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The Geological Origins of the Oracle at Delphi, Greece1 J.Z

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The Geological Origins of the Oracle at Delphi, Greece1 J.Z The Geological Origins of the Oracle at Delphi, Greece1 J.Z. DE BOER Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, USA J.R. HALE College of Arts & Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA ncient authors from Plato to Pausanias geological setting of the sanctuary. According have left descriptions of Delphi’s to a number of Greek and Roman authorities, Aoracle and its mantic sessions. The the women who spoke the prophecies at latter were interpreted as events in which the Delphi sat on a tripod that spanned a cleft Pythia (priestess) placed herself on a tripod over or fissure in the rock within the temple of a cleft (fissure) in the ground below the Apollo Apollo. Vapours rose from this chasm into temple. Here she inhaled a vapour rising from the inner sanctum or adyton, where they the cleft, and became inspired with the power of intoxicated the priestess and inspired her prophecy. French archaeologists who excavated prophecies. The ancient testimonies have the oracle site at the turn of the century reported been challenged during the past half- no evidence of either fissures or gaseous emissions century, as modern archaeologists failed to and concluded that the ancient accounts were locate any cleft or source of vapours within myths. As a result, modern classical scholars the foundations of the ruined temple and and many archaeologists reject the ancient therefore concluded that the ancient sources testimonies concerning the mantic sessions and must have been in error. However, a recent their geological origin. geological study of the sanctuary and adjacent However, the geological conditions at the areas has shown that the preconditions for oracle site do not a priori exclude the early the emission of intoxicating fumes are indeed accounts. A major WNW-ESE fault zone and a present at Delphi. These findings suggest minor swarm of NNW-SSE fractures intersect that Greek and Roman texts may preserve below the site. These intersection(s) provided an accurate record of ancient geological pathways for rising ground water, including a events and phenomena. spring below the Apollo temple. Bronze Age Greeks established a religious The faults broke through a bituminous centre at Delphi in central Greece before limestone formation at relatively shallow depth. 1200 BC, but the famous oracle can be Hydrocarbon gases that originated in this traced back with certainty only as far as the formation may have escaped during and after eighth century BC. Tradition named Gaia seismo-tectonic events. Such gases can induce (Earth) followed by Poseidon (Earthshaker) mild narcotic effects. It is highly probable as gods originally worshipped at Delphi, therefore that the Pythia’s inspiration resulted but they were succeeded by Apollo, god of from the inhalation of light hydrocarbon gases, prophecy (Parke 1956). The oracle of Apollo which rose along a fissure (fracture) in the at Delphi became the most prestigious in adyton below the Apollo temple. the Mediterranean. Gifts from those who The ancient Greeks believed that the consulted the oracle made the mountain power of the Delphic oracle derived from the village of Delphi one of the richest sites in 1W. G McGuire, D. R. Griffiths, P.L. Hancock, and I.S. Stewart, (eds.) The Archaeology of Geological Catastrophes. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 171, 399-412. 1-86239-062-2/00/ The Geological Society of London © 2000. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted with Permission. Page i Greece. Down to the end of the fifth century the Apollo temple and its surroundings: BC the oracle was consulted before new “They say that the water of Cassotis colonies were founded, wars were declared, spring plunges underground and in the or changes of government were made. adyton (inner sanctum) makes the women The woman who served as prophet, prophetic.” (Pausanias 1935) Pausanias was known as the Pythia, held her mantic or a travel writer and religious scholar of the prophetic sessions only nine times during second century AD, who described the site the year, on the seventh day after each new and the monuments of Delphi, including moon except during the cold, rainy months the Cassotis spring on the slope above the of winter. The historian Diodorus of Sicily temple of Apollo. The tradition of a cavern (c. 90–20 BC) recorded a local legend that or narrow cave-mouth linked to the oracle of attributed the discovery of the Delphic Apollo goes back much earlier, however, to chasm to goats grazing on the limestone the poets Pindar and Aeschylus in the fifth slopes before the site was settled: “The century BC. Even the