1950s.

Fig. 2 Boneyard in Mojave desert, California

The better solution of disposal is salvaging owner's supervision, directly after aircraft last of aircraft. The ecological disposal, flight. It might very well be possible that the dismantling, recycling and re-using of component value of the (parked) aircraft aircraft´s parts from global view started in first exceeds its market value as a flyer. The years of this century. decision between selling and dismantling the In the case of dismantling of aircraft it is aircraft should be primary made on possible to sell the components under the economical drivers. 104 Management and Socio-Humanities

4. MAJOR GLOBAL AIRCRAFT Assemblies. This document is a guide for the PRODUCERS PROJECTS IN AVIATION AFRA members. EQUIPMENT DISPOSAL ISSUE 4.2 PAMELA Project. PAMELA (Process for Advanced Management of End of Life of Major global aircraft producers created a Aircraft) is an Airbus -initiated project to test special projects focused on aviation equipment environmentally-friendly recycling procedures disposal issue and take the initiative to with retired airliners. This initiative is establish international organization for supported by the European Union’s LIFE dismantling aircraft in an efficient and (l'Instrument Financier pour l'Environnement) environmentally-sound manners. programme. The objective of the PAMELA 4.1 AFRA. AFRA (Aircraft Fleet project is to ensure that end-of life aircraft do Recycling Association) is a Boeing initiative. not end up visibly corroding and polluting AFRA comprises a voluntary group of airfields, degrading the environment and brand companies and individuals that have agreed to image. The project aim is to demonstrate that work in a cooperative fashion to provide full between 85 and 95 percent of airframe aircraft product life cycle capability. AFRA is components can be easily recycled, reused or recognized as the leading global industry recovered. association (members of this Association are Equipment and products such as the the global leaders of aircraft recycling, electronics system, tyres, batteries, CFC dismantling and reusing) dedicated to pursuing (chlorofluorocarbon) and hydraulic fluids from and promoting environmental best practice, aircraft have to go through a controlled regulatory excellence and sustainable processing channel. Also serviceable, working developments in aircraft disassembly, as well spares and components recovered from end of as the salvaging and recycling of aircraft parts life aircraft will be catalogued and tracked as and materials. In this regard the AFRA´s aim they are put back into the second hand parts is to demonstrate that the 90 to 95 percent of supply chain. PAMELA will also help launch aircraft components are recycled. The AFRA a European network to disseminate main goal and mission is the sustainable information about commercial airframe management of end-of-life airframes and dismantling at their end of life. engines and to create the conditions for co- Airbus and its partners had built a operations with industries and governments. dedicated dismantling facility at Tarbes airport This Association collates, consolidates, in France to undertake the project and plan for promotes and publishes the collective this facility to become a centre of excellence experience of its members in its Best for commercial aircraft dismantling and Management Practice (BMP) Guides for recycling. Figure 3 shows the aircraft disposal Management of Used Aircraft Parts and process map.

Fig. 3 Aircraft disposal process map

105 Selected aspects of aviation equipment disposal issue

5. COMPOSITE RECYCLING GLARE (a glass fibre and aluminium composite) material (for the upper fuselage The importance of aerospace composite section and horizontal tail section) and widely recycling is increasingly owing to the rapidly has been used fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) increasing use of these materials in the composite (for the central wing box and in commercial aerospace sector. Future products parts of the fuselage). One of the major from Airbus, Boeing, Embraer, etc are reasons that GLARE was chosen is its announced to use up to 50 % unladen weight resistance to fatigue crack growth and a of polymeric based composites in their density reduction of 10% compared to primary structures. These type of materials conventional aluminium alloys. currently pose very significant recycling and Figure 4 shows the increasing of using of recovery challenges. composites in Airbus aircraft. When the A300 The end of life problems concerned with model had less than 5 % composits on total composites are set to increase and new weight, the A380 model has 22 % composits approaches and technologies to resolve on total weight of aircraft. composite end of life problems must start to be The Boeing 787 materials design is based developed now. The increased use of substantially on carbon fibres in an epoxy composites is driven by weight reduction, resin matrix for the fuselage and a composite reduction in the number of components, wing. New production techniques have been reduced maintenance costs and potential developed to produce the composite fuselage, improvements in fatigue behaviour. It has been including composite fuselage sections 6.7m suggested [3] that by 2020, the use of long and nearly 6m wide, carbon fibres. composites will give production aircraft of that Approximately 50 % of total weight are date a fuel burn advantage of between 10% composits. Figure 5 shows the material design and 15 % over their year 2000 counterparts. of Boeing 787. The A 380 has been manufactured from the

Fig. 4 Increasing use of composites in Airbus aircraft

106 Management and Socio-Humanities

Fig. 5 Composite use in the Boeing 787

The main advantages of composite provides relatively high quality of recycled materials are high strength, resistance, composites. Economic efficiency of recycling excellent fatigue properties, low modulus of will increase because the implementation of elasticity and good chemical resistance. composits in aviation industry will increase. Composite materials also offer economic Carbon fiber used in the aviation industry benefits for long-term using. The most has achieved higher quality level in advantage for airliners is less resistance to comparison with carbon fiber used in the airflow, which means a lower specific fuel automotive industry. The processing of 1000 t consumption. These materials are important of waste per year can recycle up to 600 t of not only for manufacturers or airliners, but carbon fibers. The quality of recycled carbon they are very important for companies, which fiber from aircraft is higher than the new provide dismantling, disposal and recycling carbon fiber used in the mobile phones, procedures. It is necessary to support computers or sports equipments´s production development of the composits recycling. The and recycled carbon fiber is cheaper. composit´s storaging in a landfill is not a optimal solution. 6. COMPOSITE RECYCLING There are now a lot of European funded research projects, which are looking for The process of disposal of the aviation develop commercially viable routes to equipment as the final phase of its life cycle is recovering carbon fibres from thermoset very important due to several factors and composites such as the work undertaken at reasons. These factors must be take into INASMET Tecnalia in Spain. This work account not only during the processes and investigated three potential recycling activities as part of disposal phase, but techniques (Towle, 2007): especially during the concept, development, • a nitric acid treatment to testing and production phases. dissolve/remove the thermoset resin; Major global aircraft producers created a • thermal pyrolysis; special projects focused on aviation equipment • disposal issue and take the initiative to an incineration process. establish international organization for The best technique for composites dismantling aircraft in an efficient and recycling was determined pyrolysis which 107 Selected aspects of aviation equipment disposal issue environmentally-sound manners. Main aim of 4. Horwitz, Daniela. (2007). The end of the both AFRA Association and PAMELA line – aircraft recycling initiatives. In: project, which are the most reputable in this Aircraft Technology Engineering & area, is to increase an efficiency of recycling Maintenance. April / May. and re-using of the aviation equipment and 5. ISO/IEC. (2001). International standard both must provide the best environmental and ISO/IEC 15288 “System Engineering- economical solutions resulting to elaboration System Life Cycle Processes”. [online]. of Best Management Practice Guides for CiteSeer. URL: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/. Management of Used Aircraft Parts and [consulted on March, 2012]. Assemblies. 6. Miglorancia, F. R. (2010). Life Monitoring Current direction of production of civil Program: A Proposal for Product and of aircraft has a direct impact on future solutions Life Management. XVI International of aircraft’ s disposal. It is very important to Conference on Industrial Engineering and solve recycling of composite materials used in Operation Management, Challenges and the airframe of aircraft and it systems and Maturity of Production Engineering: components. competitiveness of enterprises, working In conjunction with the technological part conditions, environment. São Carlos, SP, of disposal is needed to pay attention also to Brazil, 12 to 15 October – 2010. [online] legislative issue and procedures of aircraft´s URL:http://www.abepro.org.br/biblioteca/ disposal on the international and national enegep2010_TI_ST_113_740_17486.pdf levels (this issue is not a part of paper). Civil [consulted on March, 2012]. Aviation Authorities has been established the 7. Schóber, T., Nečas, P., Grega, M., procedures for dismantling and disposal of Kelemen, M. (2011). Present and future of aircraft. If the aircraft owner intends to aircraft carriers as a floating diplomatic dismantle or disposal the aircraft, the owner and military means of deterrence. In: Incas must notify procedures to the Civil Aviation bulletin. Vol. 3, Iss. 4 (2011). Avaliable: Authority and inform which organization will http://bulletin.incas.ro/archives.html. perform the dismantling or disposal. The 8. Schóber, T., Grega, M., Nečas, P. (2012). notification of execution of dismantling or Do they present real threat? In Scientific disposal must include all needed information research and education in the air force and organizations capable for execution of AFASES 2012, 24-26 May 2012, Brasov. controlled dismantling or disposal must be 9. Towle., I.. (2007). The Aircraft at End of certified in accordance with relevant aviation Life Sector: a Preliminary Study. [online]. regulations. IT Services/ University of Oxford. URL: http://users.ox.ac.uk/~pgrant/Airplane%20 BIBLIOGRAPHY end%20of%20life.pdf. [consulted on March, 2012]. 1. Green, J. E. (2006). Civil aviation and the 10. ***. (2009). Airplane boneyard in the environment – the next frontier for the Mojave desert. [online] Michael John aerodynamicist. Aeronaut J. August 2006. Grist. URL: http://www.michaeljohngrist Vol. 110, (Number 1110) pp. 469 – 486. .com/2009/10/airplane-boneyard-in-the- 2. Grega, M., Schober, T., Nečas, P., mojave-desert. [consulted on March, Antoško, M. (2011). Simulators and 2012]. trainers – how improve the safety of air 11. ***. (2012). Aircraft Fleet Recycling services. In Proceedings of the Association. (AFRA) URL: international scientific conference http://www.afraassociation. org/ [consulted MOSATT 2011. 20-22 September 2011. on March, 2012]. Zlatá Idka, Slovakia. 12. ***. (2012). Aircraft End-of/Life Solutions 3. Havelka, V., Veselý, J., Žihla, Z. (2011). (AELS): URL: thttp://www.aels.nl/en Etapy života letadel. Praha: Vysoká škola [consulted on March, 2012]. obchodní v Praze. 108 Management and Socio-Humanities

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND STATISTIC INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE DETACHMENT FROM THE OTHER’S OPINION – THE BASIS OF LEADERSHIP

Daniela BELU

Department of Military Sciences and Management, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper has the purpose of transmitting information and ideas about the capacity to seduce characteristic of the persons with leadership skills. What impresses, enlivens, fascinates and hypnotizes in a person with leadership skills is the profound side of his/her charm, which works as a magnet wit :the harmony between what one thinks and does.

Keywords: management, seduction, leadership, charisma, leader, authenticity.

1. INTRODUCTION judging them, thus creating a dialogue- enabling climate, fascinating through their What impresses, enlivens, fascinates and inner freedom. Otherwise, it is the case of the hypnotizes in a person with leadership skills is “evil seducer” or the manipulator, and people the profound side of his/her charm, which will feel apathetic, suffocated, paralyzed, works as a magnet with five attitudinal without initiative, deprived of the freedom of properties: expression, obligated to behave according to a 1. The belief that one needs not be scenario to their detriment, yet serving the entirely agreeable. needs of the one manipulating them. 2. The capacity to count on oneself alone What is absent in the immediate reality is to cope life’s problems. the charm, the pleasure of expressing 3. The sincerity and creativity in ourselves through work, given by the expressing personal opinions and solving existence, around us, of charismatic people problems. who are as important as salt is to the food. 4. The harmony between what one thinks That is why I considered this scientific and does. analysis of leadership necessary, setting out A leader is an unperturbed person, from the personal magnetism of some people regardless of the manner in which he/she is who have innate leadership skills. regarded by those around, not seeking the total The seduction exerted on fellow creatures, approval or disapproval of the others. A person from a non-erotic perspective, is in fact the with leadership skills does not seek to be charismatic leaders’ mutual act of leading and agreeable to everyone around, expects nothing being led. As interaction, this implies the use from his/her fellow-creatures, which is why of some subtle charm in order to influence the he/she will not attempt to constraint anyone to others, to make them regard you with gratitude behave according to a pre-established scenario for the inner fascination you induced when that suits his/her personal needs. This is the they considered you the symbol of a world that fundament of respect for the other, as an they didn’t know, but that they were coveting. attitude specific of strong leader personalities, Seduction must be understood as something as people who listen to those around without that comprises a certain degree of

