Farnham - The Wintu People

"TheirSleep is to Be Desecrated": TheCentral Valley Project and theWintu People of NorthernCalifornia, 1938-1943

April Farnham MaiduInterpretive Center WestSacramento, California

0, white man,take the land of ours, Guardwell its hills, streams, and bowers, Guardwell tl1eMounds whereWintoons sl eep, Guardwell fuese canyons wild and deep.

AlliedC. Gillis,"To l11eWenemMame River"(Exccrpti

The morningof July 14, 1944,was intended to be a momentof celebrationtl1e for Cityof Redding, CaliforniaSecretaiy of fue InteriorHarold L. Ickeshad been scheduledto anivc in fue booming cityto dedicate ShastaDam, a nationalreclan1ation pmject of great p1ide tolocal citizens andconstrnction wo1kers. Jw,t dayshowever, prior, fue dedicationceremony had been canceled due to fue inability of Ickes to leave Washington D.C.. Instead, a small gmup of U.S. Bureau of Reclaniation(BOR) officials,Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) officials,and local city officials quietly gatl1eredw itl1infuc dam's$19,400,000 power plant A BOR officialflipped switch a to start one of fue plant's two massive generators, sending a strrge of 120,000 watts of hydroclectricity into California's transmission lines and tl1e Pacific, Gas, and Electric (PG&E) disti1bution�ystem. 11usenergy would fueltl1e West's war industries and tl1e federal defense effort in World War 11. Though wifuout :fun.fare, fue switching event signaled fue official stait of commercialproduction of powerfrom fue world's second largest dam andk eystoneoftl1e Cential Valley Pmject (CVP). Fmm Washington, D.C., fue event was heraldedby BOR Commissioner

Notes

1 AlfredC. Gillis, "To theWenetn Marne River," 1924,ca as printedin thecollection entitled Three California Write,, from the Sequoyah Research Center; Ametican Native Press Archives, available at httpJ/www.ai1rnualr.edu'digilal _librruy/Three Califon1ia/alfredgillis.htrn Gillis, who identifiedhimself as a Wintoon Indianof SimaCounty, mis a poet,wiiter, and active 111C1nbei· of theIndian Boord of Oroperation. He fiu:ruei1tly touTL'XiCalifon1ia and traveled to Washington D.C. topmmote tlie tights of Califomia's Native �le in the1920s. Gillis' poems are µinted ineditionsof the C'nlifomia Indicoi Het-a!dnewsµiper published in 1923 and 1924. For more infonnationon Gillis, see also Alice R. Hovmian, Joun'le}' to Justice, The Wintu Peopleand the Salmon (Santee, CA: BordeauxPrinters, Inc., 2002 © TurtleBay Exploration Paik), 58-59.

135 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1 &2

HanyW. Bashoreas "a milestonein thefulfilhnent of visions Californiansfor havehad nearly l 00 ,;J. years. Yet notall Californians shared in thehopeful "visions" associated with Shasta Dam. Indeed, forone group of NativeCalifornians, the dam was morethe making of a tragedythan the fulfilh1ent of dreams. In 1941, U.S. Indianpoli cy was modifiedin responsepolitical to pressi.rres connected to the CYP, an actionthat re,ulted in the immediate dispossession of several Native fumilies. Shasta Damthus fragmented a distinctNative community that had already experienced close to acentury of culturalloss. Up lllltil 1943, families of Nativedescent had lived in the ruggedand bcauti:fi.tl river canyons now submerged by the waters of Shasta Reservoir. 1he words of one local "Indian", otherwise identifiedonly as"Wintu," spoke loud andclear: "It was against all Onist:ian ethics to movethem-we have laid our deadwith tears, and great hope, and we aregrieved that their sleep is to 3 be desecrated." Governmentofficials had relocated some, but notall, of his ancestors' gravesto higherground; yet his trnditionalhomelands and spititual sites now layllllder water. Il1e Native man who eloquently spoke of his ancestors' burials belonged to an ancient Californiatribal groupmost frequentlyidentified as theWintu of northern California4 Theanre,iral tenitory of the Wintu covered parts of Trinity, Shasta, Siskiyou, and Tehama Counties, and encompassedsubstantial a portion of the river cb-ainage system that feeds the Shasta Reservoir of ShastaCounty. nusdrainage sy.,iem includes the upper SacramentoRiver, the McCloud Riv er, the Pit River, and Squaw Creek. TI1e people of the Wmtu were originally divided into nine major groups (or bands) identified by the traditional names that referred to their geographic territo1ics,

2 "OfficialFlow ofPower at Shasta Begins," Sa:ramento Bee, 14 July1944, p. 1, col.5.

3 Helen Stm:hnan Hq,'lle, Wintu Trails, ed.Marguet M. Kardell(Reckling: Shasta HistoricalSociety, 1977; reprint, Redding:Shasta Hist01ical Society, 1995),72 OriginallypJblishcx:I as Pea:efi,l Now TheTraiL, by die Shasta HistoricalSociety in 1948.Hoguewasanrunateurhistorian who seivcx:IPresident as of die Shasta Historical Society the in 1940s. From1938 to 1943,she intetviewcx:I Native furnilies andtriool eld:rs who livcx:I in the rivercanyons above Sh.c1Sta Dam 4Severalin variations tlie spelling of d1esenm1ies awear in thehistorical, ethnographic,and anlhrqxllogical litera!l.Jrelrecoid. Acaxding to anthiDjXJlogistand rutist Frank R. LaPena, of N01ntiporn Wintu cb;cent, thenrune "Wintu" (punounced win too) derives from theNative word "winl'u.h" which tt'311Slates asasingle '):erson." Anlhrqxlioi:,rist Alfied Krocber prqxJscddienru11e "Wintu" todi5tinguish this nrnthem groupfian the Patwin, or Southernand Wintun NO!lllaki,or Central Wintun (Frank R. L'lf'ena,"Wintu," in Handbook of No,th American fmicms, vol. 8, Calif01nia, ed. RoootF. Hei?_.er[Washi11t,>ton D.C.:Srnithsonian Institution, 1978J, 339; Alfied Kroeber, "llic Patwinand their Neigj1bois," Uniwniity of California Publication, in AmericanArchaeology and Ethnology,vol. 2 9(4): 253-423[Bcrkeley, La; Angeles: University ofCalifomia Press, 1932]). However,the spelling "Wintu" is not tmiveisally used as"Wintoon," "Win-toon," "Wintun," "NOlthcm Wintun," "Northern Wintoon," "Wyntoon", "Wintune," and "ShastaIndians" have also applied. been Frunily member.; have vruiously "Wintun," used "Wintune", and "Wintoon" to cbscnbetheir a.�tural heritage per Helen Hq,'Ue (Hq,'lle, Winturail1·, T I) ruxl nioolelders. Both"Wintu" and "Wintom" rueused d1isthroughout paper todie honor histOlicalrecord (when citing directly fian variousand sources) to n::siro Nativeaffiliation<; witl1 today's Winremern Wintu tribe and Wintoon Tnbc ofNorthem California, INC..

136 Farnham - The Wintu People

includingthe nomti-pom ('in-the-w�t ground') on theupper Sacramento River and the wenemem or wene-em ('middle water') on the McCloud River.5 Those individuals belonging to or descended from the wenemem(today spelled Winememor Winnemem) group, or the McCloud RiverWintu, were most heavily affected by constiuction of the dam Today, approximately 145 Winnemcm 6 descendantsbelong to the Winnemem Wintu tnbe. Five descendantsare CU1rentlyorganiz.cd as the 7 WintoonTribe Northem of Califomia, INC Othercunent Wintu groups of ShastaCounty arethe Win tunTribe Northemof Califomia, the Nor-El Muk WintuNation, and the Toyon-Wintu.8 Like many other Native groups in Califomia during the nineteenth century, the Wintun expe1ienced serious population loss from disease, starvation, warfare, andraiding that followed the 9 anivalEuro-Americans. of In 1851, tribal leadeIB attempted to secure rese1vation lands from the federal governmentthrough the"Cottonwood Treaty;" however, Congress neverratified the treaty 1 and subsequently seized the land ° From the 1850s lUltil the tum of the cer1twy, gold mining, copper-smelting, and timber 1131Vest.ing destroyedmany of tl1e natural resOlrrccs relied upon in the

5 FrankR. LaPena,"Wintu," in Handbookc,f No11h Ame,iao1Jndicois, vol. 8, Califomia,ed RotertF. Heizer (Washin!,>ton D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 324. For other definitive ethnographics, see also Frank LaPcna, "Wintu Ethnography Revised''(MA thesis, California State University, &1crarro1to, 1978); Cora Du Bois, "Wintu Ethnography," Unive1sity of Califomia Publiartions in Ametican Arr:haeolaw and tthnolaw, vol. 36(1): 1-148 (J.3eikeley: Univeisity of California Pn,ss, 1935); C. Hart Meniam,''Tribes of Wintoon Stock,"Studies of Ca/ifomia /nclim1·(Berkeley, Los Angeles: UniveisityofCalifomia Press, 1955), 3-25; andOuistopher K. Oiase-DtD111and Kelly M. Mann,'Toe Wintu and Neighbors,"Their (Tucson: University of Ari7_Dna Press, 1988).

6 CaleenSisk-Franco (SpiritualLeader) and Mark Franco (Headrn.o111) oftl1e Winnemcm Wintu tr ibe,interv iew witl1author at die village of Kerekmetootside Reckling,CA, 3-4 November2005; Winnemem Wintu TtibeTheLong Jowneyto Justice,aV

7 DO!is Lovely (Oninnan),Nellie Bell, VernonPopajoy, Jr., andNonnan Pqx:joy of The Wintoon Tribe of Northem Califomia, INC., interviewwith authorin Stnnmit City,CA, 11 O::tober2005.

8 As oftl1edate of this writing, these Wintu tnbes not are recogi1b'_ro by theU.S. Government

9 Between1849 and1864, vigilantes as well as militarytroops fooghtof aseries wurs with California's Native p::oplethat resulted in the''ma=re" and destruction of manyWintu villages. One example is the"Wintoon 'War of 1858-1859. Pre-E.urcpeancontact, the Wintu population is estimatedto lnve been 14,250. By 1910, thepopulation Im ch-cwedto an esti1mted 395 individuals (LaPena,Handbook, 325). See alsoAlbeit HU11ado, IndianSwvival on the CalifomiaFrontier�ew Haven, Corniecticut Yale UniveisityPress, 1988), 42, 122.

