VIOLENT COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN BURKINA FASO: A MULTI-LEVEL EXAMINATION By Matthew Fitzrobert Kirwin A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Political Science 2010 ABSTRACT VIOLENT COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN BURKINA FASO: A MULTI-LEVEL EXAMINATION By Matthew Fitzrobert Kirwin This project examines violent communal conflict in rural zones in Burkina Faso, a country otherwise known for its relatively low levels of group violence. The study commences with a systematic cross-case analysis at the village level with the goal of shedding light on the factors that explain variation in levels of violent conflict. The second stage of the study proposes a micro-level examination of the factors that contribute to an individual's approval of and participation in violence. The study is executed by means of a mixed methods approach which combines focus group discussions, ethnographic interviews with individuals and a survey of a randomly sampled representative population in areas that have experienced variation in levels of violent conflict. The micro-level investigation tests whether variation in self-ascribed individual identity, traditional and modern institutional capacity, interpersonal trust and levels of social capital in the form of associational life The study finds that when local institutions responsible for land management are weak or lack capacity the chances for violent conflict between producer groups is enhanced. I extend the analysis through an examination of public opinion data collected in Liberia and query whether or not local institutions also play a role in individual participation in violence. Dedicated to Robert Kirwin iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my dissertation committee of Michael Bratton, Brian Silver, Ravi Bhavnani, and Walter Hawthorne. These individuals greatly improved the dissertation. Michael Bratton, in particular, provided advice, suggestions, support, and patience that was invaluable to the completion of this dissertation. His professionalism and rigor serve as a model. I would like to thank the Department of Political Science at Michigan State University for providing a great environment in which to obtain an outstanding graduate education. Several fellow graduate students were helpful for their advice and friendship, particularly Wonbin Cho, JP Peltier Nicholas Kerr, David Dreyer, Paul Nikiema and Eric Little. In terms of my Burkinabè colleagues, I thank Augustin Loada, Abdul Karim Sango, Adama Tiendrebeogo and Saidou Ouedraogo. I thank my wife, Martine, for her strong support and my boys, Patrick and Liam, for being my boys. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………….vi LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..1 CHAPTER 2: THE CASE OF BURKINA FASO- EXPLANATIONS FOR LOW LEVELS OF VIOLENT COMMUNAL CONFLICT…………………………….…17 CHAPTER 3: RELATIONS BETWEEN FARMERS AND HERDERS IN WEST AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL REVIEW…………………………………………….31 CHAPTER 4: LAND TENURE IN BURKINA FASO………………………………49 CHAPTER 5: LITERATURE REVIEW AND LEADING HYPOTHESES……....…69 CHAPTER 6: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN……………….........94 CHAPTER 7: EVENT HISTORIES AND COMPARATIVE CASE STUDIES ……115 CHAPTER 8: INDIVIDUAL ORIENTATIONS TO VIOLENCE………………..…149 CHAPTER 9: EXTENDING THE ANALYSIS- THE CASE OF LIBERIA………...174 CHAPTER 10: FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION……………………………..188 APPENDIX A: VARIABLES-BURKINA FASO……………………………………203 APPENDIX B: VARIABLES-LIBERIA……………………….……………………206 APPENDIX C: BURKINA FASO SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE…………………..208 APPENDIX D: ACCEPTABILITY OF VIOLENCE-LIBERIA-CORRUPT LOCAL INSTITUTIONS……………………………………………………………………..218 APPENDIX E: ACCEPTABILITY OF VIOLENCE-LIBERIA- RESPONSIVE LOCAL INSTITUTIONS …………………………………………………………………….219 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………221 v LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1: Burkina Faso and measures of ethnic diversity and polarization……………22 Table 3-1: Correlation between Fulani identity and Herder identity identity….……..…33 Table 6-1: Comparison of cases………………………………………………….…….103 Table 6-2: Distribution of the rural population in Nahouri Province…………………108 Table 6-3: Distribution of the rural population in Comoé Province ……………….