109 The psychological and statistic instruments used to measure detachement from other’s opinion... autosuggestion. This can be explained by closer. On the contrary, they do all they can to starting from the objective reality according to send them away. The paradox is that these which the group transposes to a state of mind individuals, who do all they can to isolate that is presumed to have been generated by the themselves, consider that the greatest threat charismatic leader, but in effect has been that lurks is for them not to be accepted, or to intensified by the group itself. All is possible be rejected, abandoned and humiliated by when seduction is involved: others. This majority of people build a - individuals might be seduced against scenario in their minds according to which their will; they cannot be loved, given the fact that they - leaders might seduce a given group do not deserve to be loved. They are the same without even aiming for it and they may find people who surrender to the subjective themselves triumphant without having planned perception that a charming, seductive fellow- or wished to. creature, the leader, possesses something that The type of seduction that leadership is they need. built upon has nothing to do with eroticism If he/she possesses those qualities that can and it consists of any sudden change or swing turn him/her into the representation of the of attitude of a human being, such as any: personal fictions of the group members, the sudden conversion, contribution in the name of person in question will exercise, consciously a cause, moral metamorphosis. The capacity to or not, a certain fascination, seducing through seduce is characteristic of the persons with the fact that he/she can reflect the image of the leadership skills, as it is innate and it consists leader who embodies the strong emotional of the personal charm some of us are born with currents awaken by the subjective perception and that we increase by means of cultural of the individuals from within the group. It is a polishing up, materializing it in the sensation demonstrated fact that to be a leader is a talent, of dominating charm exercised more or less such as playing the piano or writing poetry. consciously over other individuals. The Personal charm cannot be acquired by storing seducer controls the seduced. To be the desired up competences. Constructed charm is or is person is a subtle form of control. It is equally not artificial and cannot replace authentic true that the seducer, as the person seducing inter-human relating. others, seduces himself/herself too, depending We are currently witnessing the apparition more or less on the strength of his/her desire of literature on seduction techniques that for power. The stronger the desire is, the more promise the impossible, that is to transmit the we may speak of a malignant form of competence to seduce to anybody, even to narcissism and manipulation. The seducer’s those individuals who lack charm, i.e. to portrayal segregated on genders appears: certain people who fear the idea of not being fragile and distinguished as a passive, accepted by the group they are a part of, who defensive alternative of charm, even more dread rejection, humiliation abandonment, redoubtable, (in women), energetic, fanatic, who lack self-confidence, nurturing the belief determined and clairvoyant, as an active and that they do not deserve to be loved and are offensive alternative to charm, (in men). not entitled to hope to ever be loved. It is cruel Scientific research in the field of social to promise sight to the blind, on condition they psychology has demonstrated that, similarly to attentively read a couple of books. the world of bees, where the vast majority is Undoubtedly, the principles promoted by made up of nurses and only a minority this type of scientific literature on the represents the queens, in the world of human seduction techniques are correct, but they beings, three quarters of the individuals lack exclusively address people born talented and charm, having nothing seductive in them. This charismatic. Otherwise, persons who type of people is terrified of inter-human unconsciously avoid seduction applying them relations that imply proximity, because they will turn them into anti-seduction techniques. regard them as hazardous and therefore do Thus, a person who lacks charm, is insecure or nothing in order to bring their fellow-creatures has no self-confidence may intend certain 110 Management and Socio-Humanities gestures to attract others, but by monitoring Without the strong emotions nurtured by their accomplishment he/she will make the the group towards the leader, any activity charm of the interaction disappear and will let becomes unattractive. To manipulate is to use show the rigidity and lack of spontaneity. people by seducing them, including erotically, Seduction techniques are for those who try to to the end of using them for purposes that are make it look as if they were born charming, not their own. It is essential not to mistake serving as a shield that the false seducers will manipulation for seduction, the latter being put between themselves and those whom they most often beneficial for the one experiencing wish to manipulate, so that they would feel it, as it elevates him/her to another spiritual safe and avoid being attracted or touched, thus dimension. To seduce is to propose another a losing control. higher level of existence that relies on such Similarly dangerous is the excessive use of aspects as living more intensely and expecting the genuine native charm, with the purpose of more from life. dominating those in the proximity, as an What differentiates a manager from a obsessive need for power, case in which the leader is charisma, that is the individuals’ manipulator will seduce himself/herself magnetism, that certain ‘je ne sais quoi’, a beyond limits, ending up smashed by the force mystery even for the one blessed with innate of his/her own desire for power. This is the charm, based on character traits, which he /she situation that designates the concept of tries to hide and not on something he/she exacerbated, malignant narcissism, where would be convinced to show, as a personal seduction operates as a defence system against advantage. The leader’s charisma relies on painful feelings of rejection, abandonment and authenticity and that is because artifice and depression, in an attempt to convince the ill control have nothing to do with seduction, as a ego that it is attractive, wanted, loved and full phenomenon developed in the depths of of life, by means of confirmation of the personality. personal value regarded as a toll of the manipulated victims, gathered in large 2. SURVEY DEPICTION numbers on display on “the hunting trophy wall”. Seduction and manipulation are possible The survey aims to evaluate the charisma manifestations of the individuals’ personal of future officers of the Air Force and the strength, both deriving from the innate charm Army, military leaders with a degree in and aiming to influence the other. The ‘organizational management’. The analyzed difference is given by the pursued purpose, data contain the items of the 8 psychological which depends on the strength of the tests combined, aiming the 5 dimensions that individual’s personality, expressed in measure the magnetism of the personalities of dimensions such as self-confidence, the subjects from within the two groups. congruence, authenticity and morality. 2.1 The instruments used for the data The seducer might make use of the collection. A battery of psychological tests has attraction created in order to exercise his been prepared, containing the adapted variants power over those seduced, either by keeping of the components below: the effect of the seduction to himself, or by - Psychological test evaluates the giving up on his own glory and orienting „addiction to the others’ opinion” dimension, his/her strength toward higher prizes. In the (the bibliographic source of origin is the first case, we are talking about manipulation, ‘Corpus of psychological tests to get to know while in the latter we speak of mentors, yourself better’, by Gilles D’Ambra, 2008:26). masters, professors, vibrant leaders, who The evaluation scale is of 3 points deviate their disciples’ fascination away from distributed as below: their own person, from their knowledge, to the idea that those whom they have inspire will be 1 2 3 able to do things they were not aware they Masochist Uneasy Susceptible could. 111 The psychological and statistic instruments used to measure detachement from other’s opinion...

The battery of psychological tests used for 22. ♦ When criticised, you tend to get the collection of the data needed to verify the slightly annoyed (even if you do not show it). hypotheses materializes in the adapted 23. ♦ When someone does something instrument, presented in the succession of the stupid, you can’t help saying a word. 8 items below: 24. ● Physically, you are not a very brave Check each statement that suits you: person. 1. ● At school, just like at the office, you 25. ○ When you are asked very direct or are better at writing than at speaking. personal questions, you tend to get emotional . 2. ♦ Your acquaintances often reproach you 26. ○ You cannot stand being tickled (they for not listening enough. make you hysterical). 3. ○ You do not manage to look somebody 27. ● You often feel your stomach is tied in the eye for more than 3 seconds. in knots. 4. ♦ At the restaurant you often spill your 28. ○ You have had tetany crises. glass on the table (unintentionally). 29. ● You do not feel comfortable around 5. ♦ You are an only child. people of another race (strangers in general). 6. ○ On the street or at the office you feel 30. ♦ When someone makes a mistake, you uneasy when you get the feeling that find it hard to forgive them. somebody is watching you. 2.2 Interpretation of the answers. 7. ♦ Your friends have often reproached Interpretation of items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, that you are too sarcastic or that you are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, scornful. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30: The number 8. ● Before an exam or an interview, you of times that the „♦”, „○”, „●” answer was are not able to get any sleep (you get up at 5 chosen will be calculated. The subject goes am). under the category designated by the highest 9. ○ Compliments make you feel bad. number of answers. If the difference between 10. ○ Generally, you consider your success the number of answers given at two categories to be more a matter of fortune than the result is smaller than 2, than the subject is of your efforts or merits. ambivalent. 11. ○ You often have a feeling of Most answers are „♦”, the susceptible type: embarrassment. - characteristics: very demanding of 12. ● You get cold feet when you know him/herself / demands are always higher and you have to talk in front of more than two higher / feels guilty about not having done people. what he/she had intended to / feels guilty about 13. ● You often get car-sick. infringing certain moral rules (when lying) / 14. ♦ Occupationally, you would have feels guilty about not having done things as liked to become an actor/actress. well as he/she could have / has the tendency to 15. ♦ You often quarrel over petty things. blame the people around when he/she makes 16. ○ When you compare yourself to others mistakes (which you frequently do), it is almost always - for this type it would be advisable to: to your disadvantage. accept his/her own limits / stop trying to make 17. ● If you were to choose between a cat excuses when feeling incriminated, (by and a dog, you would pick the dog. reacting to easily and becoming aggressive). 18. ♦ At school you almost always had the - in a scale measuring the individual’s best grades in the class. dependence on the others’ opinions, the 19. ● You rather work alone than in a subject scores 6 points. team. Most of the answers are „○”, the 20. ○ When you buy clothes, you often feel masochistic type sorry afterwards. - characteristics: exacerbated shyness / 21. ● When you have a party invitation, blames him/herself for all the mistakes, even you most often turn it down. when being innocent / is very much ashamed when making mistakes and is overwhelmed by 112 Management and Socio-Humanities

remorse and shame for being ashamed / is not t calculated ≤ t critical → the null hypothesis is self-assured or confident in what he/she can accepted achieve. t calculated > t critical → the null hypothesis is - For this type it would be advisable to: rejected become aware of his/her own moral standards The ‘t’ test is applied in its forms and exigencies / accept the fact that feeling comparing the average calculated in a single guilty when making mistakes is absolutely sample. normal / understand that the people who really values2 − ()2 Sgr/values love us do not expect us to be perfect (i.e. not SD = ∑∑ to make any mistakes or not have any −1Sgr weaknesses). t calculated ≤ t critical → the null hypothesis is - in a scale measuring the individual’s accepted dependence on the others’ opinions, the t calculated > t critical → the null hypothesis is subject scores 2 points. rejected Most of the answers are „●”, the restless type 3. CONCLUSIONS OF THE - characteristics: anxious / fears the HYPOTHESIS VERIFIED WITHIN THE others’ opinions / is afraid of sanctions / is STUDY pessimistic. - for this type it would be advisable to: Are the majority of the subjects persons learn that mistaking is not bad, because most who do not depend on the others’ opinions in of the times any mistake can be repaired. both groups or not? This hypothesis may have - in a scale measuring the individual’s the significances below: dependence on the others’ opinions, the - The null hypothesis: ‘self-exigency, subject scores 4 points. tendency to feel guilty when not doing what The statistic instruments used to measure they wish or when breaching their moral the probability of error of the results: barriers’. [value( ⋅ )subiectsofnumber ]- Rejection of the null hypothesis: ‘feeling agevarA = ∑ (1) Samplegroup of guilt for the errors they have not even committed, burning embarrassment about the (− agevaravalue ) dardtanS deviation = ∑ (2) mistakes they have made, tormenting remorse, −1valueofnumber anxiety, pessimism and fear of the others’ Variance = opinions’. Two study groups were formed whose ⎡ values2 − ()values 2 ⎤ ∑∑ (3) subjects are military students. They agreed to ⎢ − 1valuesofnumber ⎥ = ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ take part in the study: −1valuesofnumber Group 1- made of 13 non-flying, military The “t” test is applied in its form in which aviation students (air traffic controllers) and two averages calculated in two separate, artillerymen of the Air forces. independent groups are compared by applying Group 2 – made of 24 infantry military the formula (Note : Standard deviation = Sd, students of the Army. Standard common deviation = SCd, Sample Addicted to others’ opinion group=Sgr, Deviation Sample group = DSgr): Sample 1 (efective=13) − Score Efective % = 2sampleofagevara1sampleofagevara t 3 5 38,46% 1 1 SCd ⋅ + 2 8 61,53% Sample 1group Sample 2group Sample 2 (efective=24) Score Efective % () (−⋅+−⋅ 12Sg2SgrD11Sgr1DSgr ) 3 13 54,16% SCd = ()−+ 22Sg1Sgr 2 9 37,5% 1 2 8,33% 113 The psychological and statistic instruments used to measure detachement from other’s opinion...

