“Aghia Sophia” redirects here. For the steamship, see mosque. By that point, the church had fallen into a state SS Aghia Sophia. For other uses, see Hagia Sophia of disrepair. Nevertheless, the Christian made (disambiguation). a strong impression on the new Ottoman rulers and they decided to convert it into a mosque.[9][10] The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels and other relics were Hagia Sophia (from the Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία,"Holy removed and the depicting , his Mother Wisdom"; Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia; Turkish: Ayasofya) is a former Christian patriarchal Mary, Christian saints and angels were also removed or (church), later an imperial mosque, and now a plastered over. Islamic features—such as the mihrab, museum (Ayasofya Müzesi) in , . From minbar, and four minarets—were added. It remained a the date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served as mosque until 1931, when it was closed to the public for an Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarch of Con- four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the stantinople,[1] except between 1204 and 1261, when it Republic of Turkey. Hagia Sophia is currently (2014) the second-most visited museum in Turkey, attracting almost was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the [11] . The building was a mosque from 29 May 3.3 million visitors annually. 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a From its initial conversion until the construction of the museum on 1 February 1935.[2] nearby Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque of Istan- Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered bul) in 1616, it was the principal mosque of Istanbul. the epitome of [3] and is said to The Byzantine architecture of the Hagia Sophia served have “changed the history of architecture”.[4] It remained as inspiration for many other Ottoman mosques, such as the world’s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, the Blue Mosque, the Şehzade Mosque, the Süleymaniye until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The cur- Mosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque. rent building was originally constructed as a church be- tween 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Em- peror and was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both 1 History been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek geometers and Anthemius of Tralles.[5] 1.1 First church The church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy ,[6] The first church on the site was known as the Μεγάλη its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, the Ἐκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, “Great Church”), or in commemoration of the birth of the incarnation of the Lo- Latin “Magna Ecclesia”,[12][13] because of its larger di- gos in Christ.[6] Although sometimes referred to as Sancta mensions in comparison to the contemporary churches in Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), the City.[6] Inaugurated on 15 February 360 (during the sophia being the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek reign of Constantius II) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius of word for wisdom, its full name in Greek is Ναός τῆς Antioch,[14] it was built next to the area where the im- Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, “Shrine of the Holy Wisdom perial palace was being developed. The nearby Hagia of God”.[7][8] Eirene (“Holy Peace”) church was completed earlier and served as cathedral until the Great Church was com- The church contained a large collection of holy relics and pleted. Both churches acted together as the principal featured, among other things, a 15-metre (49 ft) silver churches of the . iconostasis. The focal point of the for nearly one thousand years, the building wit- Writing in 440, Socrates of claimed that nessed the excommunication of Patriarch Michael I Ceru- the church was built by Constantius II, who was work- larius on the part of Humbert of Silva Candida, the papal ing on it in 346.[14] A tradition which is not older than envoy of Pope Leo IX in 1054, an act which is commonly the 7th – 8th century, reports that the edifice was built considered the start of the Great Schism. by .[14] Zonaras reconciles the two opinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the edi- In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman fice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it had Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who ordered this collapsed.[14] Since Eusebius was bishop of Constantino- main church of Orthodox converted into a ple from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it

1 2 1 HISTORY

seems possible that the first church was erected by the and Ephesus is a later invention.[15] Even though they latter.[14] The edifice was built as a traditional Latin were made specifically for Hagia Sophia, the columns colonnaded basilica with galleries and a wooden roof. It show variations in size.[16] More than ten thousand people was preceded by an atrium. It was claimed to be one of were employed. This new church was contemporaneously the world’s most outstanding monuments at the time. recognized as a major work of architecture. The theories The Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom came of Heron of Alexandria may have been utilized to address into a conflict with Empress Aelia Eudoxia, wife of the the challenges presented by building such an expansive emperor Arcadius, and was sent into exile on 20 June 404. dome over so large a space. The emperor, together with the Patriarch Menas, inaugurated the new basilica on 27 During the subsequent riots, this first church was largely burned down.[14] Nothing remains of the first church to- December 537 – 5 years and 10 months after construction start – with much pomp.[17][18][19] The mosaics inside the day. church were, however, only completed under the reign of Emperor Justin II (565–578). 1.2 Second church Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine A second church was ordered by Theodosius II, who inau- imperial ceremonies, such as coronations. Like other gurated it on 10 October 415. The basilica with a wooden churches throughout Christendom, the basilica offered roof was built by architect Rufinus. A fire started during sanctuary from persecution to outlaws. the tumult of the Nika Revolt and burned the second Ha- gia Sophia to the ground on 13–14 January 532. Earthquakes in August 553 and on 14 December 557 caused cracks in the main dome and eastern half-dome. Several marble blocks from the second church survive to The main dome collapsed completely during a subsequent the present; among them are reliefs depicting 12 lambs earthquake on 7 May 558,[20] destroying the ambon, al- representing the 12 apostles. Originally part of a mon- tar, and ciborium. The crash was due mainly to the too umental front entrance, they now reside in an excavation high bearing load and to the enormous shearing load of pit adjacent to the museum’s entrance after they were dis- the dome, which was too flat.[17] These caused the de- covered in 1935 beneath the western courtyard by A. M. formation of the piers which sustained the dome.[17] The Schneider. Further digging was forsaken for fear of im- emperor ordered an immediate restoration. He entrusted pinging on the integrity of the building. it to Isidorus the Younger, nephew of Isidore of Mile- tus, who used lighter materials and elevated the dome [17] 1.3 Third church (current structure) by “30 feet” (about 6.25 meters or 20.5 feet) – giv- ing the building its current interior height of 55.6 meters (182 ft).[21] Moreover, Isidorus changed the dome type, On 23 February 532, only a few weeks after the destruc- erecting a ribbed dome with pendentives, whose diame- tion of the second basilica, Emperor Justinian I decided ter lay between 32.7 and 33.5 m.[17] Under Justinian’s or- to build a third and entirely different basilica, larger and ders, eight Corinthian columns were disassembled from more majestic than its predecessors. Baalbek, Lebanon, and shipped to Constantinople around 560.[22] This reconstruction, giving the church its present 6th-century form, was completed in 562. The Byzantine poet Paul the Silentiary composed a long epic poem (still extant), known as Ekphrasis, for the rededication of the basilica presided over by Patriarch Eutychius on 23 De- cember 562. In 726, the emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images, ordering the army to destroy all – ushering in the period of . At that time, all religious pictures and stat- ues were removed from the Hagia Sophia. After a brief Construction of church depicted in codex Manasses Chronicle (14th century) reprieve under Empress Irene (797–802), the iconoclasts made a comeback. Emperor Theophilus (829–842) was [23] Justinian chose physicist Isidore of Miletus and mathe- strongly influenced by , which forbids the [24] matician Anthemius of Tralles as architects; Anthemius, representation of living beings. He had a two-winged however, died within the first year of the endeavor. bronze door with his monograms installed at the southern The construction is described in the Byzantine historian entrance of the church. Procopius' On Buildings (Peri ktismatōn, Latin: De aedi- The basilica suffered damage, first in a great fire in 859, ficiis). Columns and other marbles were brought from all and again in an earthquake on 8 January 869, that made a over the empire, throughout the Mediterranean. The idea half-dome collapse. Emperor Basil I ordered the church of these columns being spoils from cities such as Rome 1.4 Mosque (1453–1935) 3