10 The" CottonwoodTreaty'' was signedon August 16, 1851 lx:tweenseveral Native headmen representing oonds of the Wintupqm!ation and U.S. IndianA!,'e!lt 0. M. Woz.enaaft at Pierson Reading's ranch. See Rotert F. Heizer, ed. n1e Eighteen UnratifieclTreaties c,f/851-/853 &/ween The Ca/ifomia Indian� coul Statesn1e United Go1ernm?nl(Berkeley: Archaeological Research Facility, Department of Anthrop;ilogy, University of California, 1972), 49-51 arKIHO!,'l.le,15.

137 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2 traditional tribal economy.'1 'foese los.ses forced Native people to make significant cultural adjustments in order to survive. Several Native women and Anglo men (mostly miners and ranchers) intcrmanicd, producing oflspring and families of mixed Native/Anglo descent 1hese mixed-bloodedfamilies, as well as full-bloodedNative individuals, adopted Anglo surnamessuch as Popejoy, Silverthome, Campbell, McDaniel, and Curl; however, some individuals still posses.sed Wintu namesas well.12 Anthropologistand lingui�i Jeremiah Curtin wiites in his journals,"TI1e Wintus in 1884 had noland; they lived wherewhite men would let them,generally on fue uselessland of somefunner or ranch owncr."13 Thus in 1890 Curtin deliveredto President William Hanison fue Wintu-Yana Petition - essentially a letterwhich translated an appeal from Nor'-el-poo'tus (also referred to as Norel-putis andNorale Pootus) andKlencaddy, Wintu leaders,for the Wintu andthe Nosa (later identifiedas the Yana) tribes. CurtinWiites, "At fue McCloudI worked wifuNor'-el-poo 'tus and Klencaddy,the two oldest men of the Wintu tnbe... The Nosas [Y anas] and Wintmwanted me to tellfue Presidentwhat a homelesscondition they were in, howfuc white men drovefuem from place to place."14 However, the U.S. did not respond to the petition for land until President Grover Cleveland was elected in 1892. During Cleveland's administration, tl1e Department of Interior's (DOI) Office of Indiangranted allotments of 80 to160 acres to some Wintu individuals along the McCloud River. Accordingto fue WinnememWintu tribe's oral histoty, a total of 4000 acres of land along the riverwere allotted to the Winnemem or McCloud River Wintu people in 1920.15 Many of fuese allotn1ents were either sold or "canceled" yet other allotments were divided into smallerparcels, passed down from fueoriginal owners ("allottees') to fueirchildren or otherfanmy relatives("heirs'). 16

1 1 LaPcna,H andbook,324-325. In the1890s and 19003,early ccwer-proc=ing plants established towns at like KennettCoram and poisoned natural vei:,>etation ruxl tree grovesalong the UpperSacrarnento and PitRiver. Tiie uppx McOoo::IRiver canyon,however, � to have lessbeen i mpactedby smeltingqxrations. 12 HC)6'lle,1-73. 13 Maeyu-ctGuilfoni--Kardel� "Papers onWinlll Ethnography: 239 Wintu Yilla6,es in Shasta COI.Il1ty Circa 1850,"Ocx:a;ional of Papers the Redding Perper Museum No. I (Redding:Reo:ling Museum and ArtCenter, December 1980), 15.

14 Ibid, 16.

15 Sisk-Francoet al.,Winneniem Winlll,interview, 34 November2005. 16 Winnernem Winh.1position regardingSha,1a Dam,ABSTRACT Prepared/or the Sena!e Select Committee Hearings in Wmhington DC, June 4, 2002, available at httpJfmdiru1.senate.gov/2002hrgsf(Xi}4()2hrglFranco.PDf-� =I on 5 September2005; Hoveman, 56. Cruni:oel�Curl, and Sisk land patents are listed in anindex to federal bnd rccoo:lsShasta fcr County extracted from the Bureau of landMan.c11:,>en1C11t's Califomia Lruxl Patents Database, available at ftpJ/fh).rootsv.d).C011Vpub't1<;get1,veb'caisha<;ttvland/sliasta.1xt

138 Farnham - The Wintu People

By thelate 1930s, pe1haps400 to Wintu500 livedin woodencabins andlodges scattered up 17 anddown thealong McCloud River canyon and river tributaries feeding Shasta Reservoir. Many livedand worl<.ed in townssuch as Coppe1· City, Kermctt, or Baird,site of a federalfish hatch and ery 18 hometo theBaird Auxiliaiy Council, an importantpolitical organization forWintu descendants. Florence Violet Cw·! Jones (Pui-lu-li-met), a noted Wintu shaman born in 1909, was one such 19 individualwho calledthe McCloudRiver home. Nellie McDanielBell, anotherWintu elderborn in 1927, was raised in the town and former Wintu village site of YdalrxJm near Squaw Creek, a 20 tributaryof the Pit Rivcr. Bell statesthat "a lotof [Native andwhite] people in thoseda ys didn't own land[ along therivers], they just squatted lived or on it',2 1 However,the Office of Indian Affairs

17 Hovernan,60; Hogue, 73 I- ; LaPena,Handbook, 335. LaPenapmvides a WintJ.mpq:>Ufation estimate of380 for theyear 1930; however,it is notclear if thisnwnlx:r includes both full-blooded and mixed-bloodedindividuals. U.S. census recmlsindicate that the "Indian" popttlation in Shasta County for1930 was687 (see Table 1 in theA1111ua!

NcoroliveReport of the Superintencknt. SacrconentoIndian A gency. Califomiaforthe Fi5cal Yea,�· /936 md/937, by RayNash. I 936- I 93 7, 1 Octolx:r1937, U.S. Bw1:

18 Lovely et al., WintoonTnbe, interview,11 Cktober2005; WintoonTnbe to Farnham, 8 December2005; Hovenwi,35, 57-58. VernonM PqzjoySr., a Wintoonelder, lived in Kcnncttuntilthe fate 1930sand wrnkedin both d-ief, '()]d andcqJpet . mines of the area According toHovcnwi, the Baird FishHatcl-ie ry, named afterU.S. Fish and FisheriesConllni."",ioner S pencerF wlerton Baird,was established in 1872by Livin g;tonStone to haivest tl-ie 1ich salmon­ nnis alongthe McCloud River. !twasthe first federal salmon breeding station on thePacific Coo-,i (Hovcman , 35.) 19 Sisk-Francoet al., WinnememWintu , interview, 3-4November 2005. FloraJones wa, recognizedas d-ie SpiritualLra:ler or"TepDoctor' ofd-ie Wi:Jmcniem Wi:J1tu tnbc untilher death in 2003. See also Beverly R. Ortiz, "An Interviewwith Florence Jones," News from Natiie Califomia 9, no. 3 (Spiing 1996): 39-41; PeterM. Knu:ltson, The Winlunlmiarn of Califomiaco?d Their Neighbors, ( Harr,yCa mp: NaJuregraphPubl ishers, Inc.,2002), 59--08; and tl-ie websitehttpJfwww.winnerne1mvintu.tlS"memorial.htm.

20 Lovelyet al., Wi:J1toonTnbe, i:J1terview,11 Cktober2005; 11-ie Wintoon Tnbc ofNord1erri Califomia, INC. to April Farnham, 8 December2005, ori gin.c'll letterin d-iehand of April Famham Accrnding to the WintoonTribe, Ida Viola Sisk,the mother ofSaral1 P OjX'joy( wifeof VernonM. Poix:joySr.), alsoseivcd as a spi1itual dociorfor the Native people of theShasta Rcservoi:J· 1 -ei,>ionfrom 1938 to194 3. Nellie Bell'sparents me Aithw·mxl L'lla Sta., y McDaniel,who 1nanicdWes Cwi(Florence Joncs's bmthcr) afterArtlmr McDaniel pas. 'icdon in 1941. For more i:J1fonnation011 tnbal vill::lf,>es d-iein Shasta Com lyarea, see Mar garetGuilford-Kardell, "Pa person Wintu Edm ography: 239 WinJuVilla f,>es in ShastaCow1 tyCirca 1850," OccmionalPapers of the RailingMu5ewn Paper No. I (Redding: Redding Museumand ArtCenter, [)xembcr 1980).

21 Lovelyet al., Wi:J1toonTribe, interview, 11 Cktober2005. Nellie Bell'srra temalgrandmother was gran teda 160--ocreallotment , whichshe dividedi:J1to 40--aae rerce ls mnongher four sons inch.rling Bell's futher, Al1hur McDaniel. UponAl111Uf McDaniel's death, Bell's mothcr(L'lla S tacyMcDaniel) irtl-ieritcd aaes 40 oflm1d neartl1ePit River.

139 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2 reportedthat least at 175 "Indians"owned land (anywhere from one to160 acres) within the Shasta Reseivoirregion in 1938/1939.22 Wintu land allotments became a priority for the 001 following passage of Califomia's 23 CentralVall eyProject Act in 1933 (CalifomiaStatutes of 1933, Oiapter042). I l11e CVP, planned and implemented by the BOR, had several stated ptnposes or "beneficial uses." Among these ptnposes were waterstorage for domestic and agricultmal use, floodcontrol along the Sacramento River, regulation of salinity levels in the lower Sacramento Delta, improvement of water quality, maintaining reliable river navigation levels, fish conservation, and (most in1portantly) electric powcr.24 The CYP comprised several dan1-reseivoir-hydroelectric plant facilities; however, its keystone would be the Kennett Dam, later renamed Shasta Dam, on the Sacramento River. As planned, thedam would backup the waters of the upperSacramento, Pit, andMcCloud rivers a distanceof thi.Ity five miles, creatinga reseivoirthat covered approximately 30,(XX) acres. 25 Bureau of Reclamation officials,anxious get to the CVP underway, swveyedthe proposed site forthe ShastaDam and its reseivoir from 1935 and 1937. By 1938, Pacific Constructors, lnc. (P.C.I.), thecontractor which won the constructionbid, hadbegun building government eniployee camps andexcavating soil for diversion tunnels and damfoundations. TI1ese govel11Il1entcan1p5, also called"squatters camps" due tothe hundreds of unemployed, Depression-wornlaborers who flockedto them, developedinto the boomtowns of Central Valley, Project City, Summit City, and Toyon.26 TheCivilian ConservationCorps (CCC) establishedup to elevencan1pS in ShastaCounty

22 JohnG. Rockwell (Field Representativein Oiarge, Sacramento Indian Agency) Commissioner to of Indian Affairs,18 Februaiy1943, RG 75, NationalArchives-Pacific Region,photoccpy from the privatecollection of Mmk Fmncoin thevilla 1,>eofKerekrret outside Redding, California 23 HouseCommittee on Interiorand Jn;,ular Affum;,Cen!ral Valley P,vjei:.tDocumenls, Pa,t I Aullvri:.:ing I'xxwnenlS, House DocumentNo. 416 (Washin1,>ton D.C.: U.S. Govenunent Printing Office, 1956), 409431. The lan1,'1.lageof the CalifomiaCVP Act, 1933 docsnot specifically rllress isste the of Nativetitle to lands within the CVP areaCongress passedauthorizi severalacts ng andmodifying the stateCYP Actfrom 1935 to1941. TheU.S. Actof August26, 1937 occlaredthe CVP's pUipose, as "beneficialuses", aITKlllg those "reclamation the of arid and semiarid landsand Ian& oflndianreservations" (Slattdes Large, al vol. 50, section844, 26 Alll,'llSI1937).

