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When the Poet Is a Stranger: Poetry and Agency in Tagore, Walcott, and Darwish

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When the Poet Is a Stranger: Poetry and Agency in Tagore, Walcott, and Darwish When the Poet Is a Stranger: Poetry and Agency in Tagore, Walcott, and Darwish by Khaled Mattawa Department of English Duke University Date: May 28, 2009 Approved ________________________________ Prof. Srinivas Aravamudan, Supervisor ________________________________ Prof. James Applewhite ________________________________ Prof. Ian Baucom ________________________________ Prof. Miriam Cooke Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English in the Graduate School of Duke University 2009 i v ABSTRACT When the Poet Is a Stranger: Poetry and Agency in Tagore, Walcott, and Darwish by Khaled Mattawa Department of English Duke University Date: May 28, 2009 Approved ________________________________ Prof. Srinivas Aravamudan, Supervisor ________________________________ Prof. James Applewhite ________________________________ Prof. Ian Baucom ________________________________ Prof. Miriam Cooke An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in the Department of English in the Graduate School of Duke University 2009 Copyright by Khaled Mattawa 2009 ABSTRACT This study is concerned with the process of the making of a postcolonial poet persona where the poet is addressing multiple audiences and is trying to speak for, and speak to, multiple constituencies through poetry. The poets examined here, Rabindranath Tagore, Derek Walcott, and Mahmoud Darwish—arguably among the best-known poets of the modern world—sought to be heard by various sensibilities and succeeded in reaching them. Outside the fold of the Western Metropolitan world, they as a trio have much to teach us about how poets living under three different phases of colonial hegemony (colonial India, postcolonial West Indies, and neocolonial Palestine/Israel) manage to speak. Their presence in their poetry, or the pressure their life stories and their poet personae, becomes an essential part of reading their work. Desiring to speak themselves, the poets chosen here have necessarily had to speak for their regions, peoples and cultures, alternately celebrating and resisting the burden of representation, imposed on them by both their own people and by the outsiders who receive them. How does a postcolonial poet address changing contingencies—personal, social and political— while continuing to hold the attention of a global readership? How have their formal and esthetic approaches shifted as they responded to contingencies and as they attempted intervene in local and global conversations regarding the fate and future of their societies? An examination of the genre of poetry and postcolonial agency, this study addresses these and other related questions as it looks at the emergence and evolution of Tagore, Walcott, and Darwish as postcolonial world poets. iv In memory of my father: Ahmad Mattawa (1924-2000) v CONTENTS Abstract iv Acknowledgements ix INTRODUCTION: WHEN THE POET IS A STRANGER 1 A. The Poet’s Presence 4 B. When the Poet Is A Stranger 8 C. Poetic Agency and Postcolonial Theory 9 D. Models: The Evolution of the Postcolonial Writer 16 E. Tagore, Walcott, Darwish and Postcolonial Chronology 26 F. Aspirations 30 CHAPTER 1: AT HOME AND IN THE WORLD:THE EVOLUTION OF 34 RABINDRANATH TAGORE’S POET PERSONA A. Prodigy 34 B. Poet of Bengal 40 1. Intertextual Subjectivity 40 2. Seeking Ubiquity 52 3. Ubiquity as Ethics and Esthetics 62 a. Cultural Reformist 65 b. Sentimental Educator 68 c. Rebel 72 C. Poet and Empire: Ambivalence and Enthusiasm 79 1. A Tale of Two Visits: A Troubled Relation with the Empire 79 2. Refashioning the East, Imagining Synthesis 84 D. Poet of the World 92 1. Modernist Misreadings: Yeats and Pound 95 2. The Orientalist Stacked Deck 100 3. Translation and the Limits of Expediency 109 4. Assessing Tagore’s Westward Venture 115 CHAPTER 2: DEREK WALCOTT: ODESSEYAN AGENCY “HERE” AND 120 “ELSEWHERE” A. A Far Cry from Empire: Walcott’s Multiple Beginnings 125 1. Apprenticeship Among the Ruins 125 2 . Journeys Inside the Mask: My Names Are Adam & Crusoe 135 3. Sad Boast: The End of the Beginning 143 B. Rebellion: More Native Than Thou 153 vi C. Guest Intruder: Poet of the Third World 170 D. The Epical Turn: Speaking Myth to History 186 E. Epilogue 200 CHAPTER 3: MAHMOUD DARWISH AND E(S)TH(ET)ICS OF POETIC 204 AGENCY A. Introduction: Perennial Tensions 204 B. The Poet and the National Literature 216 1. Biography 216 2. The Poet and Palestinian Literature: a Context 218 C. Poet Under Occupation (1961-1971) 229 1. Speaking in WE 230 2. Out of Victims and Martyrs: Shaping the Palestinian Subject 235 3. Lover of the Feminized Nation 241 4. Demythologizing (and Humanizing) the Adversary 247 D. Poet of National Liberation (1971-1986) 256 1. Reconfiguring the Poem’s Social Unit 257 2. Psalmist of