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OF MYCENAEAN DEFENSE WORKS: ASSESSING LABOUR INVESTMENT for FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION DURING the LATE HELLADIC PERIOD (Ca

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OF MYCENAEAN DEFENSE WORKS: ASSESSING LABOUR INVESTMENT for FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION DURING the LATE HELLADIC PERIOD (Ca THE “ENERGETICS” OF MYCENAEAN DEFENSE WORKS: ASSESSING LABOUR INVESTMENT FOR FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION DURING THE LATE HELLADIC PERIOD (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) A Thesis Submitted to the Committee on Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science TRENT UNIVERSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada © Copyright by Philip S. Cook 2014 Anthropology M.A. Graduate Program September 2014 ii ABSTRACT The “Energetics” of Mycenaean Defense Works: Assessing Labour Investment for Fortification Construction during the Late Helladic Period (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) Philip S. Cook This thesis examines the mobilization of labour required for fortification construction during the Late Helladic (LH) period of the Aegean Bronze Age. It adopts an “energetics” approach to architecture, as a framework for systematically calculating the labour costs of construction, and using such costs to infer relative differences in political power among groups and communities through the implied differences in labour control. Accordingly, construction costs were generated for thirty-six LH fortifications, located across seven distinct regional zones of the Greek mainland and Aegean Sea. These values were then compared and evaluated against what is known of the political geographies for each region, to measure the extent to which the mobilization of labour was a function of regional power in Late Bronze Age Greece. These assessments revealed that a wide range of variation existed among the sampled regions in terms of the strength and nature of this connection, underscoring the diversity in labour relations that developed throughout the Aegean during the LH period. The labour costs were also used to suggest specific systems of recruitment that may have been in place for mobilizing workers, and to argue that fortification construction would not have been particularly burdensome or demanding for certain local populations. Keywords: Aegean Late Bronze Age, fortifications, Mycenaean, monumental architecture, construction, energetics, labour, power iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisory committee for their efforts in assisting with the completion of this thesis. Dr. Gyles Ianonne offered useful suggestions during the annual committee meetings, as well as helpful critical feedback for my original draft during the defense examination. My external reviewer for the thesis defense was Maud Devolder, who similarly provided useful critiques regarding my calculations and methodology. As my thesis supervisor, Dr. Rodney Fitzsimons provided constant feedback and probing responses to my drafts, which helped me to sharpen my ideas and find clarity in my writing. Our meetings during my first year also proved invaluable, as opportunities for me to critically engage with the many interpretations and arguments pertaining to the Aegean Bronze Age world. I would also like to thank the staff and faculty of the Department of Anthropology at Trent University, as well as Kristine Williams from the Anthropology Graduate Program office, and Jane Rennie from the Office of Graduate Studies. Thank you also to the Sandi Carr Graduate Anthropology Scholarship, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship, and the Trent Graduate Student Association for the necessary financial support. Many graduate students within the department have given invaluable feedback— both formal and informal—that contributed significantly to the ideas and structure of this thesis. Our discussions and debates over first-year course readings were not only refreshing, but greatly improved my understanding of all things archaeological. I would specifically like to thank my fellow office-mates from OC 101, who were always there for a necessary social break. iv Finally, I am indebted to the support of family (my mother Maria, my uncle Theo, and my sister Megan) and my friends (George, Sadowy, Stenny Sten, Aaron, Barbaro, John White, and others), who were always my connection to a distant home while away at graduate school. I am also grateful for the support from Kristen, who for two years offered friendship, love, and advice, without which I would not be where I am today. