مجلة ) - (Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities جامعة الخليل للبحوث- ب (العلوم االنسانيه

Volume 11 Issue 1 Article 11

2020

Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard and Turkish

ابراهيم ابو شهاب [email protected] ,جامعة الزيتونه

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b

Part of the Arts and Humanities Commons

Recommended Citation ",Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of and Turkish" (ابو شهاب, ابراهيم (2020 Vol. 11 :مجلة جامعة الخليل للبحوث- ب (العلوم االنسانيه) - (Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities : Iss. 1 , Article 11. Available at: https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Arab Journals Platform. It has been accepted for by an مجلة جامعة الخليل للبحوث- ب (العلوم االنسانيه) - (inclusion in Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities authorized editor. The journal is hosted on Digital Commons, an Elsevier platform. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]. ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi

Hebron University Research Journal( B) H.U.R.. is available online at Vol.(11), No.(1), pp.(219 –239), 2016 http://www.hebron.edu/journal

Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabic and Turkish Dr. Ibrahim Abushihab Associate Prof. Head of English Department

Alzaytoonah University of Jordan

Abstract This paper explores the differences and similarities between Turkish and Modern Standard Arabic in the area of Relative Clauses. Turkish is an agglutinative language. Its modals and auxiliaries are bound morphemes suffixed to the predicate, whereas relative pronouns in Modern Standard Arabic are used as separate words. Accordingly, the Turkish relative clause contains one of the following participle suffixes: –(y)an, -dik or (y) ecak corresponding to the following Modern Standard Arabic relative pronouns that are used as separate words: ʔallaði, ʔallaðaani , ʔallaðayni, ʔallaðiina, ʔallati, ʔallattaani ʔallatayni and ʔallaati or ʔallawaati. The paper also attempts to reveal some pedagogical implications which are helpful in teaching Arabic and Turkish as foreign languages. Keywords: Relative clause in Arabic, Relative clause in Turkish, Contrastive analysis, Restrictive relative clause, non-restrictive relative clause.

الملخص: هدفت هذه الدراسة التعرف إلى أوجه التشابه واالختالف بين اللغة العربية الفصحى واللغة التركية التركية واللغة الفصحى العربية اللغة بين واالختالف التشابه أوجه إلى التعرف الدراسة هذه هدفت في مجال االسم الموصول .(Relative Clauses) تعتبر اللغة التركية لغة التصاقية (agglutinative language)حيث تضاف لواحق األفعال المساعدة وصيغ األفعال إلى األفعال والصفات واألسماء. لذلك يعد ضمير الصلة في اللغة التركية كملحق يضاف إلى الفعل (y) ecake, -dik, -(y)an)-) بينما يستخدم ضمير الصلة منفصال ا في اللغة العربية: اللذي ، اللذان ، اللذين ، اللتي ، اللتين ، الالتي أو اللواتي.

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 1 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 220

وتظهر الدراسة بعض المجاالت التربوية والتي تساعد في تدريس اللغة العربية واللغة التركية التركية واللغة العربية اللغة تدريس كلغات أجنبية

Introduction being learned, but the weak The interest in contrastive version claims to have the power linguistics originated in the US to diagnose errors in target anthropological studies during language. Wardhaugh (1970: the Second World War when an 123) also asserts this and states urgent need arose for English that according to the strong language teaching and research version, all target language errors on immigrant bilingualism. After that occur can be predicted the Second World War, foreign through isolating the differences language learning gained between mother language and importance and contrastive target language while according analysis (CA, henceforth) to the weak version only some of became the landmark in teaching the errors can be identified foreign languages. through these differences. The Fries (1945:9) stresses the fact basic level of the weak version is that "The most effective to use the best linguistic materials (for foreign language knowledge available to linguists teaching) are those that are based to account for the observed on a scientific description of the difficulties in second language language to be learned, carefully learning. compared with a parallel Brown (2000:208) points out that description of the native "the principal barrier to the language of the learner." second language It must be noted that the CA system is the interference of the hypothesis existed in strong and first language system with the weak versions. These two second language system". versions are related to the notion James (1980) states that CA of mother language interference. involves two steps: The strong version claims that all 1.Description, that is, a formal errors in target language can be description of the language to be predicted by identifying the learned is made. differences between the learner's 2.Comparison, which is native language and the language concerned with the identification