24 Al Rocca,Ametica '.� Shasla Dam, A Hi�toryof Con'illuction, 1936-1945(Rro:ling: HaI"Vest Printing, 1994; reprint, Redding: HarvestPrinting, 1995), 5, SpecialCollectiOtl.5, Shiel& Lib rary, Universityof California, Davis. Dr. Rocca'sbook is r,ertiallybasal disrertationon a entitled "The ShastaDarn Boomtowns:Social A and Economic History, 1938-1950"he con�leted fora PhD in historyat UC Davisin 1991. 25 California Legislature, Joint Interim Committee onWater Problems 1941-1942, Dcda In/onnation m:i Itinerary Coveringof lmpection Cenlral Vall eyP,vjei:.t and UnilS of !he Stale Wcdet"Plan in !he SanJacquin Valley, No. Yl, 11-17 May1942, Earl Wa,ren Papers /924-1943, Series315 Central ValleyProject, 1941-1953 (26f), F3640:35SO, CaliforniaState Archives, Sacramento, Califomia. 26 Al M. Rocca,"The Shasta Darn Boomtowns: A SocialEcooomic and History, 1938-1950" (PhD. Diss., UniversityofCalifomia Davis, 1991), Special Collections, Shields Libraiy, University California, of Davis.

140 Farnham - The Wintu People to housethe yoW1g men hiredto clear brush and trees along the rivers and tributaries above the dam site. Thefish hatchery headquarters at Baird wer-e in factconverted toof one these CCC camps.27 OneofBaird's CCC laborerswas Charles T. Popejoy,whose grandmother Wintu wasfull-blooded 28 Withthe scheduleddarn for completion in 1943,the BOR desiredto secure title to "Indian lands" withinreservoir theproposed area quickly as as possible. llmsin thefall of 1938, theBOR directedits first 1-eqoo,is for land allotment purchases to the Bureau of Indian Affairs(BIA) officein Sacramento, then known asthe Sacramento Indian Agency, which hadjurisdiction over Native 29 allottccs( reservation and non-reservation status) in theShru..ia CoW1tyarea At thistime, Roy Nash held thepo&t of Agency Superintendent Nashfelt that the overall living conditions for California's Indiansneeded improvement, yet he alsodesired to "terminate" BIA setviccs soon as as possible as 30 indicatedin a narrativereport the to Commissionerof Indian Affairs, John Collier, in 193 7. Collier, appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933, was in the process of implementing the Indian New Deal - a collectionof programs aimed atrebuilding tnbal land bases andestablishing tribal governments and economic cntr.,'tprises. However, these programs applied primarily to reservation or rancheria-status Indians, which excluded Native people living in Shasta Cmmty outsideof theRedding Rancheiiaestablished ( in 1922), andhad littleimpact on Native people within Sacramento'sjtuisdiction. 31 Oneexception perhaps was the CCC programof Shasta CoW1ty.

2 7 Rocca,America s Sha,·taDam, 17; HO!,'Ue,71. Brushand weretrees cleared fiom the river's edl,,>e out to four miles.

28 Lovelyet al.,Wintoon Tribe, 11 October2005. It is unknownexactly howother 1Tu111y Wintoon or Wintu nu-iweie hired by theas C:CC laboret,dwing construction ofShaS1a Dam 29 Goveinmentfor corres1xmdence the yeais 1938 through1943 showthat "Bweau of IndianAflairs" was alternatelyused to referto ordcsaibe die OOJ's Office oflndian Aflairs. The Samnnento Indi an Agency,esmblish ed in 1923, heldjurisdiction over Indian reservation rancheiia and lands in fot"ly-thiee cotmticsin Califon1ia,including Shasta Cotu1ty. Indianalloaocnts in theSh.c1Sta Reservoir area did notfull within a resem1tionbut weie still comi

0 -' [)qxutmentof tlie lntetior, Bweau oflndian Affuii,, Sa:ramento Alea Offi ce,Annual Na,raJiw Report of the Superintendent.Sacmmenlo Indian Agency, California/orthe Fiscal 1936Yea,s and1937, by Roy Nash /936-1937, I October1937, Roll No. 121, Microfilm386, National An::hives Microfilm PublicationMIO! I, U.S. Bmeauoflndian Aflairs Sup:rintendent's Aimual Nanative and Statistical Reix,rts fiom Field Jwisdictions of die BIA, 1907-1938, Libra!y,California State Univeisity, Sa::ramento. Tiienanative report is al'iOavailable at httpJ/arcweb.an.:hives.gov/aro' wid1 keywordserud1 "John Collier and Sacraniento."

31 1l1ornas S. Melendrez, "John Collier's Indian New Deal inCalifornia: Federal Indian Policy and die Sacramento IndianAf,>etlC)', 1933-1945" (MA diesis, Califrn1ia State University, Sa::ramcnto, 1979), 19-28,138.

141 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

OnSeptember 29, 1938, Secretaryof InteriorHarold lckes approved a report submittedby a "fuardof AppraiSCic;"which he had appointedto appraise approximately 5,710 acresof land tracts locatedwithin the proposed project area for Shastaand Dam Shasta Reservoir. 32 Amongthe tracts listed in the appraisal report were three "Indian Allottments [sic]" 0\,\/1100 by the following individuals: WalterHarvey (80 acres,valued at $1,800), Billy Smithson(80 acres,valued at $1,850), and Ada E. Stone (143 acres, valued at $2,830).33 The Harvey and Smithson allotments were locatedjust north of the Pit River within section8, township 34 north,range 4 west,Mt Diablo Meridian(M.D.M .. ) Theallotment of Ada Stone,who had passedon in 1925, waslocated just west of theupper Sacramento River within section 24, township35 north,range 5 west,M. D.M.. 34 In a letterdated October12, theBOR's Sacramento office requestedthe Sacran1e11to IndianAgency's approvalfor the saleof theallotments so BOR officialscould "proceed to preparethe requiredland purchases and deeds." 35 Superintendent Nash wrote to the Commissioner of Indian AffuiJs requestingiru,iructions on how toproceed with land negotiations. Nash warned

Thisis thefirst of manysales this office [Sacramento Indian Agency] willhave to negoti ate, of Indianlands lying withinthe proposed reservoir of ShastaDam .. .. Mostof the landswill be allotmentswhich havepassed the from 01iginal allottee to severalheirs, some of whom it will not bepossible to locate. 36

32 Jolm C. Page (BOR Commissioner)to The Secretaryof the Interior, 26 September 1938, arµuved 29 September 1938 byW.C. Mendenhall (Acting AssistantSecretary of the Interior), RG 75, NationalArchivcs-Pxific Region, thephotocopy from private collection of Mruk Franco.

33 WalkerR. YOllllg (OOR SU[OVising Engineer in &1cramento)Bureau to oflndiai, Affairs' Feo:ral Building in &'Oalnento, California, 12 October 1938, RG 75, National Archives-Pxific Region, photc:x:q))' from theprivate collectirnof MrukFranco. AdaE. Stonewas ofone the original allottees granted lai,d in 1893, accordingto anindex for federal land recorrls on Shasta County extracted fium the Btumu of L'U,d Management's California Land Patents Datarose,available at ftp://flp.rooo.web.m1vpub1usgcnweblcaishasta1lancl/shast:I.txt

34 Ibid;Pe1ition(or the Salecf Inherited Indian Land for Ada E. Stone(Mitchell), completed by Supeiintcncbit Roy Nashof the Sacrainento Indian Agency, United States Dµutrnent of the Interior, Office oflndian Affai rs, 9 January 1939, RG 75, National Archives-Pxific Region, photocq:,y fiumtheprivate collection of Millk Franco. The U.S. D:µutrnentof Interior,California (Sliastt Co1.U1ty) Roo:ling qrn:lrangle for I

35 Yoo,gtoBtucauoflndianAffui rs, 12 October1938.

36 RoyNash toCommissioner of Indian Affuirs, 25 October 1938, RG 75, NationalAlchives-Pxific Region, photOC(Wfrom die private collcction of Mruk F 11U1CO.

142 Farnham - The Wintu People

Thebelief that it would not bepossible to locate all Native heirs became a self..fulfillingproph ecy for the U.S. govemrnent,one thatfit conveniently with tl1e construction schedule for Shasta Dam In a key letterdated December 7, 1938, CommissionerCollier responded Nash's to request with a full list of instructions for the land negotiation proces.5. First, he stated that homestead allotments within theproposed Shasta Reservoir area were "not within the oow1elaries of an Indian reservation, and tl1erefore the sales of these lands are not precludedby the Indian Reorganization Act"3 7 Following thisclarification, he specifiedthat allotment purchases required completion of a 38 certificate of appraisement, petition forsale, anddeed of conveyance. These pape1c, were to be approved (signed) by ooththe Commissioner of Indian Affairsand the Secretary of the Interior to biI1Cithe agreements. F.achdeed had to be"executed [signed] by all of theheirs" to the allotment, iI1cluding mmorsthrough legally guardians appomted by courtorder. Itwas alsoadvised petition that of sale fon11S "showthat the allottees orheirs agree that fue money derived fromthe sales is to be depositedto their respective credit and subject to disposition m accordancewifu theIndividual Indi.:'U1 39 MoneyRegulations." All forcosts proces5mg these procedures, iI1cluding court, title conveyance, and recorrlingdeed fees, would be"borne by fue grantors [allottees]"(the "grantee" wasthe United 40 Statesof America). For theSacramento Indian Agency, this letter formalized the Office of Indian Affairs' procedures for the completion of Indian land allotment negotiations and purchases associatedwith Shasta Dam

37 Commissioneroflndian Affuir.; to Roy Nash,7 Dxember1938, RG 75, NationalAn.:hives-Pacific Region, photocq,yfiom the piivate collection of Marl<:Franco. TheIndian Reorganization Act (IRA), rossedin 1934, wastl1e centeipi= of John Collier's Indian New Deal policy. It halted the U.S. allotment policy initiated by the General Allotment Act of 1887, allowed Congress to awropiiate up to $10 million a year to buy back land<; for Native =lions,=lions gave tile authority to establish llibal goven1111ents, and allowed Native people on reseivationsto organizelegal as business entities or coqxirateenteiprises. SeeGraham D. Taylor,The New Deal Americanand Indian Tribalism. TheAdministration c!fthe Indian Reo,ganization Act, 1934-45(Lincoln, Nebraska and London: University of Nelxaska Press, 1980) and ElrocrR. Rusco,A Fatefid Time. TheBackgmimdand legis/atiie Histo,y of theIndian ReorgcmizationAct (Reno and Las Vegas: University ofNev.rla Press, 2CXXl.)