at a ceremony which closely followed Byzantine prac- tices. Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of who com- manded the sack and invasion of the city by the Latin Crusaders in 1204, is buried inside the church. The tomb inscription carrying his name, which has become a part of the floor decoration, was spat upon by many of the angry Byzantines who recaptured Constantino- ple in 1261.[28] However, restoration led by the brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati during the period 1847– 1849 cast doubt upon the authenticity of the doge’s grave; it is more likely a symbolic memorial rather than burial site. After the recapture in 1261 by the Byzantines, the church was in a dilapidated state. In 1317, emperor Andronicus II ordered four new buttresses (Πυραμὶδας, Greek:"Piramídas”) to be built in the eastern and northern parts of the church, financing them with the inheritance of his deceased wife, Irene.[29] New cracks developed in the dome after the earthquake of October 1344, and sev- eral parts of the building collapsed on 19 May 1346; con- sequently, the church was closed until 1354, when repairs were undertaken by architects Astras and Peralta.

1.4 Mosque (1453–1935)

Constantinople was taken by the Ottomans on 29 May The vaulting of the nave. (annotations) 1453. In accordance with the custom at the time Sul- tan Mehmet II allowed his troops three days of unbri- dled pillage once the city fell, after which he would claim repaired. its contents for himself.[30][31] Hagia Sophia was not ex- empted from the pillage, becoming its focal point as the After the great earthquake of 25 October 989, which col- invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures of lapsed the Western dome arch, Emperor Basil II asked the city.[32] Shortly after the city’s defenses collapsed, pil- for the Armenian architect Trdat, creator of the great [25] lagers made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered churches of and Argina, to direct the repairs. He down its doors.[33] Throughout the siege worshipers par- erected again and reinforced the fallen dome arch, and ticipated in the Holy Liturgy and Prayer of the Hours rebuilt the west side of the dome with 15 dome ribs.[26] at the Hagia Sophia, and the church formed a refuge The extent of the damage required six years of repair and for many of those who were unable to contribute to the reconstruction; the church was re-opened on 13 May 994. city’s defense, such as women, children and elderly.[34][35] At the end of the reconstruction, the church’s decorations Trapped in the church, congregants and refugees became were renovated, including the additions of paintings of spoils to be divided amongst the Ottoman invaders. The four immense cherubs, a new depiction of Christ on the building was desecrated and looted, and occupants en- dome, and on the apse a new depiction of the Virgin Mary [32] [27] slaved, violated or slaughtered; while elderly and in- holding Jesus between the apostles Peter and Paul. On firm were killed, women and girls were raped and the the great side arches were painted the prophets and the [33] [27] remainder chained and sold into slavery. Priests con- teachers of the church. tinued to perform Christian rites until stopped by the In his book De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (“Book invaders.[33] When the Sultan and his cohort entered the of Ceremonies”), Emperor Constantine VII (913–919) church, he insisted it should be at once transformed into wrote a detailed account of the ceremonies held in the a mosque. One of the Ulama then climbed the pulpit and Hagia Sophia by the emperor and the patriarch. recited the Shahada.[29][36] Upon the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth As described by several Western visitors (such as the Crusade, the church was ransacked and desecrated by Córdoban nobleman Pero Tafur[37] and the Florentine the Latin Christians, as described by the Byzantine histo- Cristoforo Buondelmonti),[38] the church was in a dilap- rian Niketas Choniates. During the Latin occupation of idated state, with several of its doors fallen from their Constantinople (1204–1261) the church became a Ro- hinges; Mehmed II ordered a renovation as well as the man Catholic cathedral. Baldwin I of Constantinople conversion. Mehmet attended the first Friday prayer in was crowned emperor on 16 May 1204 in Hagia Sophia, the mosque on 1 June 1453.[39] Aya Sofya became the 4 1 HISTORY

In the 16th century the sultan Suleiman the Magnifi- cent (1520–1566) brought back two colossal candlesticks from his conquest of Hungary. They were placed on ei- ther side of the mihrab. During the reign of Selim II (1566–1574), the building started showing signs of fa- tigue and was extensively strengthened with the addition of structural supports to its exterior by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, who is also considered one of the world’s first earthquake engineers.[42] In addition to strengthening the historic Byzantine structure, Sinan built the two additional large minarets at the western end of the building, the original sultan’s lodge, and the Türbe (mau- soleum) of Selim II to the southeast of the building in 1576-7 / AH 984. In order to do that, parts of the Pa- Fountain (Şadırvan) for ritual ablutions triarchate at the south corner of the building were pulled down the previous year.[29] Moreover, the golden crescent was mounted on the top of the dome,[29] while a respect first imperial mosque of Istanbul.[40] To the correspond- zone 35 arşin (about 24 m) wide was imposed around the ing Waqf were endowed most of the existing houses in building, pulling down all the houses which in the mean- [29] the city and the area of the future Topkapı Palace.[29] time had nested around it. Later his türbe hosted also [29] From 1478, 2,360 shops, 1,300 houses, 4 caravanserais, 43 tombs of Ottoman princes. In 1594 / AH 1004 Mi- 30 boza shops, and 23 shops of sheep heads and trotters mar (court architect) Davud Ağa built the türbe of Murad gave their income to the foundation.[41] Through the im- III (1574–1595), where the Sultan and his Valide, Safiye [29] perial charters of 1520 (AH 926) and 1547 (AH 954) Sultan were later buried. The octagonal mausoleum of shops and parts of the Grand Bazaar and other markets their son Mehmed III (1595–1603) and his Valide was were added to the foundation.[29] built next to it in 1608 / 1017 H by royal architect Dalgiç Mehmet Aĝa.[43] His son Mustafa I (1617–1618; 1622– Before 1481 a small minaret was erected on the southwest 1623) converted the into his türbe.[43] corner of the building, above the stair tower.[29] Later, the subsequent sultan, Bayezid II (1481–1512), built another Murad III had also two large alabaster Hellenistic urns minaret at the northeast corner.[29] One of these collapsed transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of [29] after the earthquake of 1509,[29] and around the middle the nave. of the 16th century they were both replaced by two diag- In 1717, under Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730), the onally opposite minarets built at the east and west corners crumbling plaster of the interior was renovated, con- [29] of the edifice. tributing indirectly to the preservation of many mosaics, which otherwise would have been destroyed by mosque workers.[43] In fact, it was usual for them to sell mosaics stones – believed to be talismans – to the visitors.[43] Sul- tan Mahmud I ordered the restoration of the building in 1739 and added a medrese (a Koranic school, now the li- brary of the museum), an Imaret (soup kitchen for distri- bution to the poor) and a library, and in 1740 a Şadirvan (fountain for ritual ablutions), thus transforming it into a külliye, i.e. a social complex. At the same time a new sultan’s lodge and a new mihrab were built inside.

