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VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY Julija Germanavičiūtė VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF CULTURAL STUDIES Julija Germanavičiūtė JAPANESE CIVIL SOCIETY AFTER 1998: THE CASE OF NPOS FOCUSED ON INTEGRATION OF FOREIGNERS Final Master‘s Thesis East Asia Region Studies programme, Code 621L20007 Field of Studies: Political Science Supervisor: Dr. Linas Didvalis ______________ ___________ (signature) (date) Defended: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rūta Eidukevičienė ______________ ___________ (Dean of the faculty) (signature) (date) Kaunas, 2017 Contents Santrauka 3 Summary 4 Introduction 5 PART I THE COMPATIBILITY OF CIVIL SOCIETY AND MULTICULTURALISM 1.1 Different approaches to civil society 9 1.2 Shifting from homogeneity to multiculturalism 14 1.3 Political environment for NPOs and multiculturalism 17 1.4 Emerging civil society in Japan 19 PART II NON-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS AND FOREIGNERS 2.1 Facilitating domestic and international NPO network 25 2.2 The need for pro-foreign support groups 27 2.3 Relationship between Japanese civil organisations and the government 30 2.4 Multiculturalism and civil society in Japan 35 2.5 Interaction of the private sector and civil society 39 PART III JAPANESE NGOS MONITORED BY FOREIGNERS 3.1 Interaction of foreign NPOs and the government 44 3.2 Fostering cooperation between the private sector and foreign NPOs 47 3.3 Prospects to improve Japan’s civil society 49 Conclusions 52 Bibliography 54 Appendices 62 2 Santrauka Lyginant Japonijos pilietinę visuomenę su kitų šalių visuomenėmis, skaičių bei įvairovę nevyriausybinių (toliau NVO) bei nepelno siekiančių organizacijų, akademikai pažymi, kad ji – dar tik pradinio vystymosi stadijoje. Tam turėjo įtakos Imperatoriaus kultas, iki 1947-ųjų galiojusi konstitucija bei kiti piliečius bei jų teises reglamentuojantys įstatymai. Japonijai aktyviai vystant savo kaip tarptautinės veikėjos veiklą 1980-aisiais bei 1990-aisias, kilusios diskusijos apie Japonijos pilietinę visuomenę bei įvykęs Kobės žemės drebėjimas paspartino įstatymo, skatinančio specialių nepelno siekiančių veiklų įstatymo projektą 1998 kovo 19 dieną, pasiūlymą. Jis įsigaliojo tų pačių metų gruodžio 1-ąją dieną. Nuo jo įsigaliojimo praėjo jau devyniolika metų, tačiau vis dar diskutuojama apie šio įstatymo poveikį Japonijos pilietinėje visuomenėje. Jo poveikis Japonijos nevyriausybinėms organizacijos, orientuotoms į užsieniečius bei jų integraciją vis dar mažai ištirtas. Turint omenyje, tai kad ilgus karinio nacionalizmo dešimtmečius prieš ir Antrojo Pasaulio karo metu buvo akcentuojamas Japonijos kaip „grynos“ tautos vienodumas, svarbu išsiaiškinti, ar 1998- ųjų įstatymas turėjo įtakos NVO bei nepelno siekiančių, į užsieniečius orientuotų, organizacijų veiklai. Šiuo metu Japonijoje yra užregistruota daugiau nei 52 tūkst. NVO bei nepelno siekiančių organizacijų. Tik mažiau nei tūkstantis iš jų turi oficialųjį statusą, įgalinantį mokesčių lengvatas. Sveikintina, kad įstatymas pašalino iki tol buvusias esmines biurokratines kliūtis. Tačiau po beveik dvidešimties metų, NVO organizacijų vadovai teigia, kad įstatymas – nepakankamas žingsnis vystant bei plečiant Japonijos pilietinę visuomenę. Šio darbo tikslas – išsiaiškinti, ar įstatymas turėjo įtakos minėtų organizacijų veiklai bei įvardinti dabartinius iššūkius, su kuriomis susiduria NVO organizacijos. Šiam tikslui buvo pasitelkta 21 organizacijų veiklos analizė. 21 organizacijų atstovams bei 1 asmeniui, dirbančiajam NPO sektoriuje, buvo išsiųsti 3-12 klausimų klausimynai elektroniniu paštu bei naudojantis „Facebook“ socialiniu tinklu. 9 iš minėtųjų organizacijų atsakė, 6 iš jų dėl narių bei laiko stygiaus atsisakė atsakyti į klausimus. 5 organizacijos neatsakė į užklausas. Tyrimo pabaigoje išaiškėjo, kad oficialus pripažinimas suteikė daugiau autoritetingumo minėtoms organizacijoms. Dėl to, kai kurioms organizacijoms pavyko pritraukti daugiau finansinių rėmėjų bei užmegzti ryšius su kitomis NVO ar valstybinėmis institucijomis. Įskaitant tai, kad Japonijos visuomenėje pasitikėjimas NVO yra žemas, toks veiksnys yra ypač svarbus. Užsieniečius remiančios NVO susiduria su tomis pačiomis problemomis kaip ir kitos nepelno siekiančios organizacijos: finansavimu bei narių trūkumu. Medicininės pagalbos tipo NVO jaunų narių stygius yra ypač jaučiamas. Priklausomai nuo vykdomos organizacijos veiklos, kai kurie užsieniečiai, įkūrę ne pelno siekiančias organizacijas, yra diskriminuojami. 