38 Therewere two governmentfonns used for tlie deed of conveyance: "Indian DeedInheiited Lands, form5- 183" and"Deed Noncompetent Indian Lands, f01m 5-183-a" 39 Individual Indian Money Regulations are a collection of fe

40 Commissionerof IndianA flairsto Roy Nash,7 DxemberI 938, RG 75, NationalArchives-Pacific Regio n, photocq,y from theprivate collection of Marl<:Franco. Assistant Commissioners signed forCollier on nm letters directedfrom tlie Office oflndian Affuirs.

143 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

Thefirst Indian allotment sale took place in thesummer of 1939. 1n Jtme of thatyear, Nash fo1warded papers for the sale to the BIA Commissioner for his and the Secretaiy of Interior's approval.his In fmwarding letter, Nashindicated the that cash amotmtoffered by BOR was "quite fuir''and that the BOR was"quite anxious to securetitle to tins paiticular piece immediately, as the realignmentof therailroad is acrossthe edgeof thispropl,>rty.',4 1 1heproperty belonged to Jimmie Mitchell, full-bloodedNative son of AdaE. Stoneand heir toStone's allotment TI1eBOR desired the land immediately forthe purposes of relocating a segmentof theSouthern Pacific Railroad to makeroom for the reseivoir.tl1e On petition of salefonn, Nash indicated "TI1is land will be flooded whenthe Shastais Dam completed,and if saleis notmade, it willbe condenmed.',42 Hisstatement reflects the limited options available to allottees in so-called negotiations over land with the U.S. government TheStone/Mitchell allotment was broken down into the following land use categories and appraisalvalues: "Agricultural"(20 acres $50 at peracre), "Potential Homesitcs" (20 acresat $20 peracre), and"Grazing'' (103 acres at$10 peracre). 43 Few Wintu allotments contained as many acresof the higher-valued landagricultural use as theStone/Mitchell propctty. Inaddition to $2,430 worth of lands, the allotment contained in1provemcnts (e.g., actual homes, stores, fencing, etc.) valuedat $400. 44 Thusthe allotment was valuedat atotal of$2,830, theamount cited in theoriginal Boardof Appraisersreport approved by SecretaryIckes. Subtractedfrom the an1ount was thecost of proces.singthe necessary legal paperwrnk and procedures for the real estatetransaction, which in the case of Stone/Mitchell allotment appears to have been approximately $830 based on later correspondencesubmitted by theSacramento Indian Agency. 45 The BOR's urgency in obtaining tl1e Stone/Mitchell allotment was clear. "It will be appreciatedif you expediteyour consideration of saidpapers," wrote BOR CommissionerJohn C.

41 Roy Nash to Commissioner of Indian Affuirs, 9 Jwie 1939, RG 75, National Archives-Pacific RCl:,>ioil, photocqJyfrom the private collection ofMaik Franco.

42 Ibid 43 Cerliftcateof Apprai5emenl Ada for E. Stone,completed by �ntendent Roy Nash of the Sacramento IndianAgency, United States Derertrnent of theInterior, Office of IndianAffairs, 21 Derember1938, RG75, Nation,11 Archives-Pacificphotocopy Region, from the p1ivate collectim ofMaik Franco.

44 Ibid.

45 A letterwritten in 1943from John G. Rockwell,Fieki Representative in Oiarge of theSocrarnento Indian A�, to the Cm1rnissionerof IndianAffims indicates that thegreatest an10tmt of lllOlleYowed any Native allottee in connectionwith the Shasta Darnland puject purchase $2,0X) was (John G. Rockwellto the Commissionerof Indian Affuirs, 18 Februaiy 1943, RG 75, NationalArchivcs-Pocific Region, photoccpy from p!ivatethe collection of Maik Franco.) The ofBoard Arµaiselsfef()lt indicates that die Stooo'Mitchell allotnient was highestthe valued � of anyNative allotment to be soki toBOR the for die puject. It �;; thendiat $830 was fromdedocted the aiginal awrrusalvalue ($2,830) between 1938 aixl1943.

144 Farnham - The Wintu People

Page to the Commissionerof IndianAffairs in a letterdated Jtme 22, 1939.46 He referredto papers previously fmwardedto theOffice of Indian Affairs by SuperintendentNash. TI1c Commissionerof IndianAffairs signed the papers on Jtme 26, andthe Secretary oflnterior approved them on July 12- a considerably rapid response time for the OOL 1n a follow-up letter, J. M. Stewait, Director of Land-;for the DOI, info1med Supe1intendentNash:

Yourattention is calledto the fuct that the land purchase contract is notelated, nor hasit been executedby theSupervising Engineer of the Bureau of Reclamation [Walker R Y otmg] but asthe transactionhas completedbeen by the executi011 of thisdeed, thesedefects werenot regaitledas material.4 7

Stewaitso much asachnitted that the BOR as well as theOffice of IndianAffairs had disregarded properprocedure fm· completionofland purchase contractsrequired for the allotment sale. However trivial a missing date and signature might seem (indeed it seems that this might invalidate the purchasecontract), this disregaitlillill>1rates the haste of thefederal government's approach towaitls Indian affairs associated with the CVP. In addition tothe Stone/Mitchell land purchase, the U.S. governmentcompleted transactions for twenty sevenallotments in the ShastaReservoir area from 1939 to1941. 48 Meai1whilethe BOR movedfoiward with itsconstruction plans. Around IO a m 011July 8, 1940,the P.C.l. pouredthe firsteight-cubic-yaitl bucket (or block)of concretefor Shasta Dam aild lowered it to bedrockon the Sacramento River. According to the ReddingRecord-Searchlight, "hundredsof spectatorscovered the hillside a11d the rocky excavation. Cameras andclicked, news­ reel can1eras bu.zz.ed." On hand to watch the occasion were Frank Crowe, Superintendent of Constrncti011for the P.C.l., and Ralph Lowry, BOR ConstrnctionEngineer for the dam49 Such

46 JohnC. P3t,reto Commis.sioncrof Indian Affairs,22 .llllle1939, RG 75, NationalArchives-Pacific Region, photocqJYfrom tliepri vatecollectioo of MrukFranco.

47 J. M. Stewartto RoyNash, 17 July 1939, RG 75, National Archives-Pacific Region, photocopy froo1 tlie privatecollecti011 ofMark Franco.

48 Sp:!Cific detail� on diese ad:litional landtransactions are yetunknown. Real!d Group 75 of tlie National Archives-Pacific RegiOll contains recoids fortl1c Sacramento Indian Agent,y tmdera series entitled ''Cooo:I Records, 1910.1958,of Programsand Achninistration, 1950.1958." File Nos.419.3 and419.4 of tllisreria; are foklers C011tainin g i BIA flesOil tl1e Shasta however, Dam; diey were witlxlrawnNational fromtlie An::hives BIAby tlie in 1951 and 1952, rcspxtively, and have not been returned. Tiiese files likely C011tain pertinent inforrnation regarding lar-.d allotment r�•otiations fortlie year, 1939 through 1942. However, attenµs bytlle Winnerrem Wintutn1x: andtllis author to renievetliese files have so furunst=�ful. been

49 "FourYears A goToda y FirstConcrete Was Poured At Dam,"Redding Record-Searc:hli :,,"1t, 8 July1944, p. l,cols.24.

145 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2 eventsprecluded much public attentionto the dilemma facing both Native and white residents living behindthe dam site. On July 30, 1940, the BOR's Redding office addressed a letter to Florence (Curl) Jones, Winnemem Wintucider bornon theMcCloud River. Heraddress was listedas "Y dalpom P.O." However, in 1938 shehad relocated fromher home onthe McCloudRiver to a 42-acreparcel of land ownedby herthen husband Andy Jones;this land (presentlythe site of theWinnemem Wintu village of Kcrekmet) is locatedat the base of BearMountain northeast of Redding. In addition to other tribal elders such as Ida Sisk, Joseph Campbell, and Grant Towendolly, Jones SCJVed as a leadinginformant and representative for the Native people of the Shasta Reservoir regionin their dealingswitl1 the federal govenunent in tl1e1940s. so TheBOR' s letterto Jones stated

I wishyou would meet me at tl1eCml Cemetery on theMcCloud River on FridayMorning at about 9 O'clock AM to assist in locating the graves of those persons btuied in that cemetery.1 alsowish youwould tell WessCurl [Florence'sbrother] tocome ifhe can ... Anyone you mayknow who mayhave knowledge of theexact locations of tl1ese graves, would be ahelp in thisjob oflocatinggraves. Yourstruly, John S.Stafford, [BOR] Rightof Way Agent 51

TheCurl Cemetery represented just one of manyburial sites, at least twenty six in total,that existed alongthe banks andhills of theriver drainage f,)'sten1 abovethe dan1 site. Theyincluded the private cemeteries or btuial grO\mds for several "pioneei)' fumilics, Native and white.Many of the cemeteries wereassi gned family namessuch as Curl,Radcliff; and Popejoy. The majority of these cemeteries, dating as furback as the1850s, contained thegraves of Native furnily members; these cemeteries wereconsidered traditional Nativeburial grollilds. 52 Agent Staffordinitiated a two-year (1940-1942) surveyto identifyas manycemetery sites and graves as poo;ible within theproposed reservoir area, with the eventual plan of moving tl1e graves to a different location. The survey involvedinterviews with dozens of"mdian" (as specified in Govenunentrecords) descendants to recordfamily relationsas wellas birtl1and death irrformation. lhescinterviewees were the family 50 Noted-iat IdaSisk and Joe Canl)bell are iooitified as Wintoon by die WintoonTribe (Lovely, etal., 11 CUober- 2005;Wintoon Tnbe to Farnham,2005.) 8December Campbellhas alsocwibed been as Wintu by H�'Ue and Hovernan GrantTowcndolly is iooitifiedas TrinityWintu (LaPena, Handbook, 325;Hogue,35-41; Man::clle Mason,A Bag &mesof [Haw)' CA:Camp, NaturegraphPublislleIS, lnc0 1966],7). Jmes is iooitified as Winnemern Winru (Sisk-Franooal., et Winnerrcrn Wintu tnbe, 3-4 November2005.)