‘feeling of guilt for the errors they have not Self-confidence in sample 1 : even committed, burning embarrassment about values 22 2 18253 =⋅+⋅= the mistakes they have made, tormenting ∑ =+=⋅+⋅= remorse, anxiety, pessimism and fear of the 7732458459 others’ opinions’. 2 2 ()∑values ()2 ==⋅+⋅= 961318253 4,0351639>3,77 − 13/96177 − 931,7377 Sample 1 Average = 2,384, Standard Sd = = = deviation = 0,5063759 12 12 Sample 2 Average = 2,458, Standard 077,3 deviation = 0,6580273 == 2564166,0 = 5063759,0 12 +−⋅ −⋅ )124(6580273,0)113(5063759,0 SCd = = − −+ = 3384,2 = 2)2413( tcalculated 13/5063759,0 +⋅ ⋅ = 6580273,0125063759,0 23 = − 616,0 − 616,0 = = = 35 6055512,3/5063759,0 1404434,0 = 7784808,0 −= 3861085,4 = tcalculated -t calculated = - (-4,3861085) = 4,3861085 − = 458,2384,2 = t critical = 4,32 +⋅ 6580273,0125063758,0 ⋅ 23 1 1 -t calculated > t critical → We therefore +⋅ conclude that a risk of error of 1%, is in 35 13 24 sample 1 - Rejection of the null hypothesis: = − 074,0 = ‘feeling of guilt for the errors they have not ⋅ 3443684,07784808,0 even committed, burning embarrassment about − = 074,0 −= 2760327,0 the mistakes they have made, tormenting 2680841,0 remorse, anxiety, pessimism and fear of the -t calculated = -(-0,2760327)=0,2760327 others’ opinions’. t critical = 2,73 4,3861085≤ 4,32 -t calculat ≤ t critic → With an error risk Self-confidence in sample 2: of 1% we conclude that 38,46% in Sample 1 ∑values 22 2 2 2192133 =⋅+⋅+⋅= and 54,16% în Sample2 Null Hypothesis is accepted: ‘self-exigency, tendency to feel =+⋅+⋅= 155294139 guilty when not doing what they wish or when ()2 22 ==⋅+⋅+⋅= ∑values 348159)2192133( breaching their moral barriers’. − 24/3481155 − 041,145155 0,2760327≤ 2,73. Sd = = = 23 23 BIBLIOGRAPHY 959,9 === 6580273,0433,0 23 1. D’Ambra, Gilles. (2008). Corpus of − psychological tests to get to know yourself = 3458,2 = tcalculated better’. Bucharest: Litera International 24/6580273,0 Publishing House. − 542,0 − 542,0 = = = 2. Kets de Vries, Manfred. (2003). 8989794,4/6580273,0 1343192,0 Leadership, arta şi măiestria de a −= 0351639,4 conduce. Bucharest: Codex.. 3. Goleman, Daniel. (2001). Inte3ligen a -t calculated = - (-4,0351639) = 4,0351639 emo ională. Bucharest: Curtea veche t critical = 3,77 Publishing House. . t calculated > t critical → We therefore conclude that a risk of error of 1%, is in sample 2 - Rejection of the null hypothesis:

114 Management and Socio-Humanities

MENTORING AN ALTERNATIVE PEDAGOGICAL CHANGE

Carmen Maria CHIŞIU

Department of Teaching Training, “Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu, Romania

Abstract: The mentoring is seen as a process, whose essence consists in transmitting abilities and information from persons with superiority training and experience to debutantes and novices in the respective circumstance. Mentoring, as subsystem of the Project for Rural Education , has comprised within the formative process in Sibiu county 1315 persons as teaching staff from the rural medium, schoolteachers and teachers, according to purposes and contents of general didactic. The change of behavior has as purpose the exemplary achievement of the response to the needs in a certain moment, to requests, problems and new tasks.

Keywords: behavior, experience, mentoring, to change one’s mind.

1. INTRODUCTION As far as our interest domain is concerned, the successful mentors cannot be others than This study has in its view the impact that the teachers, trainers, formatives, protector the mentoring programme had on didactic models, who can offer opportunities and careers. The impact was measured taking into advice for the development of others, having consideration the statements of the teachers as background their training and experience, involved in the programme. and they are compatible to identify the situations and current events, which are to be 2. WHAT IS MENTORING? made or are possible. These can interfere in the life of the novices, offering them 2.1. The essence of the mentoring seen as knowledge and experience, in order to deal a process regards the conveyance of abilities successfully with the complexity, with the and information from high-prepared and current events and with the future virtuality, in experienced people to debutants or novices in the professional and social life, in the the respective circumstance. Mentoring as a community from which they belong to, and in sub-component of the Project for Rural the outside medium, where they are Education had as target 1315 teachers from developing their activity. Mentors are rural medium of Sibiu county. The theme of advisors, professional experienced people, the moulding programme regards the goals and owners of some psycho-social, communicative the contents of general didactics. Changing the and moral qualities, and therefore they are first behaviour’s goal is to achieve in an exemplary of all identity models, support and information way the answer to the needs from a certain resource, professional human type capable to moment, to the problems, to the requirements, entertain a dynamic relationship between or the new appeared tasks. In its essential himself, as a person eager for leading, and meaning, mentoring is seen as a process. Its another person, desirous to learn, before he essence is to convey abolities and information stumbles on the difficulties. A friendship from high-prepared and experienced people to relation between the mentor and the person debutants or novices in the respective who is taught, is not excluded, on the contrary, circumstance. it is healthy. (Nicola, 2004)

115 Mentoring an alternative pedagogical attitude change

We can extract some constants, some and they are helping us to de-codify and fundamental characteristics from the interprete the marks met on the road, they are thoughtful and syntagmathic components of advertising us about the dangers that might the various definition: appear, and they are pointing out the • Mentoring is a communicative, unexpected pleasure during our journey.” interpersonal relation, one to one, or one to (Gehrke, 1988:27) two or more persons, from which one is more The researchers, from the inter-disciplinary professional mature (mentor), but not field of educational sciences, consider necessarily older than the others; mentoring, alongside of what the American • At a circumstantial level, it can be English „coaching” means, the first indicated a crisis situation or a transition components of the children’s education, of period , in work or in thinking or action mode evergrowing and permanent education. These of the person who has needs, who is searching concepts, mainly specialized in the last three- th or is asking for help; four decades of the 20 century, are brought in • A mentoring relation develops during a the public attention, although the problems of period of time, when the needs of the person these syntagms have been known since the who is taught and the relation of the nature are beginning of what specialists call modern th to be changed. Mentor has to be conscious of education, in the second half of the 19 these changes, and to diversify the grade and century. (Les, Leibowitz, 1983:28/4). type of the attention, support, advice, We are always talking about the manner information and encouragement he offers. we think and why do we change our minds. • The mentoring process can be The meaning of this simple assertion is clear developed also on a determined period of time, enough: our mind seems to be concerned to act when he has as purpose the achieving of into a certain direction, and after a certain concrete pre-established goals, which belong procedure, the mind is oriented to a different to the both categories of members of didactical direction. How simple the change of mind relation, also of the mentor, but especially of formula would appear to a superficial analysis, the person who is taught, in order to develop, the change of mind phenomenon, as a to change. (Kay & Hinds, 2007) rethinking and reorienting of the thinking Without any doubt, the mentoring does not vector, is one of the less examined and non- have to be perceived as a knowledge understandable experiences. transmission, even though this thing happens What does „to change our mind” mean? somehow. Mentoring must have as axial What happens when we „change our principle the application of some knowledge, mind”? the achievement of a set of correlation Isn’t that true that when we accept between knowledge and their applicability, „changing our mind”, we actually accept offering support, the encouragement of change changing? and looking for new experiences, Hic et Hunc, Is „the change of mind” produced by their here and now. own cognitives, is it produced by the ideas The change of behaviour has as purpose suggested by those from surroundings? the exemplary achievement of the response to What determines a person to „change his the needs in a certain moment, to requests, mind” and to act according to this problems and new tasks. With this imperative, reorientation? the mentor must conceive and exert his What does the „change of mind” vocation; even though this seems too imbibed production favourise? Questions....Questions! into a romantic realism and little metaphoric Of course, the minds are changing with grandiloquence, to us it is very interesting the difficulty. statement: „Mentors are guides, who are But many aspects of our lives are oriented leading us during the journey of our life...They through this procedure- to convince a are our hopes, the are brightening our way colleague to report himself to a subject and a new attitude, or to try ourselves to let behind 116 Management and Socio-Humanities our own preconceptions. Some of us are really learning activity, the assurance of some involved in the effort of convincing the people diversified educational resources and their to change their minds: the teacher who unveils employment, in order to broaden the to the pupils new methods of analysing some management knowledge of the class, to familiar subjects, the therapeutic, who improve the training strategies and teaching- influences the manner in how a patient is evaluation methods, to assure the requisite redefining himself, the seller or the advertising support for projecting and implementation of producer, who persuades the customers to try new didactic improvement experiences of the the product of new brand, the mentor, who process teaching- learning- evaluation. tries to convince the teacher to organize the Direct beneficiaries are the students and study in class, rather based on pupils than on the teachers from the rural medium, local himself, the project manager, who succeeds in administration and communities, the training convincing the new team of the collaboration programs suppliers, the decision factors. (Kay value within the work group. & Hinds, 2007) It is said that “if something is not rotten, it doesn’t need to be fixed”. Not necessarily we 1.2. The „change of mind” factors. can say that something is rotten, but the state of the rural education cannot be considered a In the “Change of mind” treaty book, satisfactory one. Mentoring, as subsystem of Haward Gardner identifies some factors, the Project for Rural Education, has comprised which functions as in the case of positive within the formative process in Sibiu county change of mind: reason, enlistment, resonance, 1315 persons as teaching staff from the rural redescriptions, resources, rewards, the event medium, schoolteachers and teachers, reality, resistance. according to purposes and contents of general We are trying to respond how the six didactic. factors are in the mentoring program- conception, appliances and implementation- The general setting within this project through reflection over the program itself and develops, is determined by: the change from through centralization and interpretation of the the conceptual and practical point of view of responses offered by those who are mentored, the teaching and learning modalities, a higher in the evaluation questionnaire. access to methods, school supplies, and opportunities of teachers’ professional Reason. The concept, the appliances and development from the rural medium, the implementation mode of the mentoring promotion of the educational experiences, program represents a rational approach, they which motivate the student and answer to his involve: the identification of significant educational needs (any student can learn if he factors, to reflect upon each of them, the is taught and he learns adequately), the analysis of needs, realized by each teacher assurance understanding and getting the local mentored, the shaping of an ensemble image community support for the achievement of the regarding the teachers’ needs of professional proposed educational goals. development, to a better adjustment to the The program’s general goal is to improve needs of the students from the rural medium. the access to a higher education for the students from the rural medium through: better Enlistment. To complete the rational scholar results, higher graduation percentage argument, we have the relevant data collecting towards other education institutes. for the different onset of each group of The specific goals of the project are: formatives, even of each formative, depending professional development and the on situations particularities, possible opportunities assurance of development in achievement aspect, as an effect of schedule career for the teachers from the rural medium, flexibility itself, as well as an effect of the the assimilation of new concepts and ideas capacity to put a diagnostic and of the regarding the improvement of teaching- mentors’ adaptation. 117 Mentoring an alternative pedagogical attitude change

Resonance. It appears often when a person Resistances. The six factors identified so feels that it exists “a bond” with someone who far can all contribute in the effort to start the determines him to change his mind, when he “change of mind” phenomenon. But it would finds that he can “trust” that person, or when not be realistic to think that the simple he feels he “respects” that person. The tryout, existence of the advantaged factors is enough. to which the mentors were subject, has Any kind of understanding effort of the required experience regarding the formative “change of mind” phenomenon must take into field with adults, passion for didactic, proven account different forms of resistance, which formative competences, professional has been felt as a formatives’ behaviour reputation, as well as the teachers’ manifestation, as well as a result in appreciation. All of these demonstrate the interpreting the questionnaire. (Gardner, 2006: sustained level of the resonance. 82-87) And all these because how Meynard Redescriptions. An act of changing your Keynes says: “the real difficulty in producing mind, your opinion, becomes a persuasive act, a change is not to develop new ideas, but to as far as this is substituted as representation get rid of the old ones” (Gardner, 2006). among different shapes series, shapes that are We present the 1315 questions teachers in intensifying reciprocal. Mentoring, as areas of Sibiu and the quantitative expression conception, instruments and deployment: in Table 1, the percentage of responses. direct formative, professional dialogue, individual research on the proposed contents, Table 1. The responses of teachers in assessment seeing demonstrative video recorded activities, questionnaire items, expressed in percentage inter-assistances, return to the meetings with Item Heavily Largely Insufficient At all the mentor, offers different onset modalities, [%] [%] [%] [%] sources of reciprocal intensification, inspiration in capitalization and valorisation 1 37 60 3 0 the didactic creativity. 2 12 84 4 0

3 24 64 12 0 Resources and rewards. The possibility to think again and to change your mind exists in 4 29 69 2 0 every open-minded person. This phenomenon 5 60 34 6 0 can be started much faster when widely advantages loom. The first advantage- 6 42 47 11 0 response was the personal experience of the 7 27 51 22 0 formatives within the working group: 8 81 19 0 0 satisfaction of something new, involvement, professional and personal progress, shared 9 52 40 8 0 respect, doubled by the students’ response, 10 81 19 0 0 when they have to apply in classroom what they have studied before. The questionnaire items are: The event reality. Certain events take 1. Have the activities in which you place in society, in the extended meaning of participated increased attention to students and the word, affecting more persons, not only to their specific needs? those who contemplate their thinking 2. By participating in activities are you revolution. The Romanian educational reality, convinced of the need for colleagues to share in general, and especially the rural medium knowledge and experiences? one, requires, asks for a change in what the 3. Do you feel ready to apply classroom onset of the educational act does mean, with ideas, teaching methods and materials the hope that the situation will be set again. acquired?