1.4.1 Renovation of 1847

The most famous restoration of the Aya Sofya was or- dered by Sultan Abdülmecid and completed by eight hun- dred workers between 1847 and 1849, under the supervi- sion of the Swiss-Italian architect brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati. The brothers consolidated the dome and vaults, straightened the columns, and revised the decoration of the exterior and the interior of the build- ing. The mosaics in the upper gallery were uncovered The mihrab located in the apse where the altar used to stand, and cleaned, although many were re-covered “for protec- pointing towards Mecca tion against further damage”. The old chandeliers were 5

replaced by new pendant ones. New gigantic circular- down over the fragile frescoes and mosaics. Moisture framed disks or medallions were hung on columns. These entered from below as well. Rising ground water had were inscribed with the names of Allah, Muhammad, raised the level of humidity within the monument, cre- the first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, ating an unstable environment for stone and paint. With and the two grandchildren of Muhammad: Hassan and the help of financial services company American Ex- Hussain, by the calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzed Ef- press, WMF secured a series of grants from 1997 to fendi (1801–1877). In 1850 the architect Fossati built a 2002 for the restoration of the dome. The first stage of new sultan’s lodge or loge in a Neo-Byzantine style con- work involved the structural stabilization and repair of nected to the royal pavilion behind the mosque. They the cracked roof, which was undertaken with the par- also renovated the minbar and mihrab. Outside the main ticipation of the Turkish Ministry of Culture. The sec- building, the minarets were repaired and altered so that ond phase, the preservation of the dome’s interior, af- they were of equal height.[44][45] A timekeeper’s building forded the opportunity to employ and train young Turk- and a new madrasah were built. When the restoration ish conservators in the care of mosaics. By 2006, the was finished, the mosque was re-opened with ceremonial WMF project was complete, though many other areas pomp on 13 July 1849. of Hagia Sophia continue to require significant stabil- ity improvement, restoration and conservation.[46] Haghia Sophia is currently (2014) the second most visited mu- 1.5 Museum (1935–present) seum in Turkey, attracting almost 3.3 million visitors annually.[11] Although use of the complex as a place of worship (mosque or church) was strictly prohibited,[47] in 2006 the Turkish government allowed the allocation of a small room in the museum complex to be used as a prayer room for Christian and Muslim museum staff,[48] and since 2013 from the minarets of the museum the muezzin sings the call to prayer twice per day, in the afternoon.[49] In 2007, Greek American politician Chris Spirou launched an international organization “Free Agia Sophia Council” championing the cause of restoring the build- ing to its original function as a Christian church.[50][51][52] Since the early 2010s, several campaigns and govern- ment high officials, notably Turkey’s deputy prime min- ister Bülent Arınç in November 2013, have been de- manding that Hagia Sophia be converted into a mosque again.[53][54][55] In an attempt to retaliate against Pope Francis after his acknowledgment of the Armenian Genocide, the Mufti of Ankara, Mefail Hızlı, stated that the conversion of Haghia Sophia into a mosque will be accelerated.[56][57]

2 Architecture

The interior undergoing restoration

In 1935, the first Turkish President and founder of the Re- public of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, transformed the building into a museum. The carpets were removed and the marble floor decorations such as the Omphalion appeared for the first time in centuries, while the white plaster covering many of the mosaics was removed. Nev- ertheless, the condition of the structure deteriorated, and Section of a “restored” design the World Monuments Fund placed Hagia Sophia on 1996 World Monuments Watch, and again in 1998. The Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examples building’s copper roof had cracked, causing water to leak of Byzantine architecture.[3] Its interior is decorated with 6 2 ARCHITECTURE

leads up to the upper gallery.

2.2 Upper Gallery

a) Plan of the gallery (upper half) b) Plan of the ground floor (lower half) mosaics and marble pillars and coverings of great artis- tic value. The temple itself was so richly and artistically decorated that Justinian proclaimed, "Solomon, I have outdone thee!" (Νενίκηκά σε Σολομών). Justinian him- self had overseen the completion of the greatest cathedral ever built up to that time, and it was to remain the largest West side of the upper gallery cathedral for 1,000 years up until the completion of the cathedral in Seville in Spain.[58] The upper gallery is laid out in a horseshoe shape that encloses the nave until the apse. Several mosaics are pre- Justinian’s basilica was at once the culminating architec- served in the upper gallery, an area traditionally reserved tural achievement of late antiquity and the first master- for the empress and her court. The best-preserved mo- piece of Byzantine architecture. Its influence, both archi- saics are located in the southern part of the gallery. tecturally and liturgically, was widespread and enduring in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Muslim The upper gallery contains runic graffiti presumed to be worlds alike. from the . The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome which at its maximum is 55.6 2.3 Dome m (182 ft 5 in) from floor level and rests on an arcade of 40 arched windows. Repairs to its structure have left the dome somewhat elliptical, with the diameter varying between 31.24 and 30.86 m (102 ft 6 in and 101 ft 3 in). At the western entrance side and eastern liturgical side, there are arched openings extended by half domes of identical diameter to the central dome, carried on smaller semi-domed exedras; a hierarchy of dome-headed ele- ments built up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the central dome, with a clear span of 76.2 m (250 ft).[3] Interior surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles, green and white with purple porphyry, and gold mosaics. The exterior, clad in stucco, was tinted yellow and red during restorations in the 19th century at the direction of Cupola dome, semi-dome, and apse the Fossati architects. The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular inter- est for many art historians, architects and engineers be- 2.1 and portals cause of the innovative way the original architects envi- sioned it. The cupola is carried on four spherical triangu- The Imperial Gate was the main entrance between the lar pendentives, an element which was first fully realized exo- and esonarthex. It was reserved only for the em- in this building. The pendentives implement the transi- peror. The Byzantine above the portal depicts tion from the circular base of the dome to the rectangu- Christ and an unnamed Emperor. lar base below,[59][60] restraining the lateral forces of the A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex dome and allow its weight to flow downwards. They were 2.4 Minarets 7

appearance of hovering above. This effect was achieved by inserting forty windows around the base of the original structure. Moreover, the insertion of the windows in the dome structure lowers its weight.

2.4 Minarets

One of the minarets (at southwest) was built from red brick while the other three were built from white lime- stone and sandstone, of which the slender northeast col- umn was erected by Sultan Bayezid II while the two larger minarets to the west were erected by Sultan Selim II and designed by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.[62]