51 JolmS. Staffordto Mrs. FloraJones, 30 July1940, photocq>y from the pivateof collectim Mruk Franco. 52 A traditional gravevery wasdug sl-iallow piled and with inchesseveral of dirt,forming armurd Relatives circledthe mounds with smoothHogue, roundrocks.See 45-47.

146 Farnham - The Wintu People members or ancestors of today's Wintu tnbes. In addition to the interview process, BOR agents mappedand staked specific burial sites. 53 Thegrave records created by theBOR providea moving glimpseofWintu familyhistories. Recordsfor the Curl and Popejoy cemeteries alone ( which held twentyone andsix "Indian" persons, respectively)reveal the deaths of sevenchildren, many infants - one of whom agedonly two days from1909 to 1920. Theyear of death most frequentlyrecorded is 1918, thesame yearofthe Great Fluepidemic. Otherdeaths were more recent. Witl1in a spanof eightyears, Florence Jones had lost herthree-year-old son Howard Richard Charles ( 1930), herbrother William E. Curl,Jr. (193 1 ), her mother Jennie(1937), Curl andher father William Curl (1938). 54 Now in 1940, Agent Stafford and theBOR soughtthe assistance ofNative £:-uniliesin exhumingthe l:xx.!ies of theirdeceased relatives, someof whomhad only recentlybeen laid to rest. Goven11.11ent agentsgradually worked their way upthe river canyons to negotiate allotment purchases with tribal members and to identify those individuals who mightneed assil,iance with relocation.55 By theend of 1940,many Native residents (exact number not known) hadrelocated from Copper City to the "squatters camps" or boomtowns around the dam, particularly to take advantage of employmentopportimities. Dr. Al Rocca, historian andauthor of'The Shasta Dam Boomtowns,A Socialand Economic 1-listory, 1938-1950", states: 11-ie largest contingent of ctlmic non-white mino1ities to wmk on the dan1 and live in the boomtownarea were the local Wintu Indians .... dozens of Indiansworked on ShastaDam andlived, for the most palt,in andaround Slll11l11it City. Some Indians, inorder to increase their chances of securing employment, utiliz.ed Anglicized names such as Sisk, Montgomery,and Popejoy. 56

Dr.Rocca's statementabout the use of Anglicized namesis misleading. While an Anglo surname certainlydid not hwt a Native person'schances of employmentin a white-dominatedeconomy, it was notan attempt to concealWintu anceslly.1he Popejoy fan1ily name, forexample, had existed in Shw,iasince County the 1860s. Vernon M. Popejoy (brotherto Charles T. Popejoy, CCC worker)

53 U.S. D:µutrnentof Interior, Bureauof Reclatmtion, The History of Cemeteries, ShastaReservoirArea CentralValley P,vjat. Kennett Division,Volumes1 and11, Februaty1942, Box I, Central ValleyProject Records of the 13w-cauoflndian Affairs, Sacramento Office (Sal.1amento Indian Agency), RG 75, NationalAru1ives--Pacific Region. 54 Ibid;Sisk-Franco et al., Winnemem Wintu tiibe, 3-4 November 2005.

55 Sisk-Francoet al., Winnemcm Wintu II1be, 3-4 November 2005.

56 Rocca, "The Sh.c1Sta Dam 13oomtowr6", 211. Dr. Roccauses the names/tenn, "Wintu" and"Indians" throughouthis � when refening Nativeto the people living in theShasta Resetvoir at-ea He l::o.seshis infonmtionon a rm,ateinteiview with a lx>omtownresident named ChatiesI3atros. He alsoindicates that empl dam oyment recordsare no longeravailable, altlKJ1.1gh such records wouldlikely have onlynoted "Indian" rnther specific than tnbal affiliations for pcrsonshave koownto Native blood or heritage.

147 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1 &2 workedfor the P.C.l as a blacksmithfrom 1937 to1945 ; a skilledcarpenter as well, he constructed a homeone mile fromthe dam 57 However,several Winn.1individuaJslresidents remained on theMcCloud Riveruntil 1941. In the spring ofthat year, governmentpressures fortheir removal began to escalate. 111is increase can at1ributedbe to thestate Water Project Authority's plans to speedup operationson theCVP, and to new legislation proposed by Secretmy of Interior Ickes. According to the Redding Record­ Searchlight, newly-released federal power commission studies revealed that N01them California 18 would be "facedwith a power shortage in 1943unless new plants [ were ] brought into prcxluction." As a result, the �iatewished to completeconstruction of ShastaDam itsand hydroelectric plant in 1943 instead of1945. BORofficials concurred that ey th could meet the new deadlineprovided that therewas ad equatefunding. Frank W. Clark,the state'sDirector of PublicWrnks andmember of the Water ProjectAuthority, successfully lobbiedCon gressin Januaryand Februai y of 1941 for an additional CVP appropriation of$25 million in the upcoming fiscalyear.59 From1937 to 1943, Congress conslliiently approp1iated millions of dollars in funding for the CVP. ln spite of tl1ese generous appropriations, as the Deccrnlx,'f7, 1938 letterfrom the Commissioner of Indian Affairs specified, Native allottees (e.g., Jimmie Mitchell) were required to cover the expenses of land purchase( transactions cowt costs , deedrecording fees, etc. ) andnot theU.S. government pec gress gi primaiy o S ific Con ional le slationwas the catalystfor the exodus of Nativeresidents that fllowed. In a letter Novemberdated 7, 1940,Ickes proposed to the Senate bill a that authoriz.cd the complete acquisition of Indian lai1ds forthe CVP. He wrote: "In view of the progress being made in the co�iruction of the Q"'Iltral Valley project, it is anticipated that a number of Indian required wposes ghl allotmentswill be in thenear future for inundation 00 and other p . It ishi y desirable, tl1creforethat this le gislationbe enacted atan early date.' InMay andJuly of 1941,tl1e Senate and roposal HouseCommittees 61 on IndianAffairs drafted bills ba<;edon Ickes'p (S. 1120 andH.R 4621, respectively). These bills appliedto Indian lands within thep roposed project ai-eas forbotl1 tl1e

57 Lovely etal., WintoonTribe, interview , 11 October2005; Wintoon Tnbe to Famham,8 Dxember2005. 58 "More MoneyAsked for CV Project; Ickes Owe=! to FederalSetup ; Plansfor WorkS p::edup Discussed," ReddingReconi-Searchlight, 24 Janumy1941 , p. 4, rols.1-2. 59 "Public Wori

60 U.S. Cmgress,Sena te, No.Report 245 on theAap1isition ofIndian l__nnckfor theCentral Valle)! Pmjat, California, IT'Cong., I' scss., I May1941 , RG 233, NationalAn:hives-Wa511i11 1:,>tonD.C., photocopyfrom thep rivate rollectirnofMaik Fraoco.

61 Ibid; U.S. Congress, House, Repon No. 897on theAcquisition CJ/ Indian !__nnckfor the Central Valley Prqjelt, Californil� 77' Cong., I" se;s. ,3 July1941, RG 233, NationalArchives-Washi ngtonD.C., photocq:,y from the privaterollection ofMaik Fmnco.

148 Farnham - The Wintu People

Shasta Ddln andthe Friant Dam on the San Joaquin Riverin Madera and Fresno Counties.62 S. 1120 pa5.5eCI a Senate vote in May, 1941. OnJuly 21, 1941,tl1e House of Representativesheld a hearing on HR 4621.Representative Ber1rand W. Gearhart of Fresno, California pleaded the followingto the Speakerof the House:

...th is bill [H.R 4261] is one takesthat on the characte1istics of anemergency. l11e dan1 is beingconstmcted and is almost readyfor use. Title to some of tl1e land is held by tl1eIndian Bureall We are very, very anxious that tl1e trade may be made, and that is all the bill provides.The Secretaryofilie Interior who is iliehead ofilie Indiar1 Bureau [Office of Indian Affairs]and also the head of theBmcau of Reclanmtion will makethe trade with the IndiatlS andgive them land outside tl1e project and fix ilie value of ilieland in thedrainage area of ilie FriantDam askI unanin1ousconsent that a similar Senatebill [S.1 120] may substitutedbe andconsidered in lieu oftl1e House bill. 63

Representative Gearhart's words once again reflected ilie U.S. goven1ment's w6ency in oomplcting the CVP; tl1e project's dar11S were in fuct deemed an "emergency." Furtl1e1.more, his statementsreveal tl1e tremendous influence and power that Secretaryof theInterior Ickes held over C the projectas ilie head ofbotl1 oftl1e Office ofilie Indian Affairs and BOR (ommissionersCollier andPage reporteddirectly to Ickes.) Withthe CYP in tl1cnational media spotlight, tl1e BOR and Staterepresentatives increasingly viewed ShastaDam as theircrown jewel, tl1eirshining contnbution toRoosev elt's NewDeal recovery programs. Completion ofilie darnwithin tl1e acceleratedtime fran1ewas notonly criticalto Califomia's power supply (andflood contml) but forthe BO R's image as well. l11isleft little room for l and negotiatio11Swiili Native people, pai1icularly tl1ose allottees who were"not possible to locate" according to former Supe1intcndcntNash in his October25, 1938 letter 6 to tl1eCommissioner oflndian Affairs. 4 l11e wording of Representative Gead1art's impassioned speech indicates tlmt he was refcningc.µx;ifically to ilie Friant Dam. Noneilieless, his speechlmd the desired effect of convincing

62 In 1942,die U.S. Houseof Rq:,resentativesintrrxhred a SEµUatcbill [H.R. 2989] to acquirespx,ific a tra:t of landknown as ied Millaton Rancheria, home ofYokutand Western Mono Indians, locatedin Madera County. TI1is landnact waslocated wid1in die rropcroj reservoir(Milleiton area Lake) diefor Friant Dam IXQject. H.R. 2989 was signxlon July8, 1942a, Public Law659 (56 Stat 650). See Hm;cdie of Rep1=ntativesCommittee on lntaior and InsularAffairs, Central ValleyProjat Docwnenls,Pent I, 573-574 andUc;e Mille11onof Rancheria Act, Statutes Lcuge,ca vol. 56,sec. 659, (8 July1942). 63 U.S. Congress,House, Rep01t No. 6191-92 on theAcqui�ilion o/Certai11 lndicu1 Lcuid1jx- the CentralVall ey Project, Tl Cong., I� sess., 21 July 1941, RG 233, National Alchives-Washington D.C., photocopydie from private oollcctiaiofMruk Fraoco.