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 2 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 221

of areas of differences and which is used in publications, similarities, including media, and in academic "prediction" signaling which institutions. Al-Saidat and Al- areas cause errors and difficulties Momani (2010: 397) remark that The Ottoman Turkish language is modern standard Arabic is known today as Turkish. Modern derived from classical Arabic. It Turkish is spoken by about 80 is the language of literature, million people in the Republic of media, education, formal speech, Turkey and by about 300,000 etc. They also add that colloquial people in Northern Cyprus. Arabic is a collective term for the Turkish belongs to the Ural- spoken varieties of Arabic used Altaic language family. It is throughout the Arab World, written left-to-right. Its modals which differs from modern and auxiliaries are bound standard Arabic. It includes a morphemes suffixed to the number of national and regional predicates varieties and constitutes the (verbs/nouns/adjectives) which everyday spoken language. have final position. Suffixes add Modern standard Arabic has the to the meaning of the word same structure: lexicon and and/or mark its grammatical pronunciation but these elements function. vary locally as dialects. Dialects Arabic is a Semitic language vary from one region to another which is widely used in the Arab and this is due to geographical countries as a first language. continuum and sociolinguistic Arabic is a diglossic language. It variables such as urban, rural and is divided into three major forms: Bedouin. Classical Arabic, Modern The present paper focuses on the Standard Arabic, and colloquial. differences and similarities Khalil Arabic (2010: 4) divides between Turkish and Modern Arabic into three major varieties. Standard Arabic in the area of Classical Arabic which is the Relative Clauses which are used language of the holy Quran and in grammatical description to accorded an elevated status in characterize pronouns used to contrast with the colloquial introduce a modifying adjectival dialects spoken in different clause within a noun phrase and countries of the Arab world. In by extension to the clause as a addition to these two varieties, whole as the following examples there is Modern Standard Arabic show:

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 3 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 222

Modern standard Arabic: u, ü, v, y, z. The punctuation raʔjtu ʔalbinta ʔallati katabat system is the same as that of the ʔaldarsa English language. Moreover, the saw +I+ the girl+ who + wrote + Turkish alphabet contains 29 the lesson uppercase and 29 lowercase I saw the girl who wrote the letters. lesson The Standard Arabic Turkish: sounds are listed at the end of the şiiri okuyan bayan /sıırı ɔ:kujæn paper (see Appendix 2). Unlike bæjæn/ Turkish, Arabic is written from poem+ read+ subject relative right to left. The (y)an+ woman. contains twenty-eight letters. The woman who reads the poem. Punctuation marks are also the As the examples stated above same as those of Turkish. Unlike show, Turkish is an agglutinative Turkish, however, Arabic has language. Its relative pronouns one form for the letters while are bound morphemes suffixed to Turkish has two forms the verb, whereas Arabic relative (uppercase and lowercase pronouns are used as free letters). Turkish has a total of function words. twenty-one consonants, whereas Sound Inventories of Arabic Arabic has twenty-eight ones. and Turkish Tables 1 and 2 display the The Turkish alphabet is listed as phonetic nature of consonants in follows: a, b, c, ç, d, e, f, g, ğ, h, both languages. ,i, j, k, l, m, n, o, ö, p, r, s, ş, t ,׀

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 4 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 223

Table 1: Turkish consonant phonemes (Adapted from Göksel and Kerslake, 2006: 3-6; see Appendix No.1) Place of articulation Manner of Bilabi Labi Dental Palato- Alveo- Palat Glott Articulation al o- alveolar palatal al al dent al Stops VI p T k Vd b D g Fricatives VI f s ʃ ɣ h Vd v z ʒ Affricates VI tʃ Vd dʒ Nasals m n Laterals r 1 Approximants j

Arabic has twenty-eight consonants and differs from Turkish consonants in terms of their place of articulation as table 2 displays:

Table 2: Arabic consonant Phonemes (Adapted from Khalil, 2010:12, for more information see appendix 2:Arabic consonants) L LD I D A P V U Ph G Stop t , tˤ b d , k q ʔ

dˤ

Affr. dʒ Fric. f ð,θ, s,z, ʃ x , ɣ ħ , ʕ h ðˤ sˤ Liquids Trill r Lateral l

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 5 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 224

Nasal m n Glides w j

Key: L: labial; LD: labiodental; I: Interdental; D: Dental; A: Alveolar, P: Palatal; V: Velar; U: Uvular; Ph:Pharyngeal; G:Glottal; Affr.: Affricate; Fric: Fricative Turkish has 8 vowels with two positions of tongue height; high and low as it is shown in table 3. Table 3:Turkish vowel phonemes (Adapted from Göksel and Kerslake, 2006:9) High Non-high(mid and low) Rounded Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Front ü i ö e Back u ı o a