philosopher Plato (c. herdsman in charge of the goats marvelled 429–347 BC) made a cryptic reference to at the strange phenomenon and having “the rock” as the source of prophetic power approached the chasm and peeped down at Delphi: “It was when they were mad that it to discover what it was, had the same the prophetess at Delphi and the priestesses experience as the goats, for the goats began at Dodona achieved so much for which both to act like beings possessed and the goat-herd states and individuals in Greece are thankful; also began to foretell future events. After this when sane they did little or nothing . The as the report spread among the people of the authorities of the temple of Zeus at Dodona vicinity concerning the experience of those say that the first prophetic utterances came who approached the chasm, an increasing from an oak tree. In fact the people of those number of persons visited the place and, as days were content in their simplicity to listen they all tested it because of its miraculous to the oak tree and the rock, provided these character, whosoever approached the spot spoke the truth.” (Plato 1989) became inspired. For these reasons the oracle The most valuable ancient source on came to be regarded as a marvel and to be the Delphic oracle is the Greek philosopher considered the prophecy-giving shrine of and essayist Plutarch (c. AD 50-120), who Earth.” (Diodorus Siculus 1952) actually served at one time as priest of The geographer Strabo (c. 64 BC-AD Apollo in the temple at Delphi. Plutarch was 25) also wrote a description of the oracle thus not only an eyewitness of the Pythia’s that was instituted at Delphi, and the geo- performance, but also an insider familiar logical conditions associated with it: “They with the oracle’s operations and traditions. say that the seat of the oracle is a cave that The story of the goatherd discovering the is hollowed out deep down in the earth, chasm was known to him, and he actually with a rather narrow mouth, from which cites the name of the man involved, a certain arises breath (pneuma) that inspires a Koretas. Plutarch also knew that the Pythia divine frenzy; and that over the mouth is drank water from the spring before each placed a high tripod, mounting which the prophetic session. pythian priestess receives the breath and Shortly before Plutarch arrived at then utters oracles in both verse and prose.” Delphi an extraordinary incident had (Strabo 1927) occurred, which was reported to him by the Many other writers referred to the chasm temple officials. Plutarch relates the story Rosicrucian to make the point that the mind of the Digest and vapour, including Cicero and Pliny No. 2 the Elder. One source added an additional prophet must be in a receptive state for the 2008 element to the geological background of vapour (pneuma) to have its proper effect. Page ii A deputation from abroad had arrived at offered as evidence that the exhalations still Delphi to consult the oracle, and the priests emerged at the site of the oracle although in their eagerness to please these visitors they fluctuated in intensity: “I think, then, ignored the ill omens and compelled the that the exhalation is not in the same state Pythia to prophesy: “She went down into all the time, but that it has recurrent periods the oracle unwillingly, they say, and half- of weakness and strength. Of the proof on heartedly; and at her first responses it was which I depend I have as witnesses many at once plain from the harshness of her foreigners and all the officials and servants at voice that she was not responding properly; the shrine. It is a fact that the room in which she was like a labouring ship and was filled they seat those who would consult the god is with a mighty and baleful spirit. Finally filled, not frequently or with any regularity, she became hysterical and with a frightful but as it may chance from time to time, with shriek rushed towards the exit and threw a delightful fragrance coming on a current of herself down, with the result that not only air which bears it towards the worshippers, the members of the deputation fled, but also as if its source were in the holy of holies the oracle-interpreter Nicander and those (adyton).” (Plutarch, Moralia 1936). holy men that were present. However, after Not one ancient source denied the a little, they went in and took her up, still existence of the chasm and vapour at Delphi, conscious; and she lived on for a few days.” and thanks to Plutarch the statements of those (Plutarch 1936) writers who had not actually visited Delphi In old age, Plutarch wrote an essay known themselves are supported by the first-hand as De defectu oraculorum (On the obsolescence evidence of an important official within the of the oracles) in which he speculates on the temple hierarchy.
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