See commons file for annotations 3 Notable elements and decora- tions reinforced with buttresses during Byzantine and later dur- ing Ottoman times, under the guidance of the architect Originally, under Justinian’s reign, the interior decora- Sinan. The weight of the dome remained a problem for tions consisted of abstract designs on marble slabs on most of the building’s existence. The original cupola col- the walls and floors, as well as mosaics on the curv- lapsed entirely after the quake of 558; in 563 a new dome ing vaults. Of these mosaics, one can still see the two was built by Isidore the younger, a nephew of Isidore of archangels Gabriel and Michael in the spandrels of the Miletus. Unlike the original, this included 40 ribs and bema. There were already a few figurative decorations, was slightly taller, in order to lower the lateral forces on as attested by the eulogy of Paul the Silentiary. The the church walls. A larger section of the second dome col- spandrels of the gallery are revetted in opus sectile, show- lapsed as well, in two episodes, so that today only two sec- ing patterns and figures of flowers and birds in precisely tions of the present dome, in the north and south side, still cut pieces of white marble set against a background of date from the 562 reconstruction. Of the whole dome’s black marble. In later stages figurative mosaics were 40 ribs, the surviving north section contains 8 ribs, while added, which were destroyed during the iconoclastic con- the south section includes 6 ribs.[61] troversy (726–843). Present mosaics are from the post- Although this design stabilizes the dome and the sur- iconoclastic period. The number of treasures, relics and rounding walls and arches, the actual construction of the miracle-working, painted icons of the Hagia Sophia grew walls of Hagia Sophia weakened the overall structure. progressively richer into an amazing collection. Apart The bricklayers used more mortar than brick, weaken- from the mosaics, a large number of figurative decora- ing the walls. The structure would have been more stable tions were added during the second half of the 9th cen- if the builders at least let the mortar cure before they be- tury: an image of Christ in the central dome; Orthodox gan the next layer; however, they did not do this. When saints, prophets and Church Fathers in the tympana be- the dome was erected, its weight caused the walls to lean low; historical figures connected with this church, such as outward because of the wet mortar underneath. When Patriarch Ignatius; some scenes from the gospel in the gal- Isidore the Younger rebuilt the fallen cupola, he had to leries. Basil II let paint on each of the four pendentives a [27] first build up the interior of the walls to make them ver- giant six-winged Cherub. The Ottomans covered their [27] tical again. Additionally, the architect raised the height face with a golden halo, but in 2009 one of them was [63] of the rebuilt dome by approximately six metres so that restored to the original state. the lateral forces would not be as strong and its weight would flow more easily down into the walls. Moreover, he shaped the new cupola like a scalloped shell or the in- 3.1 Loge of the Empress side of an umbrella, with ribs that extend from the top down to the base. These ribs allow the weight of the dome The Loge of the Empress is located in the centre of the to flow between the windows, down the pendentives, and upper enclosure, or gallery, of the Hagia Sophia. From ultimately to the foundation. there the empress and the court-ladies would watch the Hagia Sophia is famous for the light that reflects every- proceedings down below. A round, green stone marks where in the interior of the nave, giving the dome the the spot where the throne of the empress stood. 8 3 NOTABLE ELEMENTS AND DECORATIONS

3.2 Lustration urns The church was richly decorated with mosaics throughout the centuries. They either depicted the Virgin Mother, Je- Two huge marble lustration (ritual purification) urns were sus, saints, or emperors and empresses. Other parts were brought from Pergamon during the reign of Sultan Murad decorated in a purely decorative style with geometric pat- III. Stemming from the , they are carved terns. [29] from single blocks of marble. The mosaics however for their most part date to after the end of the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 800 AD. 3.3 Marble Door During the in 1204, the Latin Crusaders vandalized valuable items in every important The Marble Door inside the Hagia Sophia is located in the Byzantine structure of the city, including the golden mo- southern upper enclosure, or gallery. It was used by the saics of the Hagia Sophia. Many of these items were participants in synods, they entered and left the meeting shipped to Venice, whose Doge, Enrico Dandolo, had or- chamber through this door. ganized the invasion and sack of Constantinople.

3.4 Wishing column

At the northwest of the building there is a column with a 3.5.1 19th-century restoration hole in the middle covered by bronze plates. This column goes by different names; the perspiring column, the wish- ing column, the sweating column or the crying column. Following the building’s conversion into a mosque in The column is said to be damp when touched and have 1453, many of its mosaics were covered with plaster, supernatural powers.[64] The legend states that since St. due to Islam’s ban on representational imagery. This Gregory the Miracle Worker appeared at the column in process was not completed at once, and reports exist year 1200, the column is moist. It is believed that touch- from the 17th century in which travellers note that they ing the moisture cures many illnesses.[65][66] could still see Christian images in the former church. In 1847–49, the building was restored by two Swiss Ital- ian Fossati brothers, Gaspare and Giuseppe, and Sultan 3.5 Mosaics Abdülmecid allowed them to also document any mosaics they might discover during this process. This work did not include repairing the mosaics and after recording the details about an image, the Fossatis painted it over again. The Fossatis restored the mosaics of the two hexapteryga (singular Greek: εξαπτέρυγον, pr. hexapterygon, six- winged angel); it is uncertain whether they are seraphim or cherubim) located on the two east pendentives, cover- ing their faces again before the end of the restoration.[67] The other two placed on the west pendentives are copies in paint created by the Fossatis, since they could find no surviving remains of them.[67] As in this case, the archi- tects reproduced in paint damaged decorative mosaic pat- terns, sometimes redesigning them in the process. The Fossati records are the primary sources about a number of mosaic images now believed to have been completely or partially destroyed in the 1894 Istanbul earthquake. These include a mosaic over a now-unidentified Door of the Poor, a large image of a jewel-encrusted cross, and a large number of images of angels, saints, patriarchs, and church fathers. Most of the missing images were located in the building’s two tympana. One mosaic they documented is in a circle, which would indicate it to be a ceiling mosaic, pos- sibly even of the main dome which was later covered and painted over with Islamic calligraphy that expounds God as the light of the universe. The drawings of the Hagia Ceiling decoration showing original Christian cross still visible Sophia mosaics are today kept in the Cantonal Archive through the later aniconic decoration of Ticino.[68] 3.5 Mosaics 9

3.5.2 20th-century restoration

A large number of mosaics were uncovered in the 1930s by a team from the Byzantine Institute of America led by Thomas Whittemore. The team chose to let a number of simple cross images remain covered by plaster, but un- covered all major mosaics found. Because of its long history as both a church and a mosque, a particular challenge arises in the restoration process. Christian iconographic mosaics can be uncovered, but of- ten at the expense of important and historic Islamic art. Restorers have attempted to maintain a balance between both Christian and Islamic cultures. In particular, much Southwestern entrance mosaic controversy rests upon whether the Islamic calligraphy on the dome of the cathedral should be removed, in order a back, her feet resting on a pedestal, embellished with to permit the underlying Pantocrator mosaic of Christ as precious stones. The Child Christ sits on her lap, giving Master of the World, to be exhibited (assuming the mo- His blessing and holding a scroll in His left hand. On [69] saic still exists). her left side stands emperor Constantine in ceremonial attire, presenting a model of the city to Mary. The in- scription next to him says: “Great emperor Constantine 3.5.3 Imperial Gate mosaic of the Saints”. On her right side stands emperor Justinian I, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. The medallions on both sides of the Virgin’s head carry the monograms MP and ΘY, an abbreviation of "Mētēr" and "Theou", meaning “Mother of God”.[73]

3.5.5 Apse mosaics

Imperial gate mosaic

The Imperial Gate mosaic is located in the tympanum above that gate, which was used only by the emperors when entering the church. Based on style analysis, it has been dated to the late 9th or early 10th century. The em- peror with a nimbus or halo could possibly represent em- peror Leo VI the Wise or his son Constantine VII Porphy- rogenitus bowing down before Christ Pantocrator, seated on a jeweled throne, giving His blessing and holding in His left hand an open book.[70] The text on the book reads as follows: “Peace be with you. I am the light of the world”. (John 20:19; 20:26; 8:12) On each side of Christ’s shoulders is a circular medallion: on His left the Archangel Gabriel, holding a staff, on His right His Mother Mary.[71]