Arabic has a triangular vowel system that consists of three pairs of short and long vowel phonemes as stated in table 4: Table 4: Arabic vowels (Adapted from Khalil,2010 :20) Front Central Back High ii uu i u

Low aa a

mouth ɑ/ æ /, undotted i /ə/, o/ Vowel Harmony in Turkish ɔ: / , u / ʊ / as in araba / æræbæ/ Vowel harmony is a (car), we add – lar (plural suffix) phonological process which to make arabalar (cars). If the determines what vowel will vowels are made in the front of appear in all but the first syllable the mouth (e /e /, i / ɪ /, ö / əʊ / of a word. If the vowels in the , ü / y / ), we add – ler to ev / ev/ root are formed in the back of the (house) to make evler (houses).

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 6 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 225

Likewise bankalar/ bænkælær/ ‘ü’ can only be followed by ‘e’ (banks) but otobüsler / or ‘ü’ ɔ:tɔ:bysler / (buses).The Turkish (Göksel and Kerslake,2006:21) language is an agglutinative language, which means that it Relative Clauses in Turkish: attaches its grammatical Relative clauses are adjectival information to the end of a root- constructions that modify the word according to the vowel noun phrase. The relative clause harmony rule. A suffix is contains one of the participle sometimes preceded by a buffer suffixes - (y) an ,- dik or (y) acak letter such as "y" for smooth corresponding to the Arabic pronunciation. It is used between relative pronouns ʔallaði two vowels as follows: (masaline singular), ʔallaðaani Gitmeyiz /gıtmejız/ (masculine dual- nom ), Go+ negative suffix (-me) ʔallaðayni (masculine dual – acc/ +buffer sound (-y) +personal gen), ʔallaðiina (masculine suffix stands for (we)(-iz) plural), ʔallati (feminine (We do not go.) singular) , ʔallattaani (feminine As a result of vowel harmony, dual/nom.) ʔallatayni (feminine only the following sequences are dual-acc/gen) and ʔallaati or permissible in native Turkish (ʔallawaati) (feminine plural) . words: Unlike Arabic, Turkish ‘a’ can only be followed by ‘a’ relative clauses precede the noun phrases they modify as the ’׀‘ or Back Vowels following example shows: / can only be followed by ‘a’ or 1- kitabı verdiğim ögrenci geldi ’׀‘ /kıtæbə verdıɣım əʊrendʒı geldı ’׀‘ ‘o’ can only be followed by ‘a’ the book + give + relative or ‘u’ pronoun (dik)(whome) +( ‘u’ can only be followed by ‘a’ personal suffix (-m) (I) + student or ‘u’ + come +past suffix (di) Front Vowels The student whom I gave the ‘e’ can only be followed by ‘e’ or book came ‘i’ As the example stated above, ‘i’ can only be followed by ‘e’ or the relative clause (kitabı ‘i’ verdiğim) ( I gave the book ) ‘ö’ can only be followed by ‘e’ precedes the noun phrase or ‘ü’ (ögrenci)(student ). If the suffix

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 7 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 226