….108 Table 6-4: Distribution of the rural population in Poni Province……………………...108 Table 6-5: Distribution of the rural population in Zoundweogo Province…………….109 Table 6-6: Selected villages and number of respondents in each commune in Nahouri Province………………………………………………………………………………110 Table 6-7: Selected villages and number of respondents in each commune in Comoé Province………………………………………………………………………………110 Table 6-8: Selected villages and number of respondents in each commune in Poni Province……………………………………………………………………………….111 Table 6-9: Selected villages and number of respondents in each commune in Zoundweogo Province………………………………………………………………...111 Table 7-1: List of violent herder-Farmer conflicts in Burkina Faso…………………..116 Table 7-2: Population density and violent conflict……………………………………118 Table 7-3: Population Density for Comoe Province………………………………….120 Table 7-4: Population Density for Comoe Province…………………………………..120 Table 7-5: Institutional capacity versus presence of violent conflict…………………146 Table 8-1: Descriptive statistics………………………………………………………161 Table 8-2: Acceptability of the use of violence (local institutions (government and traditional) performance as explanatory variables)…………………………………...162 Table 8-3: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant………….162 vi Table 8-4: Participation in violence (local government and tradition leader performance as explanatory variables)………………………………………………………………..165 Table 8-5: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant……………165 Table 8-6: Acceptability of use of violence (View modern and traditional institutions as legitimate)……………………………………………………………………………....167 Table 8-7: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant……………167 Table 8-8: Participation in violence (View modern and traditional institutions as legitimate………..………………………………………………………………………168 Table 8-9: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant……………168 Table 8-10: Acceptability of use of violence (First institution consulted)……………...169 Table 8-11: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant…………..169 Table 8-12: Participation in violence (First institution consulted)……………………...170 Table 8-13: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant…………..170 Table 9-1: Individual perceptions of local institutions…………………………………180 Table 9-2: Descriptive statistics………………………………………………………...183 Table 9-3: Participation in violence (local government and tradition leader corrupt)…………………………………………………………………………………184 Table 9-4: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant………………………………………………………………………………184 Table 9-5: Participation in violence (local government and tradition leader listen)…………………………………………………………………………………...186 Table 9-6: Marginal change in variables of interest found to be significant………………….............................................................................................187 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Percentage of Respondents who have witnessed land based conflicts……….5 Figure 1-2: Percentage of respondents who have been physically threatened by another group………………………………………………………………………………………5 Figure 1-3: Percentage of respondents who have participated in violence………………………………………………………………………………..…..6 Figure 2-1: Popular perceptions of political violence in sub-Saharan Africa……………21 Figure 7-1: Population density and violence intensity………………………………………………………………………………....119 Figure 9-1: The source of violent conflict between groups in Liberia…………………………………………………………………………………..176 Figure 9-2: Frequency of violent land-based conflicts………………………………………………………………………………...177 Figure 9-3: Institution with the primary responsibility for land allocation……………………………………………………………………………….178 Figure 9-4: Institution with the primary responsibility of resolving local disputes…………............................................................................................................178 Figure 9-5: The amount of influence of traditional leaders in political affairs…………………………………………………………………………………..180 Figure 10-1: Should traditional leaders sit on local government administrations?...............................................................................................................201 viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION “Now Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground.” The Book of Genesis “The farmer and the cowman should be friends. Oh, the farmer and the cowman should be friends. One man likes to push a plough, the other likes to chase a cow, But that's no reason why they can't be friends.” Lyrics from Oklahoma! by Rogers and Hammerstein Introduction Conflict between farmers and herders continues to be a frequent event in West Africa and there have been many recent cases in which these conflicts have degenerated into intense communal violence. As one example, in December of 2009 over fifty people were killed in a conflict between farmers and herders in the Middle Belt region of Nigeria (BBC, 2009). In some cases, the number of victims is quite staggering; for example in 1991, more than 100 people were killed in a dispute over grazing rights at Toda, in south central Niger (Ngaido 1994). Even in events that did not have a high number of deaths, the extent of human