Exile: Poet of the Palestinian Diaspora 263 3. Poems of Exodus: Poet of the Armed Struggle 268 4. Muffled Epical Screams 272 5. Prose Rescues Poetry 279 E. To Survive in the World: Writing the Deep Past and the Deep Present 284 (1986-1993) 1.Collective Soliloquies 287 2. The Battle Over Myth and History 295 3. Poetic Agency of the Deep Present and Deep Past 310 F. Who Am I Without Contingency? (1995-2008) 312 1. Anxieties of Renewal and a National Late Style 312 2. Toward a New Esthetics of Agency: From Identity to Identification 319 3. The Travails of Separation of Poet and Nation-State 327 G. Parting Words: The Poet Appropriates Contingency 335 CONCLUSION: WHEN THE POET IS A STRANGER: 348 AN EPILOGUE IN THREE STORIES A. Three Stories 352 B. Manifold Agency: Agha Shahid Ali 355 C. Poetry and the Iraq War 361 D. The Metropolis and the Poet-stranger: The “Taha” Effect 365 E. Who and What Is Translated? 369 vii F. Translation and the Diasporic Community 372 G. Translation and the Poet-Stranger: Agha Shahid Ali 374 H. Homage to Celan: The Truth in Performance 376 Appendix 1 (from Edward Said’s Introduction to The Last Sky) 380 Works Cited 384 Biography 402 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Institute for the Humanities and the Department of English at the University of Michigan for granting me research leaves during which parts of this dissertation were written. I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee James Applewhite, Ian Baucom, and Miriam Cooke for their incisive and supportive observations. Thanks also to Iman Mersal for her encouragement and feedback on the Darwish chapter. I wish also to thank to Megan Levad, Karyna McGlynn, and Nava EtShalom for proofing the manuscript, and to Matthew Fischer for his assistance with the transliteration of Arabic terms. I owe Srinivas Aravamudan an endless debt of gratitude. Without his unwavering support and advocacy this project would have never seen the light of day. Finally, I wish to also thank my wife Reem and my daughter Salma whose love and confidence made the pursuit of this project worthwhile. ix INTRODUCTION: WHEN THE POET IS A STRANGER I grew up on the Eastern side of Libya, where people’s habits of mind are tied to their vernacular poetry. Similar to their kin across the border in Egypt, the inhabitants of Eastern Libya “often punctuated their conversations with short poems” (Abu Lughod 24). Many of these poems repeated by my countrymen and women are beyond interpretation. So many of them have become metonymic for given circumstances, and so deeply codified within conversation that they cannot be reconstructed or paraphrased. Abu Lughod, who studied the poetry recited in the northern parts of the Libyan Desert (Western Egypt and Eastern Libya), found that when she “asked what a poem meant,” people “either simply repeated the words or described the type of situation that might elicit that poem” (27). Using obscure vocabulary and condensed images, these short poems, called cAllam, have managed to convey meaning despite, and even because of, their density. In this context the cAllam poem is held in collective ownership in a semi- iconic status in which different emotions have their own poetic hieroglyphs. The question of who wrote a line or a passage is not a common one. In fact, querying about the poet’s name is often met with surprise (Al-cŪkley 18). In this part of the world, one ought to know that the cAllam poem is anonymous. Reciting a poetic phrase or a passage does not invite speculations about the poet’s intentions or origins, but about what the user of the poem means by it. 1 There are times, however, when the lines of poetry recited belong to someone, an author. This is rare, but it makes all the difference. In Eastern Libya one wants to always know where a person comes from “tribally,” especially in the relatively new cities of Beida and Benghazi where no one has deep historical roots, and it is important to identify oneself by tribal affiliation. Knowing who the poet is tribally adds another layer of interpretation to the poem. One should not be surprised when a Mnifi, a member of the Mnifa tribe who are known for their piety and their historical connection to the Sanussi religious movement, writes a poem with heavy religious overtones. One may hear also something like, “This poet is a Bara’assi!? But he writes against the government, while his tribe which is in cahoots with the regime!” In the cases outlined here, authorship is placed in a tribal context and the poet’s attempt to foreground his individual presence dissolves within this context. A poet’s presence might be noted if it is clear that there is a discrepancy between the author and his tribal background. Otherwise, as cAqīlah notes, it is to be expected that the poet’s name would disappear, as would most of the poem’s context and historical circumstances (32), and it would belong to all its users across the region.
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