is followed by a vowel, it will be 1- kitabı verdiğim çocuk geldi / transferred to – diğ /-dıɣ/ kıtæbə verdıɣım tʃɔ: dʒuk geldı/ Turkish relative clauses are book+ give+ relative pronoun (- divided into subject relatives and dik)+ personal suffix I (-im) + object relatives. Morphological boy + come+ past suffix(- di) marking of subject relatives is ( – The boy whom I gave the book y) an / (-j) æn/ or ecek /ecek/ to came. whereas morphological marking 2- okuduğum kitap çok güzel of object relatives is – dik /dık/. /ɔ:kuduɣum kıtæp tʃɔ:k gyzel/ The (-an)/ æn/ relative clause read+ relative pronoun –duk + suffix applied to the verb has two personal suffix I (- um) +book + allomorphs (-an) / æn/ and ( – en) very+ good /en/, whereas (-dik /dık/has four The book which I read was very allomorphs (-dik,-dık,-duk,-dük). good. The – acak /ædʒæk/ has two 3- Dün gece karanlıkta allomorphs gördüğünüz adam / dyn gedʒe – acak /ædʒæk/ and ecek /edʒek/ kærænləktæ gəʊrd yɣynyz as the following examples show : ædæm/ A- an /æn/ (-en) /en/ last+ night+ dark+ in(-ta)+ see+ 1- geçen hafta otelda beni gören relative pronoun (-dük)+ you- adamlar. /getʃen hæftæ ɔ:teledæ /nüz/+ man benı gəʊren ædæmlær / The man whom you saw in the last +week +hotel+ in (-da)+ dark last night. me+ see+ subject relative 4- sana yazdığım mektubu bugün pronoun (-en) + man+ plural postaya attım / sænæ jæzdəɣəm suffix –lar mektubu bugyn The men who saw me in the pɔ:stæjæ ætəm/ hotel last week. you+ to(-a)+ write+ relative 2- Başında şapka olan kız pronoun – dık + letter + today + /bæʃəndæ şæpkæ ɔ:læn kəz/ post+ by(-a)+ send+ past suffix head+ possessive suffix ( her) (- (–tı) + personal suffix I(-m) in)+on(-da) + hat + has +relative I sent the letter which I wrote to pronoun (-an)+ girl you by post today. The girl who has a hat on her c- acak (-ecek) head. 1- saat beşte kalkacak uçağa B- (-dik,-dık,-duk,dük). /k/ is yetişebilirsin /sææt beʃte transferred to ğ if the suffix is kælkædʒæk Utʃæɣæ followed by a vowel. jetıʃebılırsın/

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 8 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 227

clock+ five+ at(-e) + fly+ relative modification (Crystal, 1991:300) pronoun (-acak)+ plane+ in (-a)+ as the following example shows: arrive+ can(- bil)+ present yaprakları dökülen ağaçlar / suffix(- ir)+ personal suffix ( jæpræklærə dəʊkylen æɣætʃtlær/ you) (-sin) leaf+ plural suffix(-lar) + lose+ you can arrive at the plane which relative pronoun(-en)+tree+ flies at five o’clock. plural suffix (-lar) 2- Bizim eve gelecek olan adam trees that lose their leaves yirmi dört yaşında / bızım eve The relative clause in the geledʒek ɔ:læn ædæm jırmı sentence stated above limits the dəʊrt jæʃəndæ / reference of tree, therefore; it is our + house+ to (-e) come+ considered a restrictive one relative pronoun+ future suffix (- because it modifies the noun ecek) + Be+ man+ twenty four + phrase (tree) old B- Non- Restrictive Relative The man who will come to our clause house is twenty- four years old. Unlike restrictive clauses, the Restrictive and Non- non-restrictive relative clauses Restrictive Relative clauses in are those whose linguistic Turkish identity of the head is not based There are two types of relative on a particular modification clauses in terms of how they because it is inessential in as far define the referent of the noun as its former clauses are phrase. Such types are called manipulated. For this reason, restrictive (defining) and non- non-restrictive clauses ,as their restrictive (non- defining) name suggests, are out of the relative clauses. restriction of the next A- Restrictive Relative clauses modification (ibid) as the in Turkish following example shows: tæbə׀alan öğrenci geldi/ k ׀Restrictive relative clauses kitab /geldi ׀refer to the semantic relationship ælæn əʊrendʒ of a modifying structure to its book+ take+ relative pronoun(- accompanying head word. When an)+ student+ come+ past used, restrictive clauses are suffix(di) recognized in the linguistic The student who took the book identity of the head which is came. (alan ׀dependent on the accompanying The relative clause (kitab (Who took the book) adds extra

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 9 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 228