64 Nashto Con1mis.sioneroflndiru1Affiiirs, 25 October1938.

149 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2 the HOlL-;eit that should supportS. 1120, which appliedto all Native lands withinthe Central Valley 65 Pmjectat the time. Therefore,the Housevoted in favorof substitutingtheir bill (HR 4261) with theSenate 's version. On July 30, 1941, PresidentRoosevelt signed S. 1120 intoPublic Law 198, or 66 whatis known asCentral the Valley Pmject Indian LandsAcquisition Act Thisact contains four key pmvisionsinvolving theacquisition of lands, compensationfor these lands, theuse of fi.mds for acquisitionof otherlands, and the establishment of newcemetery lands for the relocation of Indian burials. Section l grantsto the United States "all the right, title, and interest of theIndians in and to the tubal and allotted lands within the area embracedby the Central Valley project" Section 2 indicatesthat

llie Secretaryof Interior shall determine the amountof money to bepaid to tl1e Indians as justand equitablecompensation therefor. As tothe tubal lands, theamounts so detennined shallbe transferredin tl1eTreasury of theUnited States thefrom funds now or hereaftermade availablefor the constiuction of tileCentral Valley pmject to tile credit of tl1eappropriate tube ... Theamounts due individuallandowners or tlleirheirs or dcviseesshall paid be .from funds now or hereaftermade available for construction of saidpmject to the superintendent of the appropriateIndian Agency.... 6 7

Section 3specifiesthat the "funds dq:,osited to the credit of allottees,their heirs, or devisccs may be used, in the discretion of the Secretary of the h1terior, for the acquisition of other lands and 8 inlpmvements.... forthe allottees or heirs.'-15 Thusboth Sections and 2 3 indicatetl1at Secretaryof Interior Ickes had ultimate discretion over theamount of compensation ,md whether or not such fimds would be used to acquire new lands for Native allottecs and non-landowners. More importantly, Section 3 indicates that allottees would l1ave to pay for the cost of acquiring new pmpertyout of their own trustaccow1ts. How would Ickesdetemline compensation fortl1e loss of tuballands and homes not covered by theallotments and who would end up cove1ing tl1ose costs? Theintentionally vague wording of PublicLaw 198 lcftsuch questionsw1a11Swcred. l11efowih provision of theAct autl10riz.edthe cemetery swvey andremoval tllat process the BORofficials llad already initiated in 1940.Section 4 of theAct states:

65 Notethat Congress would lateran i= act in1942 for sp:cific ocquisitionNative of lands within die Friant DamMillcrtonReseivoir proja,i in MaderaFre;no and Counties. SeeUse ofMilleiton Rancheria Act, Sta111tesal Large, vol.56, sec.659, (8 July1942).

66 ACXJlli,"itionof lndicm lands.for the Central eyVall ProjatAct, Statutesal wge, vol. 55, sec.612 (30July 1941); HouseCommittee on Interior and Insular Aflam;, Central PrvjatValley DocumenL�. Pcot I, 572-573. 6 7 Ibid,section 2. 68 Ibid,section 3.

150 Farnham - The Wintu People

As to any h1dian cemeteiy lands required forthe project, the Secretaiy of the mterior is au1horiz.ed,in his discretion,in lieu of requiringpayment thereforto [sic], establish cemeteries onother lands that he mayselect and acquire for the pUipose, and to remove bodies, marl

This provision011.ly applied to known mdian burial grounds, that is 1hosegravesites tliat were clearly marl

69 Ibid, section 4. 70 C.E. Smithand W.D. Weymouth,"Rqxxts of tl1eUniversity of CaliforniaArchaeological Swvey,18 No. , Archaeologyof tl1eShasta Dam Area,California. '' The Unive!�'ity o/"Califomia ArchaeologicalSi111�,, D:µutn1entof Antruqx>logy,University of California,Berkeley, Califomia, 20 November1952, 22-31.

71 Hogue,45.

72 In diespring of 1942,Joe Ounpbell pointed out toBOR officials t!1e grave of an"lrx:lian g irl"loca ted on NorsoniCreek, a tnbutaiyof theui:µ,- McClmrlRiver. According Hogue, to Cam(X)ell plealed witl1 BOR officials to move tl1ebo1-ies of tl1e girl butrefused wasatfirst because officials claimed there was no way to identifygrave. the Canlj:belld ien rowed acra,screek tl1e and found t!1e two "peculiar' stones maiking die girl's grave. As a result,BOR officials1elocated the grave. SeeHOl:,JUe, 46.

151 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2 landownerwho hadnot already signed the necessaryallotment sale papeiwork before July 30, 1941 was now at a disadvantage. The U.S. held "right, title, and interest'' totheirproperty, making the processof completingland purchase contractsirrelevant and unnecessary. According to Nellie Bell, in 1940 and early 1941 some Native landowners received a letter fium the U.S. government notifying tl1eI11that they should apply fora payment on theirproperties - in otherwords, thatth ey should initiateland purchasenegotiations with the SacramentoIndian Agency. 73 Thismay in part have been theAgency's last atten1ptto identify and locateallottees and theirheirs. Whetheror not these notices warned of in1pending Congressional legislationis unclear. However, by late 1941 residents wifuin the proposed Shasta Reservoir area received notices or "blue sheets" fium ilie Government wan1ing them to evacuate fueirhomes in1mediately.74 Time hadrun out for Wintu residentson fue McCloud and Pit rivers. The United States' entry into World War 11 in early December of 1941 had specific implications for fue Wintu community. Once tl1e country entered ilie war, fue Department of Defense classifiedconstruction of ShastaDam andits power plant as a Class A-1 prioritydefense­ related project; this granted the project priority statusin fue acquisition of money, materials, and labor.75 TheU.S. neededfue expectedhydroelectricity fium fue dan1 powerto war-related industries (primarilyship-building facilities) in the Bay Area and Los Angeles. As manyas twothousand dam workers,mostly skilledlaborers, left Shasta County to serve in fue militaryor work in higher-paying civilian jobs for the defense industry.76 More than fifty Wintu men, so111e of whom had been workingfor fue P .C.I. or theCCC, alsoserved in ilieU.S. armedforces during ilie war. SomeNative women( exact nun1berunknown) also worked in support of fue wareffort. 77 Thus World War11 compoundedand accelerated the fragmentation offue Wintu community already initiated in 1938.

73 Lovely etal., WintoonTnre, inteiview, 11 October2005. NellieBell's rmther Stacy Lala (Cud) McDaniel receivedone of tl= lettet,.

74 Ibid.; Sisk-Francoet al., Winnerrem Wintutribe, 3-4 November 2005. Trioolelrer.; no longer !XlSSeSS the "bluesheets" or notices that were sent by the U.S. goverrnnent

75 Rooca,Ameriws ShastaDam, 5.

76 Rooca,Shasta Dam Boom!o,ms,248. Dr. Roccastates that when Anuica entered Workl War 11, the darn WO!kingp:,pulation stood between 3,

77 Hovernan, 62. Of the Wintumen who served in die militaJyduring World War 11, Haveman listsJa;eph CarrpbellJr., Alvin P�joy, AlbertThomas Jr., and "tl-.e sons of otherfurnilies su::has theMillers, Philpots, Wards, McDaniels, Lievsay,, Miles, and Easelys." Calvin Richard Sisk, fatherof Spiritual Lea±r QueenSisk-Franco of the WinnememWintu, servedin the U.S. Navy duringthe war(Sisk-Francoal., et WinnemernWintu tribe, 3-4 November 2005.)

152 Farnham - The Wintu People

By Januaiy of 1942, ITu'lllY Native family members had signed consent fomis granting pennissionfor the BOR to move theirdeceased relatives' remains fium cemeteries in theproposed ShastaReservoir area. 78 Theremains of 183 Indianindividuals (in additionto 118 whiteindividuals) hadbeen identified by the BOR's surveyfor removal and re-intennent However, the BOR stated thatthe "identity of many [of these] individuals could be not be �iablished due to the long timesince intennentand tothe further fact that many of theremains were interred in the earlymining ... days 79 . " On Januaiy5, the BORentered a contractualagreement with ShastaO)unty indicating that the O)untyaccepted a new cemetery,designated the "Central Valley Cemetery" in Sun1mitCity, for the re-intennent of remains excavated fium the Shasta Reservoir cemeteries. However, this new cemetery excluded lncli.'Ul rcmains.80 According tothe Redding Record-Searchlight, Public law 198 (the Central ValleyProject Indian lands Acquisition Act) made "it neces.5al)'to have separate placesto rebUIYwhites and Jndians.',g 1 While Section4 of Public law198 didnot specify sepamtion of white and Native burials, it did indicate that the U.S. government would hold new Indian cen1eterylands in trustfor "the appropriatetribe, or family.',82 Therefore, the Secretary of Interior establisheda separate 4.8-acrecen1etery plo� located adjacentto the CentralValley Cenlctery (4.3 acres), solely for relocated Native burials. This separate plot was designated the "United States ShastaReservoir lndi.:'lll Cemete1y.',g 3

78 U.S. Dqxutrnentof lnteiior,History ofSha;ta DamCemeteties Vo/zonesI andIL Consent signatures were nothandwritten but typed by BORot&ials.

79 R.S.Calland (District Engineer Bw-eau fee ofReclrunation) to Mrs. Winona Y. Simmons(County Recorocr ruid ex officio Localof Registrar Vital Statistics), 22 December 1942,photocopy from the piivate collection of Mark Franco. 80 UnitedStates Dtµutment oflnte1ior Bureau ofRedrunation, Central Vall eyProject, California,Contrcx:t with Shasta CoW1ty, California, Ca!ifomiaforRelocation ofCertain Existing wnetetiesin ShastaResm:oir Area (Symbol llr-1373),5 Januruy1942, reconhl Mruch on7 1942 in Book189 at Pg. 8 of OfficialRecon:ls, Shasta County, California 81 "BoardPasses Cen�y Plru1," Red:li ngRecord-Searchlight, 5 Jrum,11)'1942, p. I, col.2.

3 82 Acquisitionof Indian Lnndsfor the Central ValleyProject Act, Statutesal. Large, vol. 55, sec.612 (0 July 1941.)