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT / ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS / iii TABLE OF CONTENTS / v LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS/ vii LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES / viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research context and objectives / 1 1.2 Outline of thesis / 4 1.3 Notes on chronology / 5 CHAPTER 2: SOCIOPOLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION IN LATE HELLADIC GREECE 2.1 Introduction / 6 2.2 General patterns of development during the Late Helladic period / 7 2.2.1 Early Mycenaean period (MH III-LH II) / 7 2.2.2 Mycenaean palatial society (LH IIIA-B) / 9 2.2.3 Collapse of palatial society (LH IIIC) / 15 2.2.4 Regional variation in development and political geography / 18 2.3 The mobilization of labour for construction: what we know / 20 2.4 Late Helladic fortifications: filling in the gaps / 23 2.4.1 Stylistic development of LH fortifications / 23 2.4.2 Construction materials, methods, and techniques / 26 2.4.3 Traditional approaches and interpretations / 29 CHAPTER 3: POWER, LABOUR MOBILIZATION, AND MONUMENTAL CONSTRUCTION 3.1 Introduction / 32 3.2 The nature of political power / 33 3.3 Power and the control of labour / 34 3.4 Monumental architecture: an “energetic” expression of power / 37 3.4.1 Traditional perspectives / 37 3.4.2 Challenges, limitations, and alternatives / 42 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY: ARCHITECTURAL ENERGETICS AND ITS APPLICATION TO LATE HELLADIC FORTIFICATIONS 4.1 Introduction / 46 4.2 Architectural energetics / 46 4.2.1 Procedures and advantages / 47 4.2.2 Addressing limitations and critiques / 50 4.3 Applying architectural energetics to LH fortifications / 54 4.3.1 Sample of fortified sites for analysis / 55 4.3.2 Interpolations and assumptions for architectural dimensions / 57 4.3.3 Labour rates for construction / 59 vi 4.3.4 Assumptions and limitations in estimates / 60 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS: LABOUR-COST ESTIMATES FOR FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION 5.1 Introduction / 67 5.2 Overall trends in the labour costs / 67 5.3 Regional patterns / 82 5.3.1 Achaia / 82 5.3.2 Argolid / 82 5.3.3 Attika and the Saronic Gulf / 85 5.3.4 Boeotia, Phokis, and Lokris / 86 5.3.5 Cyclades / 88 5.3.6 Messenia / 89 5.3.7 Thessaly / 89 CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION: SOCIOPOLITICAL CONTEXTS OF CONSTRUCTION 6.1 Introduction / 90 6.2 Evaluating costs within their regional context / 90 6.2.1 Achaia / 90 6.2.2 Argolid / 96 6.2.3 Attika and the Saronic Gulf / 105 6.2.4 Boeotia, Phokis, and Lokris / 114 6.2.5 Cyclades / 123 6.2.6 Messenia / 131 6.2.7 Thessaly / 139 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS 7.1 Fortification construction and LBA political geography / 144 7.2 Insights into labour organization for fortification construction / 148 7.3 Labour mobilization and collapse? / 152 7.4 Suggestions for future research / 154 BIBLIOGRAPHY / 156 APPENDIX A: Site Catalogue / 207 APPENDIX B: Labour Rates for Construction, and their Sources / 247 APPENDIX C: Volumetric Measurements for Sample Sites / 255 APPENDIX D: Labour-Cost Estimates for Sample Sites / 270 MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND AVAILABLE SITE PLANS / 300 vii LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS Table Description Page 1.1 Chronological Table for the Aegean Bronze Age 5 4.1 Labour rates for relevant work tasks, with original source 60 5.1 Potential labour recruitment strategies 81 Graph Description Page 5.1 Ranking of sites by total labour cost 69 5.2a-b Dendrogram for cluster analysis of total labour costs 70 5.3 Total volume for all sites 72 5.4 Total weight for all sites 73 5.5 Total labour costs, ordered by chronological phase 76 5.6a-b Change in average labour cost over time 77 viii LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES Map Description Page 1 Distribution of sample sites across the Aegean 300 2 Sample site from Achaia 301 3 Sample sites from the Argolid 302 4 Sample sites from Attika and the Saronic Gulf 303 5 Sample sites from Boeotia, Phokis, and Lokris 304 6 Sample sites from the Cyclades 305 7 Sample sites from Messenia 306 8 Sample sites from Thessaly 307 Figure Description Page 1 Plan of fortifications at Aegina: Kolonna, with colored sections representing the various phases of construction 308 2 Exposed section of City VIII fortification wall at Aegina: Kolonna, showing preserved height and style of masonry 308 3 Plan of fortifications at Kea: Ayia Irini, showing the extant remains of the Period V circuit wall 309 4 Plan of fortifications at Mirou: Peristeria, showing preserved section and projected course of the wall 310 5 Plan of fortifications at Malthi Dorion, showing the course of the wall, the location of gates, and the main features of the settlement 310 6 Plan of fortifications walls at Vari: Kiapha Thiti, showing the excavated sections along the northeast slope of the settlement 311 7 The three identified building phases of the LH IIIA-B fortifications at Tiryns 312 8 The three identified building phases of the LH IIIA-B fortifications at Mycenae 313 ix 9 Stretch of the North Wall at Mycenae (facing east), showing the course of the wall following the contours of the acropolis bedrock 314 10 Plan of fortifications at Krisa, showing the preserved course of the circuit wall 314 11 Preserved western section of fortifications at Krisa (facing southwest), showing an early form of Cyclopean construction 315 12 Plan of fortifications at Thebes, showing the LH III settlement and proposed locations for the original gates 316 13 Lion Gate at Mycenae, showing the use of pseudo-ashlar conglomerate for the
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