information to the referent (y) an /(j) æn/ within Turkish (öğrenci) (student ) relative clauses. Accordingly, Gögsel and Kerslake (2006:389) tense ambiguity is inevitable, as state that “the typical usage of a the following examples show: relative clause with a participle 1- Benim otele gelen bayan otuz m ɔ:tele gelen׀ suffix is restrictive as the bir yaşinda / ben /r jæʃindæ׀following example shows: bæjæn ɔ:tuz b +m my+ hotel+ to(-e)+ come׀ɣ׀sevdiğim ağaçlar /sevd æɣætʃlær/ relative pronoun(-en)(present)+ like+ participle suffix (- lady+ thirty+ one+ old. dik)+personal suffix (I) +(- im) + The woman who comes to my tree + plural suffix(-lar) hotel is thirty- one years old The above sentence is more (present) likely to be translated as “the tree 2- Benim otele gelen bayan otuz m ɔ:tele gelen׀ that) I like” rather than bir yaşinda / ben) r jæʃindæ׀the tree which I like so much.” bæjæn ɔ:tuz b“ In the spoken language, a proper The woman that came to my noun of a relative clause is not hotel is thirty- one years old usually in need of identification (past) as follows: The ambiguity is resolved by the .n evleneceği Ayşe, işte bu context׀kenan æjʃe, Relative clauses in Modern ׀Ayşe /kenænən evlendʒeɣ :ʃte bu æjʃe/ standard Arabic׀ kenan+ possessive suffix (-in) + The relative clause is an marry+ relative pronoun (ecek)+ adverbial subordinate clause Ayshe + this+ Ayshe which postmodifies the referent. This is Ayshe that Kenan is The relative clause is considered going to marry (Gögsel and as an independent adverbial Kerslake,2006:389) clause linked to the antecedent In Turkish, the non- restrictive noun by a relative pronoun. In usage of relative clauses is Arabic, the relative pronoun common in the written language. agrees with the antecedent noun The problem of ambiguity is phrase in number, gender and raised at the stage of determining case and with the resumptive tense formation in Turkish pronoun in number and gender. relative clauses. For example, The resumptive pronoun refers to past and present tenses are an element or structure which marked by the same morpheme – repeats or recapitulates the

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 10 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 229

meaning of a prior element. Table 5: Relative pronouns in Accordingly, we have eight Arabic (Adapted from Al-Saidat different forms of the relative and Al-Momani, 2010:226) pronoun as the following table shows: Number and case Masc. Fem. Sing ʔallaðii ʔallati Du .Nom ʔallaðaani ʔallataani Du . Gen/Acc ʔallaðayni ʔallatayni Plural ʔallaðiina ʔallaati/ ʔallawaati/ ʔallaaʔi The following examples show the agreement with the antecedent noun phrase in number, gender and case 1- Singular masculine saw + the girl +dual nom. suffix ʃaahdtu ʔaltaliba ʔallaðii darasa (-ani) +who + broke +the table ʔaldarsa I saw the two girls who broke saw+the the table. student+who+studied+the lesson 5- Dual gen/ acc. masculine I saw the student who studied ʔalwaladajni ʔallaðajni kasara the lesson. ʔaltaawilata 2- Singular feminine the boy + dual acc. masculine raʔaytu alfatata ʔallati darasat suffix (-ajni) + who +broke + the ʔaldarsa table saw+ the girl +who +studied the two boys who broke the +the lesson table I saw the girl who studied the 6- Dual gen/ acc. feminine lesson. raʔajtu ʔalfataatajni ʔallatajni 3- Dual nom. masculine kasarataa attaawilata ʔalwaladaani ʔallaðaani kasaraa saw +I+the girl +dual acc. ʔalnaafiðata feminine suffix (-ajni ) +who + the boy+dual suffix(-an) +who broke + the table +broke +the window I saw the two girls who broke The two boys who broke the the table. window. 7- plural masculine 4- Dual nom. feminine ʔalʔawlaadu ʔallaðiina kasaru raʔaytu ʔalfataataani ʔallataani attawilata kasarata ʔaltawilata the boys + who +broke +the table the boys who broke the table

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 11 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 230

8- plural feminine went + relative pronoun (whom) ʔalbanatu ʔallaati or ʔallawaati + taught + object personal kasarna attawilata pronoun (him) (-hu) The girls +who +broke +the table The one whom I taught went. The girls who broke the table. (ʔalðii darastahu ) is a headless Types of relative clauses relative clause in which the Unlike Turkish, Arabic has two relative pronoun replaces the types of relative clauses based on noun phrase position. the grammatical definiteness of 2. Asyndectic relative clause: the head noun phase: An asyndectic relative clause is 1. Syndectic relative clause: used when the antecedent noun In a complex sentence with a phrase is indefinite. The relative syndectic relative clause, the pronoun cannot be used and the head noun phrase must be resumptive pronoun cannot be definite and a relative pronoun is deleted as follows: always present. qaraʔtu kitaban katabahu raʔajtu ʔattaliba ʔalaðii kasara ʔaliyyun. ʔalnafiðata. read + personal pronoun (I) (-tu) saw + personal pronoun I (-tu) + + book + wrote + personal definite article (ʔal) + student + pronoun () (-hu) + Ali who + broke + definite article I read a book (which was) written (ʔal) + window by Ali. I saw the student who broke the Hamdallah and Tushyeh window. (1998:141) state that the The relative pronoun ( ʔalaðii) resumptive pronoun may be (Who) which refers to the present or absent in some definite head noun phrase sentence as follows: (ʔattaliba)(student) links the ʔl kitaabu ʔalðii qaraʔtu (hu) relative clause to the main clause. the book +which +read +I + Khalil (2010 :292) states that the resumptive pronoun (optional)(- relative pronoun may be used hu) substantively as a head noun The book which I read phrase. That is, the main clause or has no head noun phrase. This is The book which I read (it) called headless relative clause as The pronominal suffix it (-hu) is the following example shows: optional in the above sentence. ðahaba ʔallaðii darrastuhu Comparison and contrast between Arabic and Turkish.