118 Management and Socio-Humanities

4. To what extent this work has 3. CONCLUSIONS contributed to skills and attitudes needed for teamwork? As shown in Table 2, most teachers 5. Have you participated in activities that interviewed highly appreciated and largely will help you to put into practice in characteristic aspects of the mentoring collaboration with colleagues from the program. To some extent, all factors of perspective of modern teaching and learning? rethinking Gardner's theory has been found in 6. Do you believe that these activities design, tools and the implementation of the promote a new vision which considers part of mentoring program. the community school and community to The final questionnaire for teachers, encourage full use of local resources to referring to changes made after the mentoring achieve maximum learning potential of program, the most common specifications students? were: 7. Have you participated in activities that • the organization of learning; will help you develop collaboration of all • methods that motivate students and stakeholders involved in supporting local increases their interest in the lesson; education? • learning the strategies to facilitate 8. Do you appreciate the quality of the communication and networking with students; professional mentors? • the weight given the time spent and 9. Do the training modules studied specific methods students knowledge; adequate professional development • attitude towards interactive learning, opportunities (training needs are adequate, how to approach the activities carried out and accessible, they are translated into practical parents; activities)? • teaching strategies that enhance 10. Do the training modules completed learning efficiency; promote new ideas on teaching methods, do • using new technologies in teaching- they have appropriate instructional strategies, learning-assessment; curriculum design containing news of the • using alternative methods of course taught? assessment • Table 2. Correlations between items and factors learning differentiation; • assessment questionnaire rethinking Howard depending on the particular interests Gardner's theory. and availability pupil extra skill and safety to develop tools assessment; • another vision of the role and how to achieve continuous assessment; • a new way of communication and cooperation with others: students, parents, colleagues;

Reason Recruitment Resonance Redescriptions Resources and rewards Reality Occurrence • extra security in developing design x x x x tools; x x x • work to classes concurrent efficiency; x x x x • improve teacher – student; x x x x x • fostering positive orientation against x x x critics; x x • intervention mode, where students with x x x behavior problems; x x x • self-knowledge and self-assessment x x x x x x capacity; x x x x x x

119 Mentoring an alternative pedagogical attitude change

• extra enthusiasm and confidence in the 2. Frey, B.C., Noller, R.B. (1992). work of education; Mentoring for creative productivity. The • opinion and attitude towards training; International Creativity Network. • views and attitudes towards sharing 3. Gardner, H. (2006). Tratat de răzgândire. experiences within the group of colleagues. Arta şi ştiinţa răzgândirii noastre şi a The changes are very diverse cast, covering altora, Ed. Allfa, Bucureşti. both the design and deployment and evaluation 4. Gehrke, N. (1988). Toward a definition on of teaching, knowledge, networking, mentoring, Theory into practice. communication, motivating students, 5. Kay, D., Hinds, R. (2007). A practical communication, networking and group level guide to mentoring. How to help others team of teachers, share experiences, issues achieve their goals. How To Books, No. found in the largely to expectations expressed 27(3). by teachers in suitcase expectations. 6. Huberman, A.M. (1978). Cum se produc We appreciate, arguing that these schimbările în educaţie - contribuţie la responses from the mentoring program of the studiul inovaţiei, Bucharest: Didactical & Rural Education Project, teachers have Pedagogical Publishing House. developed a conceptual and practical change in 7. Les, D., Leibowitz, F.B. (1983). A mentor: the Application, in the work. This enables us would you know one if you saw one? to believe that an action falling changer of Supervising management, No. 28(4). Gardener's theory will produce a change. 8. Nicola, Gr. (2004). Un ambient pentru excelenţă-Mentoratul. Sibiu: Psihomedia. BIBLIOGRAPHY 9. ***. (2003). Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural. Ghid de aplicare. Kitul mentorului, 1. Chişiu, C.M. (2011). Mentorat şi Bucharest: Ministry of Education and dezvoltare vocaţională. Sibiu: „Lucian Research. Blaga” University Publishing House.

120 Management and Socio-Humanities

A STUDY ON THE PERCENTAGE OF VARIED TERRAIN RUNNING FOR IMPROVING EFFORT CAPACITY IN JUNIOR FEMALE MIDDLE AND LONG DISTANCE RUNNERS

Cornel SCURT

“Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The study addresses Romania’s best female middle-long distance and hurdles runners from the competition year 2010-2011. We analyzed the percentage of varied terrain running in terms of aerobic and anaerobic mixed effort over one annual preparation cycle. By examining the daily records we ascertained a higher percentage of varied terrain running in female middle- long distance and hurdles runners during winter preparation periods, in terms of mixed and aerobic effort. For the case of anaerobic effort, the athletes didn’t use the means of varied terrain running. In order to assure a training program devised for promoting junior athletes to senior level, we assume that within the total amount of running workout, the percentage of varied terrain running for the development of the aerobic and mixed effort capacity should increase up to 80-85% during winter preparation periods and to 65-70% during competition periods. The development of anaerobic effort capacity may require the introduction of varied terrain running means, up to 20-25% in preparation periods and 10-15% in competition periods.

Keywords: varied terrain running, aerobic mixed and anaerobic effort, middle-long distance and hurdles.

1. INTRODUCTION influences athletic performance (Bompa, 2001).An inadequate level of physical The lack of value results in Romanian preparation, as a consequence of insufficient female middle and long distance runners and workout periods, inadequately managed means the improper use of preparation means for the of preparation, accidents, diseases or fatigue may development of effort capacity, the have a negative influence on athletic inappropriate way of participating in the performance. Physical preparation is an scheduled competitions are arguments in important component of the athlete’s support of the topicality of this issue. As preparation being the foundation of the other research hypothesis, we assumed that better components (Harre, 1973). Physical results of female middle and long distance preparation includes a series of measures that runners can be obtained by increasing the ensure a high functional capacity of the human percentage of varied terrain running in order to organism through optimal development of develop specific effort capacity. The aim of the basic and specific motrical functions and study is the continuous analysis and control of optimum values of the functional indicators workout content by using varied terrain running (Alexandrescu & Rugină, 1971). Physical as the main preparation means in all forms. preparation is employed with different Preparing middle and long distance runners percentages over the annual cycle, depending includes all workout factors: physical, technical, on the period and stage of the athlete, and his psychological and theoretical. The workout level of preparation (Matveev, 1988). factors are mutually inter-conditioned and by The imminence of the competition period analyzing their percentage within the overall and stages leads to a decreased percentage of preparation, it was found that the physical factor overall physical preparation in favor of its has the highest percentage and significantly specific counterpart. An important component of 121 A study on the percentage of varied terrain running for improving effort capacity… the preparation includes participation in sports 2. SUBJECTS AND METHOD contests, which, depending on the stage and level of preparation, can be devised for The research was conducted on Romania’s achieving either victory or a certain result or for best female middle-long distance and hurdles performance assessment (Homenkov, 1977). runners of 2011 (L.D.E. – 2000 m in 6.32 Avoiding participation in competitions, hurdles, F.M.M. – 5000 m in 16.36, B.M.A. encountering poorly ranked opponents are 3000 m in 9.25). circumstances that may lead to a fitness condition Based on the athletic performance records, which is inadequate for objective competitions. In we analyzed the percentage of the workout order to achieve optimal performance in objective means in terms of effort zones, the percentage competitions, the coach must devise a strategy of varied terrain running, from the overall depending on the athlete’s individual monthly amount, as well as the strategy during characteristics, preparation conditions, and the participation in contests. athlete’s motivation (Dragnea, 1993).

Table 1 Workout effort (km%) L.D.E Contests Aerobic Mixed Anaerobic Overall 140 km 218,3 km - 358,3 km October 1 121 km 142,3 km 263.3 km

86,4% 65,1% 73,4% 195,5 km 297,3 km 6,6 km 499,4 km November - 158 km 173 km 1,4% 331 km 80,8% 58,9% 66,2% 153 km 265 km 12,4 km 430,4 km December 1 110 km 186 km 3% 296 km 71,8% 58,1% 68,7% 140 km 179,3 km 17,4 km 336,7 km January 2 98 km 97,5 km 5,3% 195,5 km 70% 54,3% 58% 128,5 km 154,8 km 12,1 km 295,4 km February 4 84 km 56 km 4,1% 140 km 65,3% 36,1% 47,3% 103,5 km 108,2 km 4,4 km 216,1 km March 4 72 km 61,2 km 2,2% 133,2 km 69,5% 56,5% 61,6% 161 km 220,4 km 9 km 390,4 km April - 113 km 184,6 km 2,4% 297,6 km 70,1% 83,7% 76,2% 169 km 191 km 15,6 km 375,6 km May 1 99 km 98,6 km 4,3% 197,6 km 58,5% 51,6% 52,6% 128 km 192,8 km 16 km 336,8 km June 3 78 km 129 km 4,8% 207 km 60,9% 66,9% 61,4% 134 km 186 km 16,2 km 336,2 km July 1 75 km 128 km 4,9% 203 km 55,9% 68,8% 60,3% 162 km 155 km 10,4 km 327,4 km August 1 85 km 121,4 km 3,3% 206,4 km 52,4% 78,3% 63% 1614,5 km 2168,1 km 120,1 km 3902,7 km Overall 19 1093 km 1377,6 km 3,2% 2470,6 km 44,2% 55,7% 63,3%

122 Management and Socio-Humanities

Table 2 Aerobic effort X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 140 195.5 153 140 128.5 103.5 161 169 128 134 162 t.v 121 158 110 98 84 72 113 99 78 75 85 % 86,4 80,8 71,8 70 65,3 69,5 70,1 58,5 60,9 55,9 52,4

Table 3 Mixed effort Month X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 218,3 297,3 265 179,3 154,8 108,2 220,4 191 192,8 186 155 t.v 142,3 173 186 97,5 56 61,2 184,6 98,6 129 128 121,4 % 65,1 58,9 58,1 54,3 36,1 56,5 83,7 51,6 66,9 68,8 78,3

Table 4 Anaerobic effort Month X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 0 6,6 12,4 17,4 12,1 4,4 9 15,6 16 16,2 10,4 % 0 1,4 3 5,3 4,1 2,2 2,4 4,3 4,8 4,9 3,3

By analyzing L.D.E.’s preparation (Table 1 varied terrain running within the mixed effort and 2) it can be seen that the percentage of is greater in contrast to the winter period varied terrain running from the aerobic amount because the athlete has engaged longer events, increases during the winter period, to 70-80% as well. and constantly decreases during competition With regard to the percentage of varied period, to 65-70%. During the 2nd macro cycle terrain running within the anaerobic effort, it it can be seen that the percentage of varied can be noticed that this is completely absent terrain running is greater, 69.5-70.15% during since the development of anaerobic effort preparation, while it decreases to 58.5 - 60.95 - capacity was achieved on using only flat 55.9% in the competition period. terrain means of preparation (Table 1 and 4). The percentage of varied terrain running Contest participation was achieved for a from the mixed effort (Table 1 and 3) is number of 19 starts engaging cross-country, relatively constant over the preparation period intra and extramural events, while the of the first preparation macrocycle (65,1-58,9- objective competition was the Junior II World 58,1-54,3%), and then decreases to 36,1% over Championship, Lille, 10.07.2011, with a 6.40 the winter competition period. During the performance, and 12th position ranking. summer competition period, the percentage of

Table 5 Workout effort (km%) L.D.E Contests Aerobic Mixed Anaerobic Overall 128 km 203 km - 331 km October 3 111 km 167,5 km 278,5 km

86,7% 82,5% 84,1% 185 km 284,4 km 9,6 km 479 km November - 155 km 202,8 km 2,1% 357,8 km 83,7% 71,3% 74,6% 111 km 189,8 km 9,2 km 310 km December 1 72 km 150 km 3% 222 km 64,8% 79% 71,6% 133,5 km 223,6 km 16,8 km 373,9 km January - 85 km 143 km 4,5% 236 km 63,6% 63,9% 63,1%

123 A study on the percentage of varied terrain running for improving effort capacity…

117,5 km 194,3 km 15 km 326,8 km February 1 75 km 113,9 km 4,7% 188,9 km 63,8% 58,6% 57,8% 102 km 134,2 km 4,4 km 240,6 km March 3 75 km 94 km 2% 169 km 73,5% 70% 70,2% 116 km 166,5 km 5,8 km 288,3 km April - 92 km 124,7 km 2,1% 216,7 km 79,3% 74,8% 75,1% 149 km 201,8 km 15,8 km 366,6 km May 4 97 km 133,5 km 4,4% 230,5 km 65,1% 66,1% 62,8% 156,5 km 205,2 km 17,8 km 379,5 km June 3 103 km 135 km 4,8% 238 km 65,8% 65,7% 62,7% 136 km 195,3 km 16,6 km 347,9 km July 1 89 km 125,9 km 4,9% 214,9 km 65,4% 64,4% 61,7% 162 km 160 km 10,2 km 332,2 km August 1 108 km 103 km 3,2% 211 km 66,6% 64,3% 63,5% 1496,5 km 2158,1 km 121,2 km 3775,8 km Overall 17 1070 km 1493,3 km 3,7% 2563,3 km 41,7% 58,2% 67,8%