3.5.4 Southwestern entrance mosaic

The southwestern entrance mosaic, situated in the tym- panum of the southwestern entrance, dates from the reign Apse mosaic of the Virgin and Child of Basil II.[72] It was rediscovered during the restorations of 1849 by Fossati. The Virgin sits on a throne without The Virgin and Child mosaic was the first of the post- 10 3 NOTABLE ELEMENTS AND DECORATIONS

iconoclastic mosaics. It was inaugurated on 29 March The Empress Zoe mosaic on the eastern wall of the south- 867 by Patriarch Photius and the emperors Michael III ern gallery date from the 11th century. Christ Panto- and Basil I. This mosaic is situated in a high location on crator, clad in the dark blue robe (as is the custom in the half dome of the apse. Mary is sitting on a throne ), is seated in the middle against a golden without a back, holding the Child Jesus on her lap. Her background, giving His blessing with the right hand and feet rest on a pedestal. Both the pedestal and the throne holding the Bible in His left hand. On either side of are adorned with precious stones. The portraits of the His head are the monograms IC and XC, meaning Iē- archangels Gabriel and Michael (largely destroyed) in the sous Khristos. He is flanked by Constantine IX Mono- bema of the arch also date from the 9th century. The machus and Empress Zoe, both in ceremonial costumes. mosaics are set against the original golden background He is offering a purse, as symbol of the donation he of the 6th century. These mosaics were believed to be made to the church, while she is holding a scroll, sym- a reconstruction of the mosaics of the 6th century that bol of the donations she made. The inscription over the were previously destroyed during the iconoclastic era by head of the emperor says: “Constantine, pious emperor the Byzantines of that time, as represented in the inaugu- in Christ the God, king of the Romans, Monomachus”. ral sermon by the patriarch Photios. However, no record The inscription over the head of the empress reads as fol- of figural decoration of Hagia Sophia exists before this lows: “Zoë, the very pious Augusta”. The previous heads time.[74] have been scraped off and replaced by the three present ones. Perhaps the earlier mosaic showed her first husband Romanus III Argyrus or her second husband Michael IV. 3.5.6 Emperor Alexander mosaic Another theory is that this mosaic were made for an ear- lier emperor and empress, with their heads changed into The Emperor Alexander mosaic is not easy to find for the the present ones.[77] first-time visitor, located in the second floor in a dark cor- ner of the ceiling. It depicts Emperor Alexander in full regalia, holding a scroll in his right hand and a globus cru- 3.5.8 Comnenus mosaic ciger in his left. A drawing by Fossati showed that the mo- saic survived until 1849, and that Thomas Whittemore, founder of the Byzantine Institute of America who was granted permission to preserve the mosaics, assumed that it had been destroyed in the earthquake of 1894. Eight years after his death, the mosaic was discovered in 1958 largely through the researches of Robert Van Nice. Un- like most of the other mosaics in Hagia Sophia, which had been covered over by ordinary plaster, the Alexan- der mosaic was simply painted over and reflected the sur- rounding mosaic patterns and thus was well hidden. It was duly cleaned by the Byzantine Institute’s successor to Whittemore, Paul A. Underwood.[75][76] The Comnenus mosaic

The Comnenus mosaic, also located on the eastern wall of 3.5.7 Empress Zoe mosaic the southern gallery, dates from 1122. The Virgin Mary is standing in the middle, depicted, as usual in Byzantine art, in a dark blue gown. She holds the Child Christ on her lap. He gives His blessing with His right hand while holding a scroll in His left hand. On her right side stands emperor John II Comnenus, represented in a garb embel- lished with precious stones. He holds a purse, symbol of an imperial donation to the church. Empress Irene stands on the left side of the Virgin, wearing ceremonial gar- ments and offering a document. Their eldest son Alexius Comnenus is represented on an adjacent pilaster. He is shown as a beardless youth, probably representing his ap- pearance at his coronation aged seventeen. In this panel one can already see a difference with the Empress Zoe mosaic that is one century older. There is a more realistic expression in the portraits instead of an idealized repre- sentation. The empress is shown with plaited blond hair, rosy cheeks and grey eyes, revealing her Hungarian de- The Empress Zoe mosaic scent. The emperor is depicted in a dignified manner.[78] 11

3.5.9 Deësis mosaic • Mosaic in the northern tympanon depicting Saint John Chrysostom

• Drawing by the Fossati brother depicting some mo- saics

• Another drawing by the Fossati brothers depicting mosaic of six patriarchs in the southern tympanon

• One of the mighty stone columns with metal clasps

• Interior of the Hagia Sophia by John Singer Sargent, 1891

• Detail of relief on the Marble Door. The Deësis mosaic • Interior view of the Hagia Sophia, showing Islamic The Deësis mosaic (Δέησις, “Entreaty”) probably dates elements on the top of the main dome. from 1261. It was commissioned to mark the end of 57 • Haghia Sofia from Adriaan Reland (1676-1718): years of Roman Catholic use and the return to the Or- Verhandeling van de godsdienst der Mahometaanen, thodox faith. It is the third panel situated in the imperial 1719 enclosure of the upper galleries. It is widely considered the finest in Hagia Sophia, because of the softness of the • Hagia Sophia during its time as a mosque. Illustra- features, the humane expressions and the tones of the mo- tion by Gaspare Fossati and Louis Haghe from 1852. saic. The style is close to that of the Italian painters of the late 13th or early 14th century, such as Duccio. In this • Interior panorama of the Hagia Sophia panel the Virgin Mary and (Ioannes Pro- • dromos), both shown in three-quarters profile, are implor- Circa 1900 photograph, from its time as a mosque. ing the intercession of Christ Pantocrator for humanity on • The face of the Hexapterygon (six-winged angel) Judgment Day. The bottom part of this mosaic is badly on the north east pendentive (upper left), discov- [79] deteriorated. This mosaic is considered as the begin- ered but covered again by Gaspare Fossati during [80] ning of the in Byzantine pictorial art. its restoration, is visible again.

• Imperial Gate 3.5.10 Northern tympanum mosaics • 19th-century marker of the tomb of Enrico Dan- The northern tympanum mosaics feature various saints. dolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the Sack They have been able to survive due to the very high and of Constantinople in 1204, inside the Hagia Sophia unreachable location. They depict Saints John Chrysos- tom and Ignatius the Younger standing, clothed in white robes with crosses, and holding richly jeweled Holy 6 See also Bibles. The names of each saint is given around the stat- ues in Greek, in order to enable an identification for the • visitor. The other mosaics in the other tympana have Oldest churches in the world not survived probably due to the frequent earthquakes • List of megalithic sites as opposed to any deliberate destruction by the Ottoman conquerors.[81] • Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques 4 Other burials • Pendentive—Architectural element • List of Byzantine inventions • Mustafa I, in the courtyard • History of Roman and Byzantine domes

5 Gallery Related buildings:

• Mosaics with geometric pattern decorate the upper • Church of the Holy Apostles—the second most im- imperial gallery portant church of Constantinople • Detail of Deësis mosaic • —neighbouring church 12 7 REFERENCES