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 12 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 231

Turkish is a head final language 2. The relative pronoun in where the modifier always Modern Standard Arabic is precedes the modified. This determined by gender, number feature affects the word order of and case. Accordingly, we have the sentence which can be eight different shapes of the described as an SOV whereas relative pronouns: modern standard Arabic is VSO. ʔallaði, ʔallaðaani (ʔallaðayni), From the above discussion of ʔallaðiina, ʔallati, ʔallattaani relative clauses in modern (ʔallatayni) and ʔallaati or standard Arabic and Turkish, we ʔallawati . can conclude the following major Whereas in Turkish we use (- points: ecek, -en , - dik) as suffixes 1. Unlike Arabic, Turkish attached to the verb as stated relative clauses are pre-nominal, above regardless gender, number that is, the relative clause and case. precedes the head noun of the 3. A major difference between noun phrase as the following Turkish and modern standard example shows: Arabic is the use of a personal z / pronoun in relative clauses. The׀her gün otelda gördüğüm k her gyn ɔ:teldæ gəʊrdyɣym kəz/ pronoun is called resumptive every+ day +hotel +see +relative pronoun (the returning pronoun) pronoun (-dük)(whom)+personal which agrees with the relativized suffix (I)(- üm) +girl noun phrase in number, gender The girl whom I see at the hotel and case. The resumptive everyday pronoun appears when the Whereas the position of the relativized position is subject. relative clause is postnominal in When a headless relative clause Arabic, we use the clause after has coordinate noun phrases, a the head noun as the following returning pronoun appears as the example: following examples show: ʔalfataatu ʔalati ʔuʃaahiduha a. haraba ʔalaði huwa wa ʔaxi la kula jawm fii ʔalfunduq yattafiqan the girl +who +saw +implied escape + relative pronoun (who) pronoun (I) +every +day +in + + resumptive pronoun (he) + and the hotel + my brother + never + agree. The girl whom I see at the hotel The one whom my brother and everyday he never agree .

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 13 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 232

b. Al darsa ʔalaðii ħadˤartu contrastive analysis studies to mufiidun. acquire new insights. definite article (the) + lesson + Turkish is classified as being one relative pronoun (which) + of head languages in which the attended + resumptive pronoun head parameter is that principle (it) (-u) + useful. used especially in relation to The lesson which I attended is universal grammar which useful. concerns the position of heads Resumptive pronouns do not within phrases. It asserts that a appear in Turkish. language has the heads on the 4. Arabic relative clauses are same side in all phrases. Thus, more complicated than Turkish. languages are categorized either Turkish has only three forms of as head-first languages where a relative pronouns, Arabic has verb in the verb phrase is to the eight forms which are inflected left of the noun phrase as in to number, gender and case. English or head-last languages in 5. Due to the fact that Turkish is which the heads appear on the an agglutinative language, right as in relative clauses are indicated by Japanese(Crystal,1991:163). affixation. Turkish relative This characteristic affects the pronouns are used as suffixes and word order of the sentence which they cannot be separated from can be described as an SOV the verbs like (-an) but Arabic where the verb is positioned at relative pronouns are used as the end but Arabic is an VSO. separate words like (ʔalaði). Turkish is an agglutinative General Pedagogical language. Its relative pronouns Implications are used as suffixes and they Contrastive analysis is an cannot be separated from the essential part of language verbs which have final position, learning and teaching. Teachers but relative pronouns in Arabic should regard similarities and are used as separate words. differences between two Turkish learners face difficulties languages or more as signals of while learning relative clauses in progress and diagnosis of Arabic because they suffix the problems .Accordingly, teachers, Arabic relative pronouns. syllabi designers and test Teachers of Turkish who teach developers should make use of Arab learners should place greater emphasis on the