83 United States Deµntment of the Interior Bwem of Redrunation Cornmis.5ioner toHonorable HaroldT. Johnsoi1,House of Repi-esentatives,12 November1973, photoccpy from the collectionspiivate of Nellie Bell(Wintoon T1ire)ruid Marl<:Franco (Winnen'em Wintu). The includesletter an enclosureentitled ''Swninary of File lnfonnation Relating to Cemete1ies Relocated OwingConstruction at Shasta Rese1voir, Central ValleyProject," compiled bytl'e BOR'sreview of ruchivesin Denver, Colorado.

153 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

According to the BOR Joseph B. Mashburn, Director of the Madera Ftmeral Home, conductedthe removal andre-interment of Indian graves fromFcbrumy 11 toMarch 23, 1942.84 Mashburnhad beenpreviously hired by theBOR tooversee the relocation ofNative burials the from proposed areaof Friant Dam/MillertonReservoir projectin Maderaand Fresno Counties in 1941. He traveled to Redding to continue oversight of Native grave removals and re-interments for the Shasta DanvReservoir project However, other sources indicate that BOR construction wOikers were actuallycharged with the excavation and reburials. In Americas ShastaDeon, A History of Consttuction,Dr. Roccastates that in Marchof 1942:

Lowiy[BOR ConstructionEngineer] was informedthat local Indians were upset about the )X)SSibilityof floodingthe Curl Cemetery. Thecemetery had beentraditional a burial site and was stillheld in highregard. Not wantingto createsituation a and in completeco mpliance, Lowiy offered to send awork crew out to the cemetery and reinter the bodies to otht,'f locations. This decision and the offerof help satisfied Indian leaders, and the wOik was carriedout withoutincident 85

Theabove passage underscores the BO R's concernwith image andreputation during completion of the CVP. Thenotion that Ralph Lowiy did not wantto "create a situation"appears in peculiar light of the factthat BOR AgentStafford had already initiated dialOf:,'lle with Florence Jones regarding the CurlCemetery in 1940. Dr. Rocca'passage s i mpliesthat Lowiywas personallyconcerned with the excavationand reburials. In contrast,an issueof TheHeadtower, a monthlynewsletter produced by P.C.I. employees,stated the following:

"Whitey" Haukhas beenoff on leave of absence, digging new graves and removing the bodiesof Kennett [Sh&ia] Indianswho have long since departed for their happy hunting grounds. He hassome great yarns to tell about the trinkets that were interred with the remains of these Indianswho passed on yearsand years ago. Someof thebraves wereburied with theirshooting irons strapped around them; one hada fullof set gold teeth. Hismost fantastic stoiyis of thebrave who was buriedwith his horseand saddle,and he saysanother one was buried sitting down.86

84 Callandto Mr. WinonaV. Simmons, 22 December 1942; R.S. Calland to Dr. John G. Rock\-wll (Fick! RqJresentative in Oiarge, Sa:ramento Indian Agency),3 April 1943, photocqJ)'fium the private oollections of Nellie Bell (Wintoon Tnbe) and Marl<: Franoo (Winncmem Wintu). Attached to Calland's letters is a cqJY of Joseph Mashblll11's fe!X)rt on the "RemovalandDi�ition of the Retrainsof Deceased Persons Fromthe Shasta R=voir Area.'' 85 Rocca, Amaica "s Shasta Dam, !07; Dr. Rocca's Shasta Deon &iomto= d1csis indicates thatthe infonnationcited fium Amaica "s Shasta Deon was based on anwith oralintavicw Oiarles Barros, a lxiomtown resident 86 Quotedfium Rocca,Amaica"sShastaDcon,112.

154 Farnham - The Wintu People

This passage,with its colorfulbut highly stereotypic references ,strongly suggests a lack of respect and that neither LoWl)' or Mashburn supervised all of the grave excavations.According to Dr. Rocca,"Whitey" Hauk was subcontractedby the BOR to perfonnthe grave removal worl<. Given Hauk'sapparent penchant forstorytelling ,it is no wonderthen, as Helen Hogue states,that tribal elder Joe Campbell "stood tirelesslyby during the moving of the Indian graves,watching and checkingthe rebUiyingof all objects." The digging and lootingof relics( e. g.,jewelry, baskets pes, pi , ceremonial items,etc.) from Native bUiial mounds by treasrne hunters had been asignificant 87 problemin thepast for ShastaCounty. Bythe end of 1942,the U.S.government 's forcedevacuation of the ShastaReservoir area wasnearly complete. Tribal elders indicate that either in the fallof 1942or springof 1943the last of 88 theirMcCloud River homesand towns were clearedand bulldozed by BOR constructionwoikers . Tue Redding Record-Searchlight is silent on this event Historian Viola May, who apparently witnessedthe final evacuation, wrotethat residents witl1in the Shasta Reservoir areahad "in frantic haste ...fonned a slow moving parade that crept over the narrow canyons to safety." Tuey "watched [tl1e] dan1construction sadly ,bewildered and grievedas the rising waters covered their 9 sacredburial grounds.',g SeveralWintu fanulies were now leftwithout eitl1erproperty or economic compensationfrom the federal govemment 90 In Februaiyofl 94 3, the SacramentoIndian Agency received payment from the BOR forthe purchase of twenty eight parcels of "Indian" lands/allotments in connection withtl1e Shasta Dam portionof the CVP. Accordingto aletter dated Feb1uary 18,the Agency received a checkfrom the BOR in the amount of $46,225;fuis money was due toapproximately 175 heirs and allottees in

87 Hogue,45, 63. Hague's original manuscriptfor Peacefid Now the Trails (1948)states tliat "It has been known for yearsdial Indian treasures and relics were btuied allover [Sliasta] cmmty." T= hlDltcrsoften reburied stolenrelics for s.c1fekeeping. Hoguealso indicates tliat in 1944'1ialf a carlmlof thesetl1in g;[Wintu burial relics] were shiwedto Berkeley,and another quantity to Pasadena''(Hogue, 4 5). RR Sisk-Francoet al., WinnernemWintu, intetview, 34 November2005. floreoce Jones indicated in several conversationsand infonnc11 interviews throughout her life tliattl1e BOR brought in bulldozersto clear cabins, homes, and other stnJCturestlmt remained in thepath of rising flocx:lwaters.

89 ViolaP. May etal., '111eGha,ts ofY esrerday," Sha,ta Dam and Its(Red:ling: Builders, Pacific Constn.x:tors, Inc.,1945), 15-17, SpecialOillcctions, Shields Librruy, University ofOtlifomia, Davis.

90 Sisk-Francoet al., Winnernem Wintu, intaview,34 November2005. OtleenSisk-Franco indicates dial nfillyyoung Wintu men forced to relocate fiorn the McCku.i River area, like her futherCalvin Richard Sisk, signed up formi!itaiy servicein theearly 1940sto avoid being sent toor recruitedIndian by boarding schools. ManyNative childrentl1e fun Shasta Reservoir area had previously been sent to tl1e Sheiman Institute in Otlifomia, theIndian Stewart Schoolin CarsonCity, Nevada, and other boan:ling schools before the dam constiucted.was

155 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

91 amounts ranging :fromt:hiJ.ty-three cents to $2,000. Winnen1em Wintu Spi.titualLeader and elder Caleen Sisk-Franco, tribalelder Nellie Bell, andhistorian Alice Hoveman indicate that rnost Native 9 landownerswere offered an average of thiny-five dollars per acre for their allotments. 2 However, as demonstrated by the Stone!Mitchell allotment, acreage values dq::,ended on land use type (agricultural, grazing, etc.).Landowners couldhave beenoffered anywhere fium ten fiftyto dollars peracre and, judging by theamount of thitty-three cents, some allottees or their heirs owned less thm1 oneacre ofland. lfthe thitty-fivedollm·-per-acre average is accurate,then the BOR's $46,225 check represc-'lltedthe sale of approximately1,321 acres.illustrates This the substantial amount of Native lands and propeny itnprovements lost :fromthe dam's construction.TI1is loss does not take it1to accountthe lands of tiibal members who were never granted an allotinent in thefirst place or theloss oftraditional/ceremonial sites with a social,spititual, and cultural value beyond monctmy figures. Correspondencebetween the Sacramento JndianAgency andtheOffice of Indian Affairs fium February toMay of1943 offersa ratherblunt andstriking glimpse of the U.S. government's viewson Jndianaflairs concerning the ShastaDam projectIn a Februaiy18 letter addressedto the Commissioneroflndian Affairs, SuperintendentJohn G. Rockwell stated

We canfind no instructionsin ourfiles to the effect that the money derived from this sale can onlybe spent in the purchaseof new land orhomes or both.Before disbursing any of these fi.mdsin accordancewith IndividualIndian Money Regulations we would liketo be assured there are no other instructions that would modify those contained it1 the Office letter of December7, 1938 ...It is my feeling thatonly where a sufficiency offi.mds and present economic and living conditions warrant, should an mdividual's money be held for the purchaseof new land or home or both.... We have giventhought to the use of these fi.mds for a JX)SSiblerehabilitation prograni for the people of the Shastaarea It is ourfeeli ng that such a programwould standlittle chance ofbemg even partly successfi.�. Theinterests of many of the ShastaCounty Indians would be servedbetter if they would leave the COLmty entirely.The entire matter of the sale of these Indian allotinents to the Bureau ofReclanmtion 93 andpayment for them has dragged011 mtennitmbly.

91 John G. Rockwell (Field Representative in Charge, Sacramento Indian Agency) to the Cornrnis.sionerof Indian Affairs, 18 feb111ruy 1943, RG 75, National Archivcs-PxificRegion, photocq:,y from the piivate collection of Markfranco.

92 Hovcman,62; Sisk-Francoal., et WinnememWintu, interview, 3-4 November2005; Lovely ctal., Wintoon Trite,interview, l l October2005.

93 Rockwell to the Commissionerof lrdian Affairs, 18 Febmruy 1943. Rockwell socceeded Roy Nash as Stqxnnten:lrntor' 'Field Repicsentativein C'haq,>e"of the SamunentoIndian Agency in 1940.