• Little Hagia Sophia—a 6th-century Byzantine [8] Binns, John (2002). An Introduction to the Christian church, now mosque, that might have been built by Orthodox Churches. Cambridge: Cambridge University the same architects as Hagia Sophia Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-521-66738-0. • —Byzantine church in Istanbul no- [9] .” LiveScience. table for its well preserved Paleologan mosaics, now [10] "Hagia Sophia.” ArchNet. a museum too [11] “Top 10: Turkey’s most visited museums”. Hürriyet Daily • Pammakaristos Church: its parekklesion—also a News. 10 November 2014. museum—is decorated with beautiful mosaics [12] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 84. • Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı—bath commis- sioned by Roxelana for the Hagia Sophia community [13] Alessandro E. FONI, George PAPAGIANNAKIS, Na- dia MAGNENAT-THALMANN. “Virtual Hagia Sophia: • Caferağa Medresseh—former Koranic school next Restitution, Visualization and Virtual Life Simulation” to Hagia Sophia (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2007. • Soğukçeşme Sokağı—historical street between the Hagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace [14] Janin (1953), p. 472. • Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev [15] Krautheimer, Richard (1986). Early Christian and Byzan- tine Architecture (4th ed.). New Haven and London: Yale • Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod University Press/Pelican History of Art. p. 205. ISBN 0-300-05296-0. • Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk [16] Mango, Cyril (1985). Byzantine Architecture (1st ed.). • Hagia Sophia Church (Sofia) New York: Electa/Rizzoli. p. 65. ISBN 0-8478-0615- 4. • Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception [17] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 86. • Franciscan Monastery (Washington, DC) [18] “The Chronicle of John Malalas,” Bk 18.86 Translated by E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys, and R. Scott. Australian Associ- • Saint Clement Catholic Church, Chicago—the de- ation of , 1986 vol 4. signer was said to have been influenced by the Hagia Sophia [19] “The Chronicle of Theophones Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284-813.” Translated with com- • Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia— mentary by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott. AM 6030 pg the article shows the cathedral, resembling the Hagia 316, with this note: Theophanes’ precise date should be Sophia accepted. [20] Janin, Raymond (1950). Constantinople Byzantine (in French) (1 ed.). Paris: Institut Français d'Etudes Byzan- 7 References tines. p. 41. [21] “Haghia Sophia”. Istanbul /: Emporis. Retrieved 4 De- [1] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 112. cember 2011.

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[6] Janin (1953), p. 471. [27] Mamboury (1953) p. 287

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[41] Boyar & Fleet (2010), p. 145 [63] Ronchey (2010), p. 157

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[44] Turkish Cultural Foundation. The Fossati brothers, Ac- [66] “The Architectural Review, Vol. 17” pg. 153 cessed 23 Sept 2014. [67] Hoffman (1999), p. 207 [45] Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Istanbul, Oxford University Press, p.324. [68] “Monuments éternels”. Programmes ARTE. 21 September 2014. [46] “World Monuments Fund – Hagia Sophia”. Wmf.org. Retrieved 4 December 2011. [69] The Hagia Sophia - by Mount Holyoke College

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[48] İbadete açık Ayasofya (Turkish) [71] Hagia Sophia. “Imperial Door Mosaic - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. [49] “Ayasofya'da ezan okunuyor, duydunuz mu?". Timeturk. Retrieved 16 July 2013. [72] Lorenzo Riccardi, Observations on Basil II as Patron of the Arts, in Actual Problems of Theory and History of [50] “Group unveils initiative on Hagia Sophia”. Homeboy- Art, I, Collection of articles. Materials of the Confer- MediaNews. ence of Young Specialists (St. Petersburg State Univer- [51] Международная группа активистов продолжает sity, 1–5 December 2010), St. Petersburg 2011 (ISBN возвращения Церкви константинопольского собора 978-5-288-05174-6), pp. 39-45; Lorenzo Riccardi, Al- Святой Софии Православие.Ru 26 июля 2007. cune riflessioni sul mosaico del vestibolo sud-ovest della Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli, in Vie per Bisanzio. VIII [52] Константинопольская София — мать всех церквей) Congresso Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di Studi Православие.Ru, 29 October 2007. Bizantini (Venezia 25-28 novembre 2009), a cura di Anto- nio Rigo, Andrea Babuin e Michele Trizio, Bari, Edizioni [53] “Call to reinstate Hagia Sophia as mosque”. Financial di Pagina 2012 (ISBN 978-88-7470-229-9), pp. 357-371. Times. 15 November 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013. [73] Hagia Sophia. “Southwestern Vestibule - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. [54] “Greece angered over Turkish Deputy PM’s Hagia Sophia remarks”. Hürriyet. 19 November 2013. Retrieved 20 [74] Hagia Sophia. “Apse Mosaic - Hagia Sophia”. hagia- November 2013. sophia.com. 14 9 FURTHER READING

[75] Lord Kinross. “Hagia Sophia: A History of Constantino- • Ronchey, Silvia; Braccini, Tommaso (2010). Il ro- ple.” Newsweek, 1972, pp. 132–133. manzo di Costantinopoli. Guida letteraria alla Roma d'Oriente (in Italian). Torino: Einaudi. ISBN 978- [76] Hagia Sophia. “Emperor Alexander - Hagia Sophia”. ha- 88-06-18921-1. giasophia.com. • [77] Hagia Sophia. “Empress Zoe - Hagia Sophia”. hagia- Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantino- sophia.com. ple, 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-521-39832-0. [78] Hagia Sophia. “Comnenus - Hagia Sophia”. hagia- sophia.com. • Turner, J. (1996). Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517068-7. [79] Parry, K., The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christian- ity, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. p. 379.

[80] Hagia Sophia. “Deesis - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. 9 Further reading

[81] Hagia Sophia. “North Tympanum - Hagia Sophia”. ha- • giasophia.com. Alchermes, Joseph D. (2005). “Art and Architec- ture in the Age of Justinian”. In Maas, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. pp. 343–375. ISBN 8 Bibliography 978-0-521-52071-3.

• Boyran, Ebru; Fleet, Kate (2010). A social History • Balfour, John Patrick Douglas (1972). Hagia of Ottoman Istanbul. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Sophia. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0- versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19955-1. 88225-014-4.

• Brubaker, Leslie; Haldon, John (2011). Byzan- • Cimok, (2004). Hagia Sophia. Milet Publish- tium in the Iconoclast era (ca 680–850). Cam- ing Ltd. ISBN 978-975-7199-61-8. bridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0- • 521-43093-7. Doumato, Lamia (1980). The Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia: Selected references. Vance Bibliogra- • Hagia Sophia Church , also known as Church of phies. ASIN B0006E2O2M. Holy Wisdom. • Goriansky, Lev Vladimir (1933). Haghia Sophia: • Hagia Sophia. . Accessed 23 Sept 2014. analysis of the architecture, art and spirit behind the shrine in Constantinople dedicated to Hagia • Hoffman, Volker (1999). Die Hagia Sophia in Istan- Sophia. American School of Philosophy. ASIN bul (in German). Bern: Lang. ISBN 3-906762-81- B0008C47EA. 5. • Harris, Jonathan, Constantinople: Capital of Byzan- • Janin, Raymond (1953). La Géographie Ecclésias- tium. Hambledon/Continuum (2007). ISBN 978-1- tique de l'Empire Byzantin. 1. Part: Le Siège de Con- 84725-179-4 stantinople et le Patriarcat Oecuménique. 3rd Vol. : Les Églises et les Monastères. Paris: Institut Français • Howland Swift, Emerson (1937). The bronze doors d'Etudes Byzantines. of the gate of the horologium at Hagia Sophia. Uni- versity of Chicago. ASIN B000889GIG. • Mainstone, Rowland J. (1997). Hagia Sophia: Ar- chitecture, Structure, and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great • Kahler, Heinz (1967). Haghia Sophia. Praeger. Church (reprint edition). W W Norton & Co Inc. ASIN B0008C47EA. ISBN 0-500-27945-4.. • Kinross, Lord (1972). Hagia Sophia, Wonders of • Mamboury, Ernest (1953). The Tourists’ Istanbul. Man. Newsweek. ASIN B000K5QN9W. Istanbul: Çituri Biraderler Basımevi. • Kleinbauer, W. Eugene; Anthony White (2007). • Müller-Wiener, Wolfgang (1977). Bildlexikon zur Hagia Sophia. London: Scala Publishers. ISBN Topographie : Byzantion, Konstantinupo- 978-1-85759-308-2. lis, Istanbul bis zum Beginn d. 17 Jh (in German). • Tübingen: Wasmuth. ISBN 978-3-8030-1022-3. Kleinbauer, W. Eugene (2000). Saint Sophia at Constantinople: Singulariter in Mundo (Monograph • Necipoĝlu, Gulru (2005). The Age of Sinan: Ar- (Frederic Lindley Morgan Chair of Architectural De- chitectural Culture in the . London: sign), No. 5.). William L. Bauhan. ISBN 978-0- Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-244-7. 87233-123-5. 15