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 14 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 233

differences between Arabic and Arabic. Accordingly, Turkish Turkish in the area of relative learners produce such sentences clauses in order to avoid the ʔahbabtu ʔaldȝamiʔatu ʔallaati problems which appear in bunijat mabani learning Arabic. As Lado makes liked +I (-tu) +the university clear in Ellis “ the teacher who +relative pronoun (which) +built has made a comparison of the +buildings foreign language with the native in place of language of the students may ʔahbabtu ʔaldȝamiʔatu ʔallaati know what the real problems are bunijat mabaniha and can provide for teaching liked +I (-tu) +the university them, the origins of contrastive +relative pronoun (which) +built analysis, therefore, were +buildings+resumptive pronoun pedagogic” (1985:23) (-ha) (its) Relative clauses in Turkish are I liked the university whose morphological because the buildings have been built. suffixes of relative pronouns are Using different methods based on added to the verb ,whereas they the distinction between two are syntactic in Arabic because languages and creating solutions relative pronouns are added as to the problems that students face separate words. Accordingly, while learning a language teachers of Arabic for Turkish different from their mother learners ought to focus on this tongue shape the classroom issue. If there is a lack of learning efficiently and affect the knowledge on the form of student’s positivity. relative clauses, the teacher On the basis of the previously should make a review and give mentioned discussion, the examples. researchers are recommended to Teachers of Arabic who teach conduct empirical studies on this Turkish should place greater issue by constructing two tests to emphasis on the areas of be given to Turkish speakers interference between Turkish and learning Arabic as a foreign Arabic. They should be aware of language and /or Arabic speakers mother language interference learning Turkish as a foreign which hinders learning Turkish language with relative clauses as relative clauses. Turkish differs the focus of each test. The from Arabic in the sense that we analysis of the results will be can use resumptive pronoun in

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 15 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 234

helpful in foreign language dual-acc, gen) and ʔallaati or learning. ʔallawaati (feminine plural). Conclusion 3. Unlike Turkish, the relative Contrastive linguistics is pronoun in Modern Standard concerned with comparing two or Arabic is determined by gender, more languages for the purpose number and case. of identifying similarities and 4. Unlike Arabic, Turkish differences in areas of relative clauses are pre-nominal, phonology, morphology, that is the clause precedes the lexicography and syntax. head noun whereas the Modern This paper has attempted to Standard Arabic is post-nominal, compare Turkish and Modern that is the relative clause is used Standard Arabic in terms of after the head noun. describing the similarities and References differences between them in the Al-Saidat, Emad and Islam Al- area of relative clauses. The Momani: paper has clarified the following “Future Markers in Modern major points: Standard Arabic and Jordanian 1. Turkish is an agglutinative Arabic: AContrastive Study” in language. Its relative pronouns European Journal of Social are used as bound morphemes Sciences, vol.12, No 3,2010 suffixed to the verb whereas Modern Standard Arabic relative Brown,H. Douglas: Principles of pronouns are used as separate Language Learning and words. Teaching, San- 2. Turkish relative clauses Francisco State contain one of these principal Univesity,Pearson suffixes (-y) an,- dik or (y)- ecak Longman,2000. corresponding to modern Crystal, D. A Dictionary of standard Arabic relative Linguistics and Phonetics pronouns ,which are ,Oxford: OUP ,1991. ʔallaði (masculine singular), Ellis, R. :Understanding Second ʔallaðaani (masculine dual-nom), Language Acquisition, OUP, ʔallaðayni ( masculine dual- Oxford ,1985. acc./gen) , ʔallaðiina (masculine Fries, C. C.: Teaching and plural), , ʔallaati (feminine Learning English as a Foreign singular), ʔallattaani (feminine Language, University of dual-nom) ʔallatayni (feminine, Michigan, Michigan, 1945.

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 16 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 235

and Celia Kerslake Khalil, Aziz M: A Contrastive ׀Göksel,Asl :Turkish:A Comprehensive Grammar of English and Arabic, Grammar, The Jordan Book Center, Routledge,London,2006 Amman, 2010. Hamdallah ,Rami and Hanna Wardhaugh ,Ronald :The Tushyer : A Contrastive Analysis Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis of English and Arabic in ,TESOL Quarterly,4.2.1970.123- Relativization in Papers and 130. Studies in Contrastive Analysis ,14.pp141-152 ,1998 James, C. : Contrastive Analysis, Longman Group Ltd, Essex, 1980.