Table 6 Aerobic effort X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 128 185 111 133.5 117.5 102 116 149 156,5 136 162 t.v 111 155 72 85 75 75 92 97 103 89 108 % 86,7 83,7 64,8 63,6 63,8 73,5 79,3 65,1 65,8 65,4 66,6

Table 7 Mixed effort Month X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 203 284,4 189,8 223,6 194,3 134,2 166,5 201,8 205,2 195,3 160 t.v 167,5 202,8 150 143 113,9 94 124,7 133,5 135 125,9 103 % 82,5 71,3 79 63,9 58,6 70 74,8 66,1 65,7 64,4 64,3

Table 8 Anaerobic effort Month X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 0 9,6 9,2 16,8 15 4,4 5,8 15,8 17,8 16,6 10,2 % 0 2,1 3 4,5 4,7 2 2,1 4,4 4,8 4,9 3,2

Table 9 Workout effort (km%) L.D.E Contests Aerobic Mixed Anaerobic Overall 184 km 280 km - 464 km October 1 176 km 215,4 km 391,4 km

95,6% 76,9% 84,3% 160 km 284 km 9,6 km 453,6 km November - 148 km 212,3 km 2,2% 360,3 km 92,5% 74,7% 79,4% 141 km 245,6 km 15,4 km 402 km December - 115 km 184 km 4% 299 km 81,5% 74,9% 74,3% 124 Management and Socio-Humanities

142 km 232,1 km 17,2 km 391,3 km January 1 104 km 153,6 km 4,3% 257,6 km 73,2% 66,1% 65,8% 115 km 189,7 km 15,8 km 320,5 km February 4 72 km 114 km 5,1% 186 km 62,6% 60% 58% 107 km 183,8 km 8,4 km 299,2 km March 2 80 km 124,2 km 2,9% 204,2 km 74,7% 67,5% 68,2% 191 km 298,4 km 9,6 km 499 km April - 164 km 206,5 km 2% 370,5 km 85,8% 69,2% 74,2% 194 km 316,9 km 20,4 km 531,3 km May 3 144 km 214,3 km 3,9% 358,3 km 74,2% 67,6% 67,4% 143 km 230 km 14,9 km 387,9 km June 2 110 km 153,7 km 4% 263,7 km 76,9% 66,8% 67,9% 170 km 248,8 km 13,6 km 432,4 km July 3 120 km 155,4 km 3,2% 275,4 km 71,4% 62,4% 63,6% 174 km 216,1 km 7,5 km 397,6 km August - 122 km 168,4 km 2% 290,4 km 70,1% 77,9% 73% 1721 km 2725,4 km 132,4 km 4578,8 km Overall 16 1355 km 1901,8 km 3% 3256,8 km 41,6% 58,3% 71,1%

The athlete B.A.M. employs varied terrain the percentage is 70-74,8%, during the running for aerobic effort capacity summer competition period the varied terrain development during the preparation period of running percentage is 64-65% (Table 5 and 7). the first macrocycle 86,7-83,7-64,8% and The preparation means for developing the 63,6-63,8% in intramural competition, and anaerobic effort capacity were applied entirely about 65% in the extramural competition on flat terrain (Table 5 and 8). period (Table 5 and 6). Contest participation was achieved for a The percentage of varied terrain running number of 17 starts, with the objective within the mixed effort (Table 7) is about competition the Junior II World 71,3-82,5% during the preparation period of Championship, Lille/France, 6-10.07.2011 – the first macrocycle, while during the 8th position – 3000m, 9:25:11. preparation period of the second macrocycle,

Table 10 Aerobic effort X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 184 160 141 142 115 107 191 194 143 170 174 t.v 176 148 115 104 72 80 164 144 110 120 122 % 95,6 92,5 80,9 73,2 62,6 74,7 85,8 74,2 76,9 71,4 70,1

Table 11 Mixed effort Month X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 280 284 245,6 232,1 189,7 183,8 298,4 316,9 230 248,8 216,1 t.v 215,4 212,3 184 153,6 114 124,2 206,5 214,3 153,7 155,4 168,4 % 76,9 74,7 74,9 66,1 60 67,5 69,2 67,6 66,8 62,4 77,9 125 A study on the percentage of varied terrain running for improving effort capacity…

Table 12 Anaerobic effort Month X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII Km 0 9,6 15,4 17,2 15,8 8,4 9,6 20,4 14,9 13,6 7,5 % 0 2,2 4 4,3 5,1 2,9 2 3,9 4 3,2 2

To develop her aerobic effort capacity form being included in the athlete’s F.M.M. employs an increased proportion of preparation programme, this emphasizing the varied terrain running during the winter top performances achieved. The percentage of preparation period (95,6-92,5-80,9 Table 9 and varied terrain running as a means of 10), which then decreases during intramural preparation is higher during the autumn/winter contests of the winter preparation period and spring preparation periods. (Table 9 and 10 ). The percentage of varied terrain running increases again during the 4. RECOMMENDATIONS spring preparation period (74,2-85,7-74,2) and continues so (76,9-71,4-70,1) during the The planning and programming of extramural competition period. The percentage activities should be based on data obtained by of varied terrain running the mixed amount has analyzing the previous achievements of each high values (76,9-74,7-74,9%) during the individual athlete, both in terms of the main winter preparation period and almost constant effort indicators as well as the amount of values over the year’s duration (Table 9 and preparation means and methods employed. 11). The percentage within the anaerobic There should be concern about the workout in volume effort is absent since the preparation the mixed and aerobic zone by using varied means includes only flat terrain running terrain running up to 80-85% of the total variants (Table 9 and 11). The objective amount. Assessing the level of physical competition was the J1 European preparation will be done several times using Championship, Tallin/Estonia, 21-24.07.2011, the control events. Recovery after training and 6th place – 5000m, 16:44:38 personal record. contest is a mandatory component of the preparation activity due to the fact that the 3. CONCLUSIONS percentage of large and moderate efforts is increasing at this level.. By analyzing the degree of preparedness of Romania’s best junior female middle-long BIBLIOGRAPHY distance runners, it results that varied terrain running represents the main means of 1. Alexandrescu, D.C., Rugină, Gh. (1971). preparation (L.D.E 2470.6 km , 63,3%, from Antrenamentul în alergările de semifond, the overall amount, Table 5; B.M.A 2563.3 fond, mare fond. Bucharest: Stadion. km, 67,8% of the overall amount, Table 10; 2. Bompa, T.O. (2001). Teoria şi F.M.M 3256.8 km , 71,1% of the overall metodologia antrenamentului. Periodiza- amount, Table 15) with a high percentage of rea. Bucharest: CNFPA. aerobic effort (LDE 1614.5 km, 41,3% of 3. Dragnea, A. (1993). Antrenamentul overall amount, Table 5; B.A.M 1496.5 km, Sportiv. Teorie şi metodologie. Bucharest: 38,4% of overall amount, Table 10; F.M.M ANEFS. 1721 km, 37,5% of overall amount, Table 15) 4. Harre, D.. (1973). Teoria antrenamentului/ and mixed (L.D.E 2168.1 km, 55,5% of Bucharest: Stadion. overall amount, Table 5; B.A.M 2158.1 km, 5. Homenkov, L.S. (1977). Atletism. 57,9% of overall amount, Table 10; F.M.M Bucharest: Sport-Turism Publishing 2725.4 km, 59,5% of overall amount, Table House. 15). The importance of employing varied 6. Matveev, L.P. (1988). Structura terrain running as the main means for antrenamentului sportiv. Sportul de preparation is given by the proportion of this performantă, no.201.

126 Management and Socio-Humanities

BRIEF COMMENTS REGARDING THE DRAFT OF NEW LAW ON PROBATION

Silviu Gabriel BARBU

Faculty of Law, ‘Transilvania’ University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Within the extensive regulatory reform that was triggered by the Ministry of Justice for several years, meaning in its domestic development and adoption of new codes in civil and criminal matters, was included a draft law on the organization and functioning of the probation in Romania. This paper presents briefly some of the most important provisions of the project, improvements compared to the current legislation in the field of probation in Romania.

Keywords: probation, psychosocial services, social reintegration, re-education, reinsertion, legislation, legality, enforcement of sentences, convicted persons.

1. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND Social Reintegration and Supervision Directorate, under the same ministry. 1. History. Originally, the probation is a The Government Ordinance no. 92/2000 way to give a chance to those who have on the organization and functioning of the committed a crime for the first time or have services for social reintegration of offenders committed minor offenses. The goal of using and supervision of the execution of non- the probation was to determine the offender custodial sanctions approved by Law no. not to cause relapse, and behave morally 129/2002 have been established social acceptable to the community to which it reintegration services for offenders and belongs (Stăni or et al., 2003:58; Barbu supervision of the execution of non-custodial & erban, 2008:288-289). sanctions under the Ministry of Justice Probation has a recent history in the legal authority as specialized bodies without legal system of Romania, its foundation seeds personality, operating on every court, but appeared around the year 1996, based on a under the coordination of Social Reintegration Dutch project implemented in the penitentiary and Supervision Directorate. The name of system of Romania with the specific services was changed to probation services by enthusiasm for absolute news at relatively Law no. 123/2006 on the status of the short period of time after the change of probation service and central structure from political regime in Romania. By Government Ministry of Justice called The Probation Decision no. 487/1998 amending and Department. supplementing Government Decision no. 2. Highlights of Recommendation EC no. 65/1997 on the organization and functioning of (2012) 1 of 2010 on the European Rules on the Ministry of Justice, Probation Service was probation. Definitions: established within the Ministry of Justice. By a) Probation: refers to the implementation the Order of the Minister of Justice no. in the community of the sanctions and 2626/C/2000 for changing the organizational measures defined by law and imposed on an structure of the General Directorate for offender. This includes a range of activities Judicial and Anti-criminal strategy and interventions involving supervision, coordination, the Probation Service within the guidance and assistance with the aim of social Ministry of Justice was reorganized as the 127 Brief comments regarding the draft of the new law on probation inclusion of offenders and contributes to and also the rules of the new code of criminal community safety. matters. Existence of a limited regulation of b) Probation Agency: means anybody the regime of execution of non-custodial designated by law to implement the above sanctions and measures in Law no.275/2006 tasks and responsibilities. Depending on the have the origin in a reduced scope of these national system the activity of a probation sanctions and measures in the Penal Code and agency may include provisioning information Criminal Procedure Code, especially when and advice to the judicial authorities and other they enter the force (January 1969), with some authorities with decisional right to help them improvement in the last 20 years. Thus, make informed and fair decisions; providing institutions as supervised suspension of guidance and support to offenders who are in penalty execution supervised freedom prison and prepare their community setting; accompanied by obligations imposed on the monitoring and assistance of the persons juvenile, supervision or control suspension of who are released early; interventions to minors, provisional release under judicial strengthen justice; and assistance for the control, and sanctions on legal persons are victims of crimes. modern categories of sanctions and measures c) Community sanctions and measures: taken by the Romanian law relatively recently mean sanctions and measures that maintain and the new code of criminal matters provide offenders in the community and involve some an extension and improvement. These limitations to their freedom by imposing legislative changes have not always given due certain conditions and/or obligations. The term attention to regulating the implementation of designates any sanction imposed by a judicial the new measures introduced, framework or administrative authority and any measure legislation on the enforcement regime remains taken before or instead of a decision on a focused on execution in prison.1 penalty, and how to apply sentence of In conjunction with the adoption of a new imprisonment outside a prison. law on probation, based on the premise that d) Observation: means the reintegration extends the sanctions and alternative measures process of an offender, on a voluntary basis (including community) in criminal matters, by and after final release from detention to home the normative content of the new codes of community in a constructive, planned and criminal law (eg. to establish conditional supervised manner. Under these rules, the term sentence, community work extends the non- is distinguished from the term "recovery", custodial educational measures etc.) an which refers to statutory involvement after important legislative necessity represents the release. " creation of a framework regulation of the 2. Background: In the context of adoption execution of sentences and non-custodial of the new Criminal Code and the new Code measures, distinct from that for performance of Criminal Procedure, which introduced under imprisonment. significant updates to Romanian criminal law on non-custodial sanctions and measures 2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE LAW applicable in criminal proceedings, it was ON THE ORGANIZATION AND necessary a reconstruction of the general OPERATION OF PROBATION (AT framework for their execution. OCTOBER 2012) Material office in the year 2011-2012 is represented by provisions of a limited number The draft law on the organization and of articles of the Law no.275/2006 on functioning of the probation system rethinks it execution of punishments and measures ordered by the court during the trial, which 1 The argumentation on the draft of the new probation complements the provisions of the Criminal law lists several arguments for extending the Code and the Code of Procedure criminal. As competency area of the probation services to penal sanctions and measures. The draft is published on such, it can be appreciated that the present www.just.ro and will be analysed in Parliament for regulations are not adequate to the new reality adoption. 128 Management and Socio-Humanities entirely, both organizationally and functional appropriate institutional response in terms of and is developed based on Law no. 286/2009 resources allocated to the probation system. In on the Criminal Code and Law no. 135/2010 this context, is forcibly needed a unified regarding the Code of Criminal Procedure. administration of all probation system The project aims at reforming the probation resources through a separate budget, to ensure system assimilating more provisions of a strong, coherent and sustainable probation European regulations on probation, but and creation of a strong central structure which harnessing the practical experience in shall be able to manage both functionally and probation work so far. administratively the entire probation system. The draft law is divided into 4 units and In this section are presented the main tasks covers the following aspects: Title I - General of the Directorate that focuses towards Provisions: Chapter I - Scope and application; establishing strategic lines of the development Chapter II – The principles of the activity of of the probation system and the enforcement the probation system; Chapter III - Definitions; of sentences and non-custodial measures, Title II – The probation system organization; coordination of the development of Probation Title III – Probation activity: Chapter I - system, Probation control, financial, General Provisions, Chapter II - Evaluation of administrative and human resources the defendants and supervised persons, management. The elements in managing the Chapter III - Supporting the court in the financial and administrative resources presents process of individualisation of sanctions and novelty compared to the current situation educational measures; Chapter IV - (compared with current legislation) and were Coordinating surveillance, Chapter V - placed in the grounds of greater efficiency of Coordination of fine performance by providing managerial act. a community work service; Chapter VI - In the draft, the National Probation Activity of the probation counsellor about Directorate is imagined therefore, as the detainees; Chapter VII - Acts of the probation Romanian state autonomous structure officer; Chapter VIII - Working with subordinated to the minister of justice, so that community institutions; Title IV - Transitional funding is provided from the state budget and Final Provisions. To be noted some of the through the Ministry of Justice in which it provisions contained in Title II, dedicated to works. Considering that the probation system the probation system organization, namely the will manage the execution of penalties provisions on the structure of probation on two directly, while others will be outsourced to levels, central and local levels, and indicating community structures was necessary to links between the two forms of organization. introduce a provision for allocation of funds The coordinating structure is presented as a for such activities. However, considering the National Probation Directorate, with legal opportunity offered by EU funds and other personality, within Ministry of Justice, potential donors was introduced the possibility established by reorganizing the current that the Directorate can access other funding Probation Department. Drafters of the law sources (besides the allocated budgetary have said that "the adoption of such a measure resources) or to receive donations and is necessary for better management of national sponsorships. probation system, including the administration The draft also presents the management of the budget, taking in consideration that and representation of the central structure of probation services have a double the probation system, methods to appoint the subordination: administratively to the courts management and the attribution as secondary and functionally to the National Probation credit coordinator of the General Director. It Directorate in the Ministry of Justice, which was introduced a fair and transparent hampers the work of probation. This solution procedure for filling management positions at is all the more necessary as in the view of the the first three levels of management, and a new code, the probation activity will increase limited mandate to hold the function, to exponentially, which will require an enhance the performance management and 129 Brief comments regarding the draft of the new law on probation providing equal opportunities for career currently operational (one in each county and advancement of the personnel from probation in Bucharest) could be set up secondary system. To encourage a participatory establishments of their probation services management to develop strategic lines of the according to the needs of local communities, probation system was provided and there is a but are envisioned also other ways to increase board that will include the coordinators from organizational responsiveness of probation all departments of the central structure. system to crime issues, given that it varies In order to ensure the duties of Directorate from one area of the country to another, from in an efficient and effective manner was one county to another and even within the provisioned the possibility of setting up same county. There were introduced methods departments and other specialized structures in of employment opportunity through certain areas of competence established by the competition and for a limited mandate for the Rules of organization and functioning of the coordinators of the local structures, similar to Directorate. Given the complexity of the tasks the employment of the management of the of the National Probation Directorate to central structure. manage the system was necessary to identify Regarding territorial competency the categories of staff who can work within the criterion of the home of the person has proven central structure. In addition to categories of its efficiency as far as now and was still staff currently working in the Department of maintained, following to be established as the Probation was specified a large category of benchmark by reference to the level of a probation staff to extend the access of county or the territorial jurisdiction of the probation staff from probation services. court. The text of law foresees the possibility Current reality proved the need to involve that inside the services can be set up certain practitioners in management activities of the specialized departments pursuing the same probation system, and this provision will goal of effective intervention in addressing increase access probation staff in such crime. Compartments can be established so activities. The project pays specific attention that ones to work mainly with the courts, to staff training activities in the field of others in the community for the supervision probation and the study and research work and assistance of persons sentenced to penal needed to underpin the development of institutions or to develop practice areas such as probation practice. These activities are specialized programs work with offenders or assigned to central structure which it manages community works service. either directly or in the territorial structures Currently in the probation service operates under its supervision. Expressly stipulating only probation staff, councillors and heads of these responsibilities arise from: the need of services, which means that they carry inclusive vocational training for probation staff under administrative duties. In this respect, the draft the novelty of regulation, adoption of a law introduces a provision imperative for the uniform practice in the probation service, introduction of new categories of staff to the probation staff specialization diversity probation staff for activities related to convergence, the importance of establishment secretarial, administrative, IT and other on scientific foundations of the practice specific tasks that do not require qualification directions, stimulate research and study to of probation. permanently connect the dynamics of social reality to probation practice. All considerations 3. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF listed are found both in other states with PROBATION DUTIES/ COMPETENCIES consolidated probation system and the relevant NOW AND IN THE DRAFT LAW European Recommendations (remember the recent Recommendation No. (2010) 1 on the 1. Positive law: According to Government European Rules on Probation). Ordinance nr.92/2000 on organization and In the local structures of the probation functioning of social reintegration of offenders system, in addition to probation services and supervision of the execution of non- 130 Management and Socio-Humanities custodial sanctions (Article 11 being the court and evaluation reports on adult principal place of matter in this respect), the defendants and persons in service supervision probation have essentially the following at the request of the court; powers and duties:2 b) Art.863 paragraph 1 letter a)-d), a) Art.424 CPS probation service prepare paragraph 3 letter a)-f) and 103 paragraph 3 assessment reports in cases involving juvenile letter a)-c) of the Criminal Code - Probation accused or defendants at the request of the Service supervises compliance of the convicted person of the measures and obligations provided in case of suspension of 2 Art. 11 (1) The social reintegration and probation services have the following duties: sentence under supervision and supervised a) supervise compliance by the person convicted of the freedom, including supervision of community measures referred to in art. 86 ^ 3 par. 1 letter. a)-d) of work service. the Penal Code c) Art. 484 CPP - probation counsellors b) monitor the obligations imposed upon him by the participate in hearings in juvenile cases after court as provided in Art. 86 ^ 3 par. 3 letter a)-f) of the Penal Code; quoting the probation service by the court; c) oversee the obligations imposed by the juvenile court d) Law no. 272/2004 on the promotion and as provided in Art. 103 par. 3 letter. a)-c) of the Penal protection of child rights - Probation Services Code; shall report, at the request of the court for d) prepared at the request of the prosecution and the children who have committed a criminal courts, evaluation reports about persons referred to in Art. 1 or on the defendants; offense and not criminally responsible in all e) collaborate with public institutions for juvenile cases concerning the establishment, compelling execution of the provision of unpaid work in replacement or termination of special a public institution; protection measures; e ^ 1) initiates and develops special programs for social e) Participates in making the statement of reintegration for persons sentenced to imprisonment, which sentence was totally pardoned by law, and minors the victim or civil party whose life, physical who have committed offenses under the criminal law, to integrity or liberty is endangered, at the which was removed by law educational measure of request of the judicial body or of the victim or admission into a rehabilitation center; civil party heard; f) conduct, on request, individual counselling activities f) Carries on demand structured programs of offenders in terms of social behaviour, group and individual; of social reintegration of offenders in terms of g) initiate and conduct special protective programs, adjusting social behaviour. social and legal assistance to juveniles and young g) Supports prison staff specialized in offenders; psychosocial intervention activities in prisons, h) initiate and conduct, along with volunteers and in order to carry out re-socialization programs representatives of civil society and governmental and nongovernmental organizations Romanian and foreign for persons convicted during the execution of re-socialization programs for persons referred to in Art. the sentence of imprisonment or during 1 and Art. 3. par.(2) who have applied to participate in hospitalization of minors in rehabilitation these programs to help them comply with the conditions centres (Barbu & erban, 2008:291-295). imposed by the court and their social reintegration; h) Assessment of juveniles and adults i) collaborates with public and private institutions and individuals and businesses in their area of expertise to charged in criminal prosecution, at the identify, as appropriate, available jobs, educational prosecutor request (Unianu, Frangulea-Pastor, courses, as well as the qualifications or retraining; 2011:103-107); j) any other duties prescribed by law. i) Participates in the proceedings of the (2) The social reintegration and probation services, with conditional release proposal from prison specialized staff assistance and advice of the prison administration can run programs on business activities, establishments; socio, educational and vocational training for persons j) Works with public institutions for convicted. juvenile compelling execution of the provision (3) The persons referred to in Art. 7. (1) prepared during of unpaid work in a public institution. their activities, periodic reports of social reintegration 2. Highlights of legislation on activities and supervision for those who have requested assistance and advice from the social reintegration and probation and skills of probation in the draft of the new services. law: 131 Brief comments regarding the draft of the new law on probation

a) The assessment made by the probation reports about people being prosecuted in court; counsellors on adult offenders, optional at the assistance in assessment / knowledge of people request of the court, respectively of the indicted, institutional support given to the juvenile defendants - mandatory during trial; prosecutor, also in cases specifically provided b) Supporting the court in the process of by law, all point to this case; - Involvement in individualization of sanctions and educational the supervision and coordination of behaviour measures by participating in hearings with of persons convicted of non-custodial juvenile defendants, namely the formulation of arrangements (typical of social inclusion proposals (in all cases involving juvenile activities); involvement in overseeing and defendants); coordinating the conduct of persons convicted c) Direct participation in the procedure for in custodial arrangements supporting the enforcement of non-custodial educational efforts of social reintegration and measures in front of the judge; rehabilitation staff they carry in prison system d) Supervising adults in cases of (social inclusion specific activities). postponement of penalty, suspension of Of these, only the first level aims at sentence under supervision, conditional release working more closely in connection with the (if remaining unexecuted 2 years or more); court, with justice itself, in the sense of Article e) Overseeing adult defendants for penalty 126 paragraph 1 of the Romanian Constitution. fines by providing a community work service; Others are specific responsibilities of the f) Supervise minors in all non-custodial Executive powers, having generic role to apply educational measures: length of civic penal policy and the social assistance of the education, monitoring, recording weekends, state and to determine the actual role of social and daily assistance. rehabilitation of sentenced persons under g) Evaluation of supervised minor and supervision and counselling procedures, major (at any change and at the end of harmonizing as more as possible the Romanian surveillance) as well as minor and major institutional pattern with the majority of EU defendants in criminal prosecution, at the states model, namely an institution is prosecutor's request. autonomous but coordinated by the Minister of h) Specific activities in relation to Justice, or directly subordinated to the detainees: Ministry of Justice. - Participation in preparation for the release of detainees; BIBLIOGRAPHY - Participation in the development of proposals for the work of the conditional 1. Barbu, S.G. & Şerban, Al. (2008). Drept release of inmates, at the Education Council execuţional penal. Ed. 1 şi 2. Bucharest: organized at the level of the educational CH Beck Publishing House. commission respectively at the detention 2. Chi , I. (2011). Drept execuţional penal. centres. Bucharest: Wolters Kluwers. 3. Oancea, G. (2012). Probaţiunea în 4. CONCLUSIONS România. Evaluări normative şi sociologice. Bucharest: CH Beck. On probation, both now and in the future 4. Stănişor, G., Bălan, A., Mincă, M. (2003). regulation expected in Romania, is a group of Penologie. Bucharest: Oscar Print. related steps with judicial activities 5. Schiaucu, V. & Canton, R. (eds.). (2008). themselves, efforts aimed at social inclusion of Manual de probaţiune. Bucharest: offenders and support community safety, Ministry of Justice. which are centred essentially on four levels: s 6. Unianu, E.M. & Frangulea-Pastor, A.C. specialized assistance given to the court on (2011). Residents’ perception of violence time on criminal cases as expressly provided acts – local research. Review of the Air by law, by making specialized knowledge Force Academy. No.2(19). 103-107.