• Krautheimer, Richard (1984). Early Christian and • MacDonald, William Lloyd (1951). The uncovering Byzantine Architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- of Byzantine mosaics in Hagia Sophia. Archaeolog- versity Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05294-7. ical Institute of America. ASIN B0007GZTKS.

• Mainstone, R. J. (1997). Hagia Sophia: Archi- • Mango, Cyril (1972). The mosaics of St. Sophia tecture, Structure, and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great at Istanbul: The church fathers in the north Tympa- Church. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978- num. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Stud- 0-500-27945-8. ies. ASIN B0007CAVA0.

• Mainstone, Rowland J. (1988). Hagia Sophia. Ar- • Mango, Cyril (1968). The Apse mosaics of St. chitecture, structure and liturgy of Justinian’s great Sophia at Istanbul: Report on work carried out in church. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500- 1964. Johnson Reprints. ASIN B0007G5RBY. 34098-6. • Mango, Cyril; Heinz Kahler (1967). Hagia Sophia: • Mango, Cyril; Ahmed Ertuğ (1997). Hagia Sophia. With a Chapter on the Mosaics. Praeger. ASIN A vision for empires. Istanbul. B0000CO5IL. • Teteriatnikov, Natalia B. (1998). Mosaics of Ha- • Mark, R.; Çakmaktitle, AS. (1992). Hagia Sophia gia Sophia, Istanbul: The Fossati Restoration and from the Age of Justinian to the Present. Princeton the Work of the Byzantine Institute. Dumbarton Architectural. ISBN 978-1-878271-11-2. Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978- • Nelson, Robert S. (2004). Hagia Sophia, 1850– 0-88402-264-0. 1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. Chicago: • Riccardi, Lorenzo (2012). Alcune riflessioni sul University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226- mosaico del vestibolo sud-ovest della Santa Sofia di 57171-3. Costantinopoli, in Vie per Bisanzio. VIII Congresso • Özkul, T. A. (2007). Structural characteristics of Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di Studi Bizan- Hagia Sophia: I-A finite element formulation for tini (Venezia 25-28 novembre 2009), a cura di Anto- static analysis. Elsevier. nio Rigo, Andrea Babuin e Michele Trizio. Bari. pp. 357–371. ISBN 978-88-7470-229-9. Retrieved 30 • Scharf, Joachim:Der Kaiser in Proskynese. Be- September 2014. merkungen zur Deutung des Kaisermosaiks im • Yücel, Erdem (1988). The mosaics of Hagia Sophia. Narthex der Hagia Sophia von Konstantinopel. Efe Turizm. ASIN B0007CBGYA. In: Festschrift Percy Ernst Schramm zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag von Schülern und Freunden zugeeignet, Wiesbaden 1964, S. 27–35. 10 External links • Swainson, Harold (2005). The Church of Sancta Sophia Constantinople: A Study of Byzantine Build- • Hagia Sophia Museum ing. Boston, MA: Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4021-8345-4. • Contemporary description by Procopius, Buildings (De Aedificiis), published in 561. • Yucel, Erdem (2005). Hagia Sophia. Scala Publish- ers. ISBN 978-1-85759-250-4. • Aya Sofya Photo Gallery by Dick Osseman

• Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late an- tique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 592, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0

9.1 Articles

• Bordewich, Fergus M., “A Monumental Struggle to Preserve Hagia Sophia”, Smithsonian magazine, De- cember 2008

9.2 Mosaics

• Hagia Sophia, hagiasophia.com: Mosaics. 16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