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 17 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 236

Appendix 1 THE TURKISH ALPHABET AND WRITING CONVENTIONS Adapted from Göksel and Kerslake (2006,p.xxii) The list below provides a rough guide to the pronunciation of the 22 consonants and 8 vowels in Turkish. Letter Pronunciation A, a pronounced as u in ‘cup’ B, b b as in ‘bit C, c j as in ‘jam’ Ç, ç ch as in ‘chip’ D, d d as in ‘deep’ E, e e as in ‘ten’ F, f f as in ‘fit’ or ‘full’ G, g g as in ‘get’ or ‘gull’ ğ either lengthens the sound of the vowel preceding it or is silent between two vowels H, h h as in ‘hope’; pronounced also in word medial and final positions and sometimes silent between two vowels I, ı pronounced as a in ‘among’, ‘alone’ İ, i a shorter form of ee as in ‘beet’ or i as in ‘bit’ J, j s as in ‘leisure’ K, k k as in ‘kept’, ‘cure’ and ‘calf’ L, l l as in ‘lamp’, ‘bull’ or ‘lurid’ M, m m as in ‘milk’ N, n n as in ‘no’ O, o o as in ‘off’ Ö, ö resembles the sound which is produced when e as in ‘’ is pronounced with the lips rounded, as in the German sound ‘ö’ P, p p as in ‘pin’ R, r produced with the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar S, s s as in ‘hiss’ Ş, ş sh as in ‘sheep’ T, t t as in ‘time’ U, u u as in ‘cute’ or put’ Ü, ü resembles the sound which is produced when i as in ‘bit’ is pronounced with the lips rounded, as in the German sound ‘ü V, v v as in ‘very’

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 18 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 237

Y, y y as in ‘you’ Z, z z as in ‘zigza

Appendix 2

IPA Arabic Sounds (1996)

1. Consonants IPA Letter(s) nearest English Trans.

equivalent bee b ب b deed d د dark ḍ, d ض dˤ joy/good/beige ǧ, j ج [dʒ [1

[2] this ḏ, dh, z ذ [ð [3 thus ẓ, z ظ [ðˤ [1 Northwest fool f) ف f

(ڢ Africa good g (not DIN 31635 ج [ɡ [1

[2] [4] standard) he h ه h No equivalent ḥ, h ح ħ yes y ي j skin k ﻙ k leaf l ل l only bell ﷲ lˤ [5] In man m م m no n ن n thing ṯ, th, s ﺙ [θ [3

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 19 Hebron University Research Journal-B (Humanities) - (???? ????? ?????? ??????- ? (?????? ?????????, Vol. 11 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 11 Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 238

scar q, k ق [q [6

[7] trilled like in Italian r ر [r [8 ɾˤ [9] dark tap/trill (Egyptian

[10] Arabic) see s س s saw ṣ, s ص [sˤ [10 she š, sh, ch ش ʃ stick t ت t star ṭ, t ط [tˤ [10 we w و w loch ḫ, kh خ [x [11 between a light go and ġ, gh غ [ɣ [12

ahold zoo z ز z bazaar ẓ, z ظ [zˤ [1

[10] ' ,` ,No equivalent ʿ ع ʕ ’ ,' ,uh-(ʔ)oh ʾ ء ʔ

2. Vowels narrow broad Letter(s) nearest English Trans. (MSA equivalent only) æ [13] a pat a pan ā, a [14] ى or ا æː [13] aː ɑ [6] A park a par ā, a [14] ى or ا ɑː [6] aː cut ah, a ة ɐ [15] A e [16] pet e ,in pay ē, ei, ai, ēh, eh) ـيه or ي [eː [17 Egyptian Arabic) eih, aih ɪ [18] I sit i i sit see ī, i, ee [14] ى or ي iː iː

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/hujr_b/vol11/iss1/11 20 ??? ????: Relative Clauses: A Contrastive Analysis of Modern Standard Arabi Ibrahim Abushihab, Relative Clauses ..H.U.R.J., Vol.(11), No.(1): 219-239 ,2016 239

o [16] more o in Egyptian more ō, o) و [oː [17 Arabic) ʊ [19] U soot u, ou u soot soon ū, u, ou, oo و uː uː

3. Marginal Sounds IPA Letter(s) English Examples Trans. spin p [20] پ p church č, tsh, tch, ch تش tʃ vine v [20] ڤ beige ž, j ژ or [20] چ [ʒ [2

Published by Arab Journals Platform, 2020 21