3 Germanavičiūtė, J. Japanese Civil Society After 1998: the Case of NPOs Focused on Integration of Foreigners, Master Thesis in East Asia region studies/ supervisor PhD L. Didvalis; Vytautas Magnus University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Cultural Studies, Kaunas, 2017, 59 p. Summary In contrast to Japan‘s advancement in technologies, its civil society is far from mature. Researchers note that, in this regard, Japan is still at an early stage. Due to several significant factors: Japan‘s active role as an international player in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic corruption scandals, Kobe earthquake, public and media discontent and statements of political activists, the Law to Promote Special Non-Profit Activities was introduced on March 19th, 1998. It came into effect on December 1st, e.a. It created favourable legal environment for new non-profit (hereinafter NPO) and non-governmental (hereinafter NGO) organisations. Its importance on civil associations has remained a topic of debate. However, its impact on pro-foreigner Japanese civil associations has been scarcely analysed. After the enactment of three additional NPO-supportive legislations in 2008, the object of the research has gained more importance. In contrast to other samples of developed civil society, such as the US, Canada, and Germany, Japan’ state of civil society has remained the object of academic research. Multicultural civil society is contradicted to a homogeneous nation. Japan has been accused for being the latter, though it strives to become the former. Occasional statements advocating the superiority of the homogenous Japanese nation are contrasted to the number and diversity of Japanese civil associations. Currently, there are more than 52 000 civil associations registered. Nonetheless, only less than 1000 of them have the status of a certified NPO. In order to discover whether the 1998 NPO Law has had any contribution to pro-foreign NGOs and NPOs, 21 organisations and 1 NGO consultant were sent questionnaires containing 3 to 12 questions via email and “Facebook” social network. 9 out of total 21 responded. Due to the lack of time and human resources, 6 organisations refused to answer to the questions, 5 organisations did not present any response. After analysing the financial rand activity reports and the answers of the respondents, the following findings have been presented. The 1998 law had hardly any significant effect on the mentioned organisations. However, the status of an officially approved organisation (nintei status) raises the overall reputation. Such factor is of significant importance since NGOs and NPOs have low authority among government institutions and the population. The status earns more social trust which can result in attracting financial donors. Pro-foreign civil associations face mainly two challenges: insufficient human resources and unstable funding. Medical NGOs emphasise the lack of young members. Foreigners, who establish NPOs in Japan, rarely encounter additional discrimination for their nationality. Discrimination by the governmental authorities seems to depend on the activities of such NPO. 4 INTRODUCTION In the modern world, the term ‘civil society’ conveys the totality of diverse non- governmental (NGO) and non-profit (NPO) organisations. Due to industrialisation, modernisation, and democratisation processes, civil society has a unique form of expression in different countries. The Unites States, Canada, and certain European countries (the Netherlands, the UK, Germany, and France) with longer history of democracy may be praised for a variety and significantly higher number of civil associations. In this regard, Japan falls under the category of ‘developing countries’1. The former, Meiji Constitution, defined citizens as the inferior entity subjected to the divine authority of the Emperor. Therefore, it is one of the factors which resulted in slow transcendence from minzoku (民族; ethnic nation) to society, shakai (社会), constituted of self-conscious individuals. Only in the 1960s, due to rapid modernisation and, therefore, rapid pollution, the foundation for civic groups was laid. The end of the Cold War, internationalisation, as well as globalisation, and Japan’s foreign affairs policy forced the population and civil activists to search for new approaches. Additionally, quick mobilisation of civilians after the Kobe earthquake revealed the potential of the Japanese civil society. One of the key obstacles for civil society in Japan to flourish was the absence of legislation regulating non-governmental organisations. Long bureaucratic processing and strict requirements deprived a high number of civil organisations of receiving nintei (認定) status, the status of a certified NPO. Finally, in 1998, the Law to Promote Specified Non-Profit activities was enacted. Since then, a surge of civil associations has been recorded. Nonetheless, some evident limitations remain. Supposedly, the act should have permitted more legal and organizational freedom for such associations as Asian People’s Friendship Society (APFS), which advocate multicultural society and foreigners’ integration into the society. In contrast to promoted
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