• Hagia Sophia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia?oldid=702861730 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Wesley, LA2, Vig- naux, Panairjdde~enwiki, Hotlorp, Hephaestos, Olivier, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, DopefishJustin, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Delirium, Egil, DavidWBrooks, Anders Feder, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, Andres, Alex756, GCarty, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Seth ze, RodC, Adam Bishop, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Tempshill, Dogface, Shizhao, Topbanana, Warofdreams, Wetman, Adam Carr, PuzzletChung, Dimadick, Twice25, Gentgeen, Robbot, Paranoid, The Phoenix, ChrisO~enwiki, Mirv, Rorro, Sevenstones, Radomil, Tanuki Z, Hadal, Profoss, Kent Wang, Aggelophoros, Guy Peters, Oobopshark, Davidcannon, Ancheta Wis, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Levork, Tom harrison, Meur- sault2004, Lupin, Zigger, Michael Devore, Syed Atif Nazir, Alibaba, Dsmdgold, Gilgamesh~enwiki, BigBen212, Fak119, Stevietheman, Popefauvexxiii, Gdr, Antandrus, JoJan, Jossi, OwenBlacker, Kuralyov, Huaiwei, Neutrality, Oknazevad, Robin klein, Lacrimosus, An- ders94, Oskar Sigvardsson, D6, Gimmick Account, Lectiodifficilior, Econrad, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Aynali, EliasAlucard, Leandros, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Michael Zimmermann, Nard the Bard, Bender235, Brian0918, Aranel, El C, Mairi, CeeGee, RobNS, TMC1982, Jpgordon, Bobo192, NetBot, Eliasbizannes, Acarvin, Nk, Pschemp, Polylerus, Espoo, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Quintucket, Alan- sohn, Pinar, Ryanmcdaniel, Gssq, Blkshrt, SonPraises, Jvano~enwiki, Ksnow, Oneliner, Wtmitchell, Blahedo, Kahraman, Fdedio, Skyring, BDD, Ghirlandajo, Avram Fawcett, Deror avi, Preost, Angr, Alvis, Qaddosh, Hbdragon88, Wikiklrsc, Pufferfish101, GregorB, Zzyzx11, Kralizec!, Opie, Dosseman, Kbdank71, NebY, Melesse, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, CristianChirita, Gryffindor, PinchasC, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, Ghepeu, Bhadani, Yamamoto Ichiro, Titoxd, Anurup, Old Moonraker, Winhunter, Twipley, Gurch, RobyWayne, Ahunt, Valen- tinian, Yce, Chobot, Michaelritchie200, Gdrbot, 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Ondewelle, Issyl0, Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Alpalfour, Amateur55, Alfie66, Angrysockhop, Cody7777777, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Culture editor, Jimidriver, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Brougham96, Jblim407, Eric-Wester, Tem- podivalse, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Mnewhous, GnuCivodul, Zacherystaylor, Materialscientist, Citci, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Apple- ,ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Cami rene, Addihockey10, Smim90 ,24أحمد.غامدي. ,bees1995, Editor Yazar, PIL1987, Neurolysis Imehling, CameramanD, C+C, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Mttll, MissMaintenance, Nedim Ardoğa, Marthapinson, Seric2, Britfish, Benny White, LucienBOT, Phanar, Yanajin33, Soph454, Lady Lotus, Redrose64, M-Bot, Metricmike, Boulaur, Alonso de Mendoza, Kristyn 97, Rameshngbot, Enaidowain, AmateurEditor, Timelessthink, RedBot, Serols, Ircesc, Auraking2, Ultimate Destiny, Aelfan1, Elekhh, FoxBot, Donnyhoca, Amerhadiazmi, Fama Clamosa, Ultimate Roadgeek, CMEHalverson, Diannaa, Lizarazo999, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Amartinez1, Tkbwikmed, Atreklin, Axxxion, RjwilmsiBot, Auswiger, Alph Bot, Antidiskriminator, Ptolion, Wikislemur, Rwood128, DASHBot, CrimsQn, EmausBot, Dolescum, Alpunin, C Talleyrand, Lamprotes, Lipsio, GoingBatty, Sp33dyphil, Goswamir14, Winner 42, ZéroBot, John Cline, Rainford55, DragonTiger23, H3llBot, Wayne Slam, Erianna, Jbribeiro1, Domichael, IGeMiNix, Brandmeis- ter, KazekageTR, Photeur, Dsparks53, Matthewrbowker, Rreinart, PohranicniStraze, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Jack Greenmaven, Wikimolita, MAPC 3, Satellizer, SilentResident, Astrohoundy, Go Phightins!, Ourworldheritages, Ρουθραμιώτης, Keygur, Helpful Pixie Bot, 43hellokitty21, Candleabracadabra, Gob Lofa, DBigXray, Tobotras, BG19bot, Pine, ArildV, Kendall-K1, Davidiad, Hubertl-AT, Rs4815, PetrosB3, Adriano.93, Yerevantsi, Tropcho, Ahp378, CitationCleanerBot, Tony Tan, The Almightey Drill, Nicola.Manini, Mau- 11.2 Images 17

rice Flesier, ROFI44WIK, Merlaysamuel, Stealthf0rce, Byzres, Qbli2mHd, HueSatLum, Maxronnersjo, E4024, Dexbot, Martinangel2, Ohff, Musicnotes117, Mogism, Viewmont Viking, Makanpagi, Hilmorel, Revelationpuzzle, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Waltereg, Stilbes, WilliamDigiCol, Landolfotralle, Sec855, Railroadwiki, Vasi31, Yclee0206, Stauracius, Theserpentine2121, Jerry Pepsi, Lfdder, Rybec, Ahmet Gürsakal, Oxr033, Ugog Nizdast, Evensteven, Zenibus, Hansmuller, Finnusertop, Someone not using his real name, Neubauer95476, Noteswork, Clock 12:13, NickGeorge1993, Behind the lie, Coolkidz151, Trinacrialucente, Nathanbloos, Melcous, Monkbot, Filedelinker- bot, Sssredg, RJANKA, Fitz2013, BethNaught, Histedit, DrBesteAcar, Womans enema, Florenc12, Laryomaima, Donkhanl, JudeccaXIII, SecretJournalsofCongress, AFS.786, E.M.Gregory, Datboy132002, Baconmanv2, Samowan, Mattpopovich, SoulFire147, AMartinho3, Turkeyandholiday, Coons3232, KasparBot, Westfield2015, Byzantinearts2015, Jatink12, Greek Strategos, Sevt V, Gmegnet, Giooo95, Thecosmicwarrior and Anonymous: 905

11.2 Images

• File:38-manasses-chronicle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/38-manasses-chronicle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from book “Miniatures from the Manasses Chronicle”, Ivan Duichev, “Bulgarski hudojnik” Pub- lishing house, Sofia, 1962 Original artist: Original: Constantine Manasses • File:Allah-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on 4 February 2003. Originally described as “Copied from Public Domain artwork”. Original artist: ? • File:Apse_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia_Virgin_and_Child.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Apse_ mosaic_Hagia_Sophia_Virgin_and_Child.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Ceiling_decorations_in_Hagia_Sofia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Ceiling_decorations_ in_Hagia_Sofia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Ceiling decorations in the Church of Hagia Sofia Original artist: Ian Scott • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Comnenus_mosaics_ Hagia_Sophia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photographer: Myrabella • File:Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Empress_Zoe_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Empress_Zoe_mosaic_ Hagia_Sophia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photographer: Myrabella • File:Empress_loge_Hagia_Sophia_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Empress_loge_ Hagia_Sophia_2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dragases at English Wikipedia • File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author) • File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_ Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: DsMurattalk • File:Fountain_Hagia_Sophia_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Fountain_Hagia_Sophia_ 2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Haga_Sofia_RB5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Haga_Sofia_RB5.jpg License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Wilhelm Lübke / Max Semrau: Grundriß der Kunstgeschichte. 14. Auflage. Paul Neff Ver- lag, Esslingen, 1908; German Wikipedia, original upload 28. Aug 2004 by Rainer Zenz Original artist: ? • File:Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Hagia_Sophia_ Imperial_Gate_mosaic_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Hagia Sophia Imperial Gate mosaic.jpg: Original artist: Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Dome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_ Dome.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Matthew Badger bad_germ 18 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Hagia_ Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Hagia Sophia South- western entrance mosaics.jpg: Original artist: File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Hagia_Sophia_ Theodosius_2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Hagia_Sophia_ Theodosius_2007_007.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_010.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Hagia_Sophia_ Theodosius_2007_010.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia005.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia009.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia052.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia052.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia055.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia055.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul_001.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Istanbul_001.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Vikiçizer • File:Istanbul_036_(6498284165).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Istanbul_036_%286498284165% 29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Istanbul 036 Original artist: Steve Evans from Citizen of the World • File:Le_24feb_a_11h23_-_Ste_Sophie_(1280x1280).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Le_24feb_ a_11h23_-_Ste_Sophie_%281280x1280%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tranxen • File:Location_map_Istanbul.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Location_map_Istanbul.png License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: openstreetmap.org Original artist: OpenStreetMap contributors, Dr. Blofeld • File:Marble_door_Hagia_Sophia_2007_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Marble_door_ Hagia_Sophia_2007_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Marble_jar_Hagia_Sophia_2007_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Marble_jar_Hagia_ Sophia_2007_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:P_parthenon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib- utors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Searchtool.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/Searchtool.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:USVA_headstone_emb-05.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/USVA_headstone_emb-05.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cem.va.gov/hmm/emblems.asp Original artist: Traced by User:Dogsgomoo, VA original • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

11.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0