132 Management and Socio-Humanities

ANALYSIS ON THE PRINCIPLE OF NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL REGULATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION MEMBER STATES

Mădălina COCOŞATU

National School of Political Studies and Public Administration, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The accession to the EU implies, for a state, the assignment of a part of its powers, including a series of attributes traditionally considered as being closely linked to the exercise of national sovereignty. In fact, the participation to the Union presupposes the exercising of powers by the supranational institutions established through the constitutive treaties. The Member States faced this problem throughout the evolution of the European Communities, going from strict and specific fields, in the beginning, to increasingly wider areas of competence, by means of a sectoral integration in continuous expansion. The Member States did not uniformly approach the issue of transmitting these powers to the Community.

Keywords: European Union, sovereignty, constitution, Euro-skepticism.

1. INTRODUCTION including the European Communities and the European Union. States such as France From the experience of the Member States, expressly regulated in the Constitution the there can be conceived two approaches of the possibility to transfer certain attributes of issue of transmitting the state powers to the sovereignty to the European institutions. Union. The first consists of the modification of Thus, the French Constitution orders in its all constitutional provisions regarding the Preamble that, „under the reserve of prerogative totally or partially transferred. This reciprocity, France consents to the sovereignty approach presents the inconvenience that it limitations necessary for organizing and implies new revisions at every future moment defending peace”. The German Constitution in the Union’s evolution, when significant regulated the federation’s right to transfer additional transfers will occur, which may attributes of sovereignty to any international create difficulties at the political and legal forum through the legislative way (Miga- levels. The second possible approach is the Beşteliu, 1998:96). Also, in art. 88 para.1 of insertion in the text of the Constitution of a the French Constitution indicates that: „The general clause, authorizing the transfers1. Republic participates to the European Communities and to the European Union, 2. EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVES constituted by the states that opted freely, by virtue of the treaties that established them, to In the last years, the European Union exercise in common some of their Member States – except for Great Britain, competences”. which has no written Constitution – modified The French federalists claim that, in order the constitutional provisions for the purpose of to support a federal Europe, it is necessary the giving legitimacy to the process of transferring existence, above sovereignty, of superior sovereignty to the international organizations, moral principles, anchored in the transnational European values. In their vision, the 1 The option of the general authorization clause was put into Maastricht Treaty fractions sovereignty and is practice, for example, by Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands and Spain constitutive for a federation. From the 133 Analysis on the principle of national severeignty in the constitutional regulations… diachronic perspective, the Euro-optimists precisely in the use of the term community claim that in the European history, the rather than of association preferred by the principle of nationalities has always expressed British Euro-skeptics. Thus, Christopher Lord the thesis, and the European wars constituted considers that the definition of sovereignty, the anti-thesis; that is why, at present, there is corresponding to the pro-integration attitude, is no other solution than federal synthesis. The the following: (i) legality of decisions, (ii) national states were able to impose sacrifices autonomy of the national decisional system in the past because they were able to ensure from the foreign influence and (iii) the power survival. In what concerns the French Euro- to obtain the desired results. The supporters of skeptical arguments, extremely complex and the “community of states” accept the fact that moderate-realistic on the matter, we consider the role of the state is modified under the theses of Phillippe Raynaud, who sees qualitative aspect, and the international Europe as an international intergovernmental economic decision is made at the level of the regime. His definition of sovereignty, whether US – European Community axis. In the we are speaking of a state or of the European conditions in which the world economy creates Union, is the “power to decide for ones’ self in economic blocks in asymmetrical the last resort and to have a domestic legal interdependence, it is better to represent a order with certain coherence …. the final test center that decides, than to remain formally of the existence of sovereignty being who sovereign, but without real influence. At the decides in exceptional situations”. To the same time, this line of argumentation, question “which are today the sovereign moderately pro-European, insists on restating political bodies: the European Union or the the right of national veto as a precondition of composing nations?”, the answer is the Great Britain’s participation to the European European Union, because the actions of the decisional system, accepting, in parallel, the European Court send to an interpretation of the reality of phenomena such as transnational role of the European institutions as that of the socialization and the collaboration of organs of a sovereign political body in the international regime type. Lord says that the making. But the fact that, through the vision on the community of states gives Maastricht Treaty, the states preserve the right priority to the definition of sovereignty as to withdraw sends to the idea that they - in the power (maneuvering margin or control over strictly legal sense – remain sovereign. But events), meaning that of politico-economic Raynaud’s problem is that the federation sovereignty. In Lord’s vision, the moderate creates a people. And as an example, he pro-Europeans illusion themselves when they develops on the American solution to the imagine that the European Union is only a problem of secession and the respective right, variant of economic interdependence, from drawing attention to what could be imagined which they could eventually withdraw. In fact, in the EU in case a state would wish to exit the the experience of the European Community Union. Raynaud acknowledges the fact that demonstrated how coercive are the the legalist interpretation of sovereignty cooperation regimes based on institutional collapsed, but, at the same time, he says, we decentralization. Lord claims that this type of cannot leave the ambiguity created by the regime, apparently little coercive, has among European Union, because the hierarchy of its paradoxical political consequences the legal norms between the Member States and release of the national Executives from the the Union is not clear and in the absence of a legislative control. How exactly does the European Constitution, the UE Treaty is only executive power increase due to the European valid because it is conform to the national Union? Through the fact that the treaties constitutions. Unlike the German federalist formulated at the executive level, as a result of visions, even the pro-integration attitude of the difficult international negotiations must be British Euro-optimists prefer to see the accepted or rejected in corpore. As a European Union as a community of states. At consequence, the only solution to avoid both the national level, the difference resides the veto of the national parliaments, and/or the 134 Management and Socio-Humanities disappearance of the control of the legislative intentionally lacking a political mission, on the Executive is, for Lord, the consolidation according to the model of the French Euro- of the European Parliament. In that concerns skeptics. Criticizing the politico-economic the European legislation, it cannot be said that approach of the erosion of state sovereignty, the Great Britain has no control, because its they argue that sovereignty cannot be lost in Executive participates to the elaboration of favour of the market, but only to other states or Directives. More than that, the public to political institutions. The perpetuation of appreciates these directives, because they this confusion favours a possible capture of the have, many times, a social sense more European super-state by the private interests. accentuated that the domestic legislation. The The British Euro-skeptics exaggerate the Conservatives have been and remain the autonomous action ability of the state and lose legatees of British Euro-skepticism. Appanage sight of the fact that the European Union is of the conservatives, but not exclusively, the very different in relation to the classical arguments of the British Euro-skeptics refers European state. Then, the Euro-skeptics deny to threats towards the traditional British the possibility of the existence of a dual society, the betrayal of the post-imperial identity, European and national. This vision relations with the Commonwealth, the danger exclusively belongs to the British elite, which towards the unwritten law constitutional controls the political institutions, and not to the system, the fact that the Economic and public opinion in general. The respective Monetary Union affects a basic precondition vision presupposes a parliamentary of sovereignty, hence, no desire to join the absolutism, which never existed in reality. Euro-zone, that the Economic and Monetary Germany remains the most fervent Union aggravates the division of Europe by supporter of federalism – for historical reasons creating a “rich men’s club”. The Euro- – building its concept of sovereignty around skeptics prefer to consider the European Union the politico-economic meaning, seeing in the as an “association of states”, any other form European Union a vehicle for protecting the being form them a danger that could lead to national economies in the context of the creation of a super-state. Their preferred globalization (Milward, 2000). Germany definition is the legal one: the right to national supports the deepening and expansion of the veto, within the EU bodies, internal autonomy EU since it copied the German model of at the legal level, supremacy of domestic law, economic-financial efficiency (the the preservation of the possibility of unilateral independence of the Bundesbank and the action or in other multi-national frameworks European Central Bank, the EU monetarist (NATO or Commonwealth). Therefore, the model.). The German Euro-optimists favour EU future, from their perspective must be the EU enlargement because their country is limited to being a multiplier of forces at the the first to benefit from the investments made international level, possibly a transfusion of in the new EU space, wishing and obtaining power for the independent action of Great direct influence especially over the central Britain and, if possible, a leading role in the European states (Poland, the Check Republic, EU for the United Kingdom, under the Slovakia and Hungary). Germany’s absolute condition of stopping a deepening of Constitution, in article 24 para. 1 indicates the European integration in the supranational expressly the fact that: “The Federation may, sense (Lord, 1992 : 419-437). The by law, transfer sovereign powers to Conservatives oppose the deepening of the international organizations”. Art. 9 para. 2 of integration, which they perceive as an Austria’s Constitution establishes the fact that, inexorable process with an apparently modest through law or treaty, there can be transferred debut, which ends with a complete transfer of federal competences to the international law sovereignty. Sovereignty for them represents organizations. In the situation in which more than simple functions, it is an expression completions or modifications are brought to of the identity between the governed and the the laws in effect, they require the governing, rejecting the functionalism Parliament’s approval, according to a special 135 Analysis on the principle of national severeignty in the constitutional regulations… procedure regulated by art. 50 para. 1. The In Portugal’s Constitution it is states that Belgian Constitution also comprises a the norms originating from the competent regulation in this sense. Thus, according to the bodies of the organizations to which Portugal provisions of art. 33 and 342, the transfer of participates enter directly in the domestic legal certain competences determined by law or order, if such an effect is explicitly established treaty to the international public law in the constitutive treaties. Also, the organizations is possible. The Constitution of Luxembourg Constitution stipulates that the the Netherlands allows transfer to the exercise of the attributions reserved for the international organizations of „legislative, legislative, executive and judicial powers can administrative and judicial competences” by be temporarily transmitted, through treaty, to means of international treaties. In the situation certain international law institutions when the international treaty comprises (Manolache, 2005). dispositions contrary to the constitutional provisions, art. 91 para. 3 stipulates that the 6. CONCLUSIONS treaty must be approved with a majority of two thirds by both Chambers of the Parliament3. Gabriel Andreescu and Adrian Severin In what concerns the Italian Constitution, consider that the doctrine of sovereignty can after establishing in art. 1 that sovereignty no longer be conceived in its classical belongs to the people, who exercise it in the parameters, being necessary rather the forms and limits established by the acceptance of the idea of a federation of Constitution, it regulates - in art. 11 – the fact national states, in which certain prerogatives that on the basis of reciprocity with other would be transferred to the European family, states, limitations can be imposed on on the basis of free consent (Andreescu, sovereignty in order to ensure peace and Severin, 2001). justice among nations. In this sense there will be supported the international organizations BIBLIOGRAPHY that have such an objective4. The Constitution of Greece refers to the assignment, through 1. Andreescu, G. & Severin, A. (2001). Un treaties, of certain competences established concept românesc al Europei federale. In Un within its content, to certain international concept românesc privind viitorul Uniunii Europene. Iaşi: Polirom. bodies. Greece can freely proceed to refrain 2. Lord, C. (1992). Sovereign or Confused? the exercise of its national sovereignty to the The ‚Great Debate’ about British Entry to extent to which such restraints are imposed by the European Community 20 Years On. an important national interest, do not affect Journal of Common Market Studies. Vol. human rights and are executed observing the XXX, No. 4, December. 419-437. principle of equality, on condition of 5 3. Manolache, O. (2005) Puncte de vedere reciprocity . privind limitările de suveranitate în procesul de integrare europeană. Communication 2 Art. 33: “All powers emerge from the Nation. This power is defended in the Scientific Session of the exercised in the manner established through the Constitution”, Institute for Legal Research, Bucharest. Art. 34: “The exercise of determined powers may be assigned, by treaty or by law, to international public organizations”. 4. Miga-Beşteliu, R. (1998). Drept 3 This constitutional provision is much more flexible than the Internaţional, Introducere în dreptul one comprised in the Romanian Constitution, according to internaţional public. Bucharest: All which „the international treaty or agreement established as Publishing House. being unconstitutional cannot be ratified” (art. 147 para. 3). 4 The Constitution of Italy, through this text, is the first 5. Millward, A. (2000). The European Rescue Constitution that opens the road to the European Union. of the Nation State. London: Routledge. 5 The Constitution of Greece establishes, in article 1: “(2) Popular sovereignty is the fundament of governance. (3) All powers emerge from the People and exist for the People and Nation; they will be exercised as established through the this serves an important national interest and promotes Constitution”, and in article 28(2): “The prerogatives cooperation with other states. A majority of three fifths of the established by the Constitution may, by treaty or agreement, total number of the Parliament members will be necessary in exercised by agencies of the international organizations, when order to vote the law for ratifying the treaty or the agreement”. 136 Book review

FOR A PEDAGOGY OF POINTS OF VIEW

Adrian LESENCIUC

Department of Military Sciences and Management, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This article aims to present the book Interpretare il successo. L’integrazione e il successo scolastico degli esteri di Intercultura in Italia, written by Alberto Fornasari, Francesco Schino and Maria Chiara Spotti. The book is one of the most important works in the field of intercultural education, reflecting the results of a study regarding the school success of foreign students in Italy.

Keywords: intercultural education, school success, weak thought, pedagogy of points of view.

1. INTRODUCTION

A recent great work in the field of intercultural education is the one of the Italian researchers Alberto Fornasari, Francesco Schino and Maria Chiara Spotti, entitled Interpretare il successo. L’integrazione e il successo scolastico degli esteri di Intercultura in Italia, published in 2011 at Fondazione Intercultura Onlus, Colle di Val d’Elsa. Fondazione Intercultura, born in 2007 out of an association with the same name, has a unique patrimony of international educational experience (meaning the integration within the Italian education of students from more than 60 countries), and aims at deepening the formative aspects of a multicultural society in statu nascendi. This work reveals the cumulative experience of this foundation in relation with foreign students in Italy, assessing both the difficulties of integration and their opportunity to benefit from Intercultura programmes, trying to focus on school success by measuring the parameters of integration – related to curricular activity and to the student`s activity within the host family – in two regions: Emilia Romagna in North and Puglia in South. The purpose of the research is to identify ways of increasing school success knowing/deepening the mechanisms of foreign

137 For a pedagogy of points of view student adaptation to Italian educational (...) la Fondazione Intercultura ha trovato system. interessante ed utile promuovere una The authors, covering a wide range of ricerca finalizzata a ricercare i casi di knowledge and interest in research: Alberto successo scolastico degli alunni esteri Fornasari – expert in communication and in frequentanti per un anno le scuole italiane multi-/intercultural processes, Francesco con il programma di Intercultura, a Schino – specialist in socio-anthropology and riconstruirne le storie personali e a far Maria Chiara Spotti - specialist in linguistics, emergere le scelte educative e didattiche, provide the study with a complex di scuola e di aula connesse a tali risultati multidisciplinary perspective. (Fornasari et al., 2011:11). Moreover, the main author, Alberto Fornasari, has published numerous studies Determining the level of foreign students’ regarding the aspects of foreign students’ school success in Italy for a better integration, adaptation and of their integration in a the focus should rely on the appropriateness of multicultural Italy, such as: “The others among research design, as long as school performance us: The concept of in Italian is influenced by parental expectations, self- teenagers. A study for Fondazione esteem, social life, host family, educational Intercultura” (2011), regarding the policies, students` relations with classmates possibilities of understanding the „other” and teachers. concept and of reference to „otherness” In this respect, the authors have proposed concept, in an Intercultura study from 2008 to find more about foreign students within (The European Year of the International classes and in their extra-school life. In Dialogue), measuring attitudes and behaviors addition, the focus on good practices (as is of Italian and European students Veneto, stressed by the title) leads to a mixed research Emilia Romagna, Tuscany and Puglia, or „To methodology, both quantitative and interpret success: The success in schools and qualitative, combining techniques, procedures the integration of foreign students in Italy” and instruments as follows: questionnaires for (2012), focused on the effects of intercultural foreign (target group) and Italian (control education, trying to build a scientific group) students, interviews with teachers, foundation for re-interpreting the status of focus-groups, qualitative interpretation of foreign students, despite the curriculum etc. preconception/misconception that they are Mentioning some particular relevant data problematic, inadequate, even a threat to the collected during the current research, meaning proper functioning of the Italian school. positive and negative aspects, such as: the The latter study is done as an extension of good organization of the Italian school the book Interpretare il successo, providing (implying even severity), the openness of keys of interpretation and understanding Italians (classmates, teachers, host families) school success in a multi- and intercultural for contacts with foreigners, the inappropriate society. ratio between theory and practice – the most negative aspect noticed, the existence of 2. THE RESEARCH DESIGN. teachers unprepared for the contact with PARTICULAR DATA foreign students etc., we can consider a realistic perspective of the authors on In a world that allows the free movement problems that need to be identified and of things, ideas and people, fear of foreign exploited (positive aspects) or (stranger) should be abandoned. Starting with removed/diminished (negative aspects). such a requirement and taking into account the Through this blunt and correct social, ethical, pedagogical and political identification of positive and negative aspects fundamentals of interculturality, the authors of Italian school, at a certain level of emphasize the main purpose of the research: preparedness for intercultural society, the research became more relevant regarding 138 Book review identification of good practices for increasing della propria identità individuale e foreign students’ school success. collettiva”. (...) L’educazione Adding the fact that linguist aspects are interculturale rappresenta il contenitore barriers in assessment: globale delle nuove educazioni, lo „sfondo integratore” all’interno del quale trattare i Certamente l’ostacolo della contenuti delle educazioni che scegliamo comunicazione in italiano rappresenta un come importanti per il nostro percorso. fattore di svantagio che può incidere in (Fornasari et al., 2011:207). una certa misura sui progressi e quindi anche sulla valutazione finale (Fornasari et 4. CONCLUSIONS al., 2011:192), Therefore, not the apparent issue of a balanced interpretation is recommended success is important. Moreover, the school in this case. success does not coincide with school’s success. In Habermas’ terms (1997), we can 3. WEAK THOUGHT’S PERSPECTIVE distinguish between success-oriented actions and understanding (consensus)-oriented The analytical flexibility is the most actions. important aspect of this study. Being born in a Success-oriented actions are a set of country where issued the weak thought instrumental activities, subjected to a (pensiero debole), as deconstructive thinking, monologal, linear logic, subjected to within the logics of included middle, based on preferential rules and formalities regarding the a weak ontology of truth notion, as weight loss communicative agreement. of philosophical thinking, as interpretative way Starting from the weak thought for multi- and intercultural post modernity perspective, the Habermas notion of success is (Vattimo, 1983/1998:10-25, 1993:184), the inappropriate; besides, understanding authors do not hesitate to analyze within (consensus)-oriented actions make possible the pensiero debole. „didactics of points of view”. The (self-)centered and monolithical The definition of success and the definition thinking specific to Italian educational system of school’s success within this book are should be deconstructed and reconstructed, clarified: should be decentered and recentered. The new perspective is a plural one (the La scuola di successo si basa in larga plural perspective being a weak perspective); misura sulle idee di Socrate. Il docente Fornasari’s proposal (Fornasari et al., pone domande, ma lascia agli allievi il 2011:206) should be taken into consideration compito di progettare investigazioni as a very important contemporary perspective adeguate per rispondere alle domande on intercultural education: a „didactics of (Fornasari et al., 2011:365). points of view” (didattica dei punti di vista). In such a frame of interpretation, the whole The projection on the success of perspective on intercultural education is interaction1, on the success of real intercultural changed:

1 Quando parliamo de nuove educazioni, The school of success, in Fornasari’s terms, is related to interaction and integration, sharing without dividing intendiamo un gruppo di tematiche the school’s success to the individual success of each specifiche, con finalità educative in parte student: „Innazitutto, la scuola del successo formativo comuni, che si inscrivono dentro un non coincide con la scuola della promozione facile, che progetto didattico complessivo, che vuole comporta un improvimento di contenuti e metodi „dotare gli studenti di strumenti di didattici, La scuola del successo per tutti vuol creare in nclasse le condizione che redano possibile, a ciasun orientamento, di metabolizzazione e di alunno, di avere successo nei processi di appredimento” critica del cambiamento, di construzione (Fornasari et al., 2011:364). 139 For a pedagogy of points of view communication within the Italian school and scolastico degli esteri di Intercultura in not a detailed list of keys regarding school Italia. Colle di Val d’Elsa: Fondazione success makes Interpretare il successo. Intercultura Onlus. L’integrazione e il successo scolastico degli 3. Fornasari, Alberto. (2011). To interpret esteri di Intercultura in Italia one of the most success: The success in schools and the important works in the field of intercultural integration of foreign students in Italy. education. Redefining community in intercultural context. No.1. 215-230. BIBLIOGRAPHY 4. Habermas, Jürgen. (1997). The Theory of Communicative Action. Translated by 1. Fornasari, Alberto. (2011). The others Thomas McCarthy. Cambridge: Policy among us: The concept of in Press. Italian teenagers. A study for Fondazione 5. Vattimo, Gianni. [1983] (1998). Dialectică, Intercultura. In Adrian Lesenciuc (ed.), diferenţă, gândire slabă. In Gianni Redefining community in intercultural Vattimo, Pier Aldo Rovatti. Gândirea context RCIC’11. Braşov: „Henri Coandă” slabă. Translated by Ştefania Mincu. Air Force Academy Publishing House. 67- Constanţa: Pontica. 10-25. 72. 6. Vattimo, Gianni. (1993). Sfârşitul 2. Fornasari, Alberto, Schino, Francesco & modernităţii. Nihilism şi hermeneutică în Spotti, Maria Chiara. (2011). Interpretare gândirea postmodernă. Translated by il successo: . L’integrazione e il successo Ştefania Mincu. Constanţa: Pontica.

140 Book review

ON WAR AND (IN)SECURITY

Cosmina DRĂGHICI

Department of Military Sciences and Management, Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The present monograph, War on insecurity: Calling for Effective Strategy! Scientific Monograph, written by Pavel Nečas and Miroslav Kelemen, deals with the analysis of globalization, global security and defense at strategic level. It has an educational purpose for those interested in the field of security (state and public administration officials), but I find it very resourceful for military personnel that have to be very much aware of all phenomena that take place and that involve and affect the military system, as well..

Keywords: war, insecurity, security strategies, global security.

heard, especially after 9/11 to define strategic concepts that reshape the international perspective on security. These are tightly connected to the present process of globalization that impacted all areas of interest, from information and knowledge to resources. The present-day security environment is characterized not only by a high level of security, but also by the incapacity of anticipating certain events, by manifesting certain risks and threats, especially asymmetric ones, by redefining the relations between the great powers and increasing the freedom of action of the regional factors. Therefore, the authors guide us through a well structured approach, where strategy at all levels is the main key.

2. BOOK’S STRUCTURE

Thus, the first chapter initiates us with the fundamentals of strategy, namely, its objectives, principles and integration within the international system. The second chapter introduces the main tendencies dominating the international 1. INTRODUCTION security environment targeting the U.S.A. predomination, the democracy extension and Thus, the book is worth reading as globalization. Climate change, the interethnic concepts like war and insecurity are widely and interreligious conflicts, media and 141 On war and (in)security information, technology and military particularities, born out of different historical transformation together with the proliferation backgrounds and having distinct purposes. of mass destruction weapons are the main The list of acronyms at the end of the issues tackled within this chapter. The actors volume is commonly used within the NATO of the contemporary world insecurity and structures, being of high value for academic instability are factors that cannot be treated purposes. independently. The fight against them requires the most efficient resources and action 3. CONCLUSIONS directions. Thus, the asymmetric warfare is obviously mentioned by the end of the chapter. The 21st century has brought great hopes of It is viewed as a globalized phenomenon, liberty, a growing living standard, a world of where asymmetry can range from distinct peace, stability and cooperation, but also a threats that include a nation`s security forces, series of risks and threats, mainly non-military too. It is also mentioned the fact that the ones, which transcend the national borders. distinction between organized crime and These were always present in the relationships terrorism is unclear. It is true, as the two between people over time, underlying concepts are interconnected even if the numerous causes of conflict that have purpose of actions can be different (from a overshadowed the development of human political one up to religious beliefs). society. The monograph makes us aware of all The fourth chapter deals with NATO`s these issues that have occurred and shaped strategic concept, its origins, accomplishments effective strategies, in a turbulent time that all and even a case study on EBAO (Effects nations have to deal with nowadays! I strongly Based Approach to Operations) that managed recommend reading it. I`m more than sure that the complete range of power instruments it will draw your attention and make you think within the Gulf War. The conclusions raised of the 21st century conflict as being one of out of it actually mirror the present global different approaches and disagreements, situation with respect to future threats and to whose strategy is meant to attain global the transformation of strategy and operation security. methodologies. The next two chapters provide a clear-cut BIBLIOGRAPHY comparison of both US and EU security strategies with focus on historical background 1. Nečas, Pavel & Kelemen, Miroslav. and content. Then, they are faced with the (2010). War on insecurity: Calling for third strategy, that of the NATO`s. This Effective Strategy! Scientific Monograph. comparison has not been an easy thing to do, Kiev: The Center of Educational as they all have special features and Literature.

Partners: EBSCO Publishing Inc., Ipswich, Massachusetts, USA Kubon & Sagner GmbH – Kubon & Sagner OPAC Titelansicht, München, Germany Index Copernicus International – IC Journal Master List, Warsaw, Poland Cabell Publishing / Cabell’s Directories – Beaumont, TX, USA

© November, 2012 - “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy Printed House

THE ADDRESS OF THE PUBLISHING BOARD: ROMANIA “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy 160, Mihai Viteazu St, Brasov 500183 Phone: +40268423421, Fax: +40268422004 E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 1842 – 9238