156 Farnham - The Wintu People

Rockwell,like his predecessorNash, fuvorcd the terminationof BIA servicesfor California's Native people.94 Rather than use fimcls from the BOR purchase to create a new 1nbal land base or "rehabilitationprogram" for the Wintu community ( actions that would have atleast been in keeping withCollier's Indian New Deal),Rockwell wished to pay offthe allottees as soon as possible. Each allottcc had an Individual Indian Money Account set up for him or her by the Agency; the;c accounts were credited with a ceriain portion of fimds from the BOR's payment (e.g., Florence Jones'share was $37.85). Rockwelldesired to close the accotmtsquickly and finalizeSacramento's jurisdictionover a matterthat had "ch"aggedon in1erminably" hisaccording to statementcited above. Nativeallottees were also "anxious to gettheir money," accordingto Rockwell. 95 In another letterto the Commissioner of IndianAffairs dated May 18, he encloseda notefium a "Mr. Harvey C. Keluchc," a Wintuman living in Napa,California Mr. Keluchewrote:

DearSiI: Will you please sendmy moneyme to orgive me a definitetune when I willget it amI in need itof I will be looking for an answerfrom you right away. If our money is in Sacramento[then] I don'tsee why we can'thave itIt is oursand we wantit 96

Mr. Keluchc's letterexpressed the sentiments of manyallottees waiting forthe U.S. governmentto meet its promise of compensation. Hogue iI1dicates that Joe Campbell made "frequent trips to Sacramentoin orderto securefair dealing" with the Sacramento Indian Agency.97 TheOffice of IndianAffairs, however, did not providethe assurance that Rockwell desired In a letterdated May 31, CommissionerCollier wrote:

Our letter of December 7, 1938, to which you refer, was approved at the time when the purchaseof theland fium the Indianswas contemplatedby means of deedsto be approved by theSccretaiy the of h1tL"lior. . . In viewof thefact that many of the Indianscould not be locatedor werethe deceased, Act of July 30, 1941(55 Stat.612) was enactedobviate to the necessityof attemptingto obtaiI1the signatureof theIndians. Section3 of theAct provides .. . [that] 'fimcls depositedto the credit of allottees,their heirs,or devisecsmay be uStX� in the discretion of the Secretary of the Interior, for the acquisition of other lands and improvements' . . . It seems, therefore, that it was expectedthat the moneybe used for

94 Melenchez,28-29.

95 Rockwell totheCommissioneroflndianAffuii,,18 Februaiy1943 .

96 JohnG. Rockwellto the Conm1issioocr of IndianAffuii,, 18 May 1943, RG 75, NationalArchives-Pacific Region,photocq,y fium the collectionprivate of Marl<:Franco. 1he notefium Mr. Keluchewas attached Rockwell's to letter.

97 HO!,,JUe,63.

157 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

purchase of other lands, but the language 'may be used' implies that this would not be required. E.achcase thereforemust be considered on its ownmerits, andas provided in the regulations,any expenditures of morethan $500 forunrestricted use should besubmitted to 98 thisOffice for approval.

Nash's feeling that it would be impossible to locate all allottees for land sales had now come full circle. 1he 001and Office oflndian Affairs passed on twoclear messages Agency tothe and the Wintupeople of ShastaCounty. First,Public Law198 did not promisethat new lands wouldbe purchased; lckes' merely expectedthat lands would be purchasedwith allotmentsale funds. The law's wording released the U.S. government fium the responsibility of providing new lands for Native people dispossessedby the CVP. Second, theSacramento Indian Agency would have to determinehow thefunds of individualaccounts would beused; this seems like a win/winanswer for the Agency and most allottees, as both parties wanted individual checks to be distributed immediately. However,this also meant thatWintu individuals who werenot enrolledas members of California's existing rancherias and reseivations (e.g., Redding Rancheria) were left without federallyentrusted property on which to restorea triballand base. lnaddition, the U.S. governmentmade clearthat Public Law198 supersededthe provisions previouslyoutlined in the Office of Indianletter Affairs dated December 7, 1938. U.S. Indianpoli cy hadchanged since many landownershad signedover their allotment deeds; therefore, the conditions of theOffice of IndianAffairs' letter no longerapplied. The economicfate of many( not all) Native peoplein Shasta County depended on theactions of theSacramento Indian Agency, an agencyclose 99 tobeing abolished. Employmentin dam cons1ructionor otherboomtown industries provided the economicmeans for some Wintu men and women toadjust morereadily or easilyto the impactsof Shasta Damand the CVP. Nonetheless, manyNative people lost title to all of the lands thatthe federalgovernment had ever allotted(and would evergrant) to themas Wintu Indians. By the time the Shasta Dam power plant commenced operation on July 14, 1944, the reservoirhad area been entirely deserted and submerged. OnDecember 22, 1944,at 11 :30 am.,the P.C.l. lowered the final bucket of concrete on Shasta Dam Construction worl<.ers along witl1 SuperintendentCrowe, proudly posed for a ReddingRecord Searchlight photographer before a large sign stating, "l.AST BUCKET OF CONCRETE, SHASTA DAM, PLACED UNDER DIRECTION OF U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION BY PACIFIC CONSTRUCTORS

98 Commissioneroflndian Affair.,to Mr. John G. Rockweli31 May 1943, RG75, NatiooalArchives-Pa::ific Region,photocopy fromcollection dieprivate of MarkFranco.

99 Melendrez, 147. The Sacramento Indian Agency was abolished in 1945, after Collier resigned a, the Commissioneroflndian Affuir.s.

158 Farnham - The Wintu People

INC., 6,535,000YARDS, JULY 8, 1940TO DEC. 22, 1944."100 No Wintuw01kers were among those photographedwith Crowe. Dr.Rocca states that the ''building of Sh&1aDam was a national effot lll1dertaken at a time when America desperately needed to believe in herself; a time when Depression-weary families migratedthousands ofmiles in search of govenunents1:x:msored work projects,with the hope ofbca,)nning a new lifein California"10 1 Tiusdream came at a heavycost to onegroup of NativeCalifomians. The Wintu expe1ienced traumatic personal, spiritual, andeconomic losses fiDmthe CVP. But peihaps theirgreatest loss was one of culturalunity. Despite previous intrusionson theirtribal territory, Native families on theMcCloud andPit rivers had developed astrongcommwlity in the earlytwentieth centtuy- one thataccommodated Anglo-American culture and econonlies while maintaining Native traditions through kinsllip ties, religious practices, and life on ancestral homelands. Indeed, the Wintu's spiritual connections with the lands and rivers of the Shasta Reservoir region are deeply rooted.102 The constmction of Shasta Dam triggered asecond Gold Rush, with the "gold" taking the fonn of goven1ment-sponsored jobs. Within five years, a combinationof factors directly andindirectly tied to ShastaDan1 tore apartthe social fabric of this Native co1nmU11ity. Loss of tribal lands and sacred sites combined witl1

100 Richa1tlMallery, L "PCI Porns LastConcrete on Dam," Red1ing Rewrd-Searchlight,23 December1944, p. I, cols.2-3.

101 Rocca,Ametica'sShastaDam,5.

102 Mt Shasta,known as Bohem Puyukin Wintt� is a traditionalspirit lllOlllltain for theWintt1 pooplc. For more infonn,'llionon Wintu spi1itual beliefs asoociatedMt with Shastaand theSUITowlding envimrunent, including sites al ong the Mc-Ootrl River, see Dorothea J. Theoooratus and Frank R. LaPena, David L. Cannichael ed. "Wintu &'10-ed Geography of Northern C'.alifomia," in Sacred Siles,Places Sacred (New York Routledge, 1998), 20-32. See also DorotheaJ. ll1ecdoratus and Nancy H. Ev.ms, "Native American Jntaview" in NatiwArnericC01 Folklore MoW1tof Shasta, availableat http�1www.sisJ..jyous.edu/sha;,;aifol/nat/theo.htm.

103 Sisk-Francoetal, Winnerrem Wintt� intetvi<;,w, 34 November2005.

159 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2 people of 1he Wintu,the severingof a historical wi1hlink 1he lands andrivers behindShlli,.ia Dam. The wordsof oneyet unnamed Wintu man - 'Their sleq:iis to be desecrated" -hauntthe waters of Shlli,.iaReservoir.

To thepeople ofWintu descent in ShastaCounty, California- living anddeceased

ToGlenna Bclle Ridian.ls, my matanalgrandmother

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Spa,ialthanks to followingthe individuals for their a5.'.istancc:

CaleenSisk-Franco, Marl< Franco, Ricardo Torres, and Gary Mulcahy ofthe Winncmem Wintu tribe

Nellie Bel�Doris Lovely, Vernon Pqzjoy Jr., andNonnan Pqzjoy ofthe Wintoon Tribe ofNorthem Cnlifomia, INC.

DottieSmith, ShastaColl ege MuscrnnCrnator and Instructor of ShastaCounty Histoiy

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES Interviews Lovely, Doris, Chaiiman, Nellie Bell, VernonPopejoy Jr., andNorman Popejoy of the Wintoon TnbcofNorthern California, INC.. Interview by au1hor,11 October2005, Summit City.

Sisk-Franco,Caleen, SpiritualLeader, and Maik Franco,of Headman theWinnernem Wintu tribe. Interviewby au1hor,3-4 November2005, Redding.

Newspapers

ReddingRecord-Seco·chlight (Redding), 1938-1944. SacrcunentoBee (Sacran1ento), 14 July 1944.

160 Farnham - The Wintu People

Statutes Acquisitionof Indian lands/orthe Central Valley ProjectAct. Statutes at Large 55, sec.612 (30 July 1941).

Useof Millerton Rancheria. Statutes at Large 56, sec.659 (8 July 1942).

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Departmentof lnteiior,Bureau of IndianAffairs, Sacramento Area Office. AnnualNarrative Report of the Superintendent, Sacrcunentolndicm Agency, California.forthe Fiscal Yem:\·1936 and 1937, by Roy Nash, 1936-1937, 1 October 1937. U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs Superintendent'sAnnual Nrurativc and Statistical Reports from Field Jmisdictionsof theBIA, 1907-1938,National Archives Microfilm Publication MIO 11. Roll No. 121, Microfilm 386, CSUS Library.

Departmentof theInterior. Office of the Solicitor. Handbook of Federal IndianLaw. Felix S. Cohen. WashingonD.C.: UnitedStates Goveinment Piinting Office, 1941; secondru1d thirrl reprints, 1942;fomth reprint, 1945; fifth rep1int 1948.

Earl WarrenPapers 1924-1943. Series315, CentralValley Project, 1941-1953 (26f). F3640:3550. CaliforniaState Archives, Sacramento, CA

U.S. Congress. House Committee on Interior Md lnsulru· Affairs. Central Valley Project, Patt1 AuthorizingDocuments. House Docmnent No. 416. Washington D.C.: U.S. Govemment PiintingOffice, l 956.

United States Depamncnt of hlterior Bureau of Reclrunation, Central Valley Project, Califomia. Contract with Shasta County, California, California.for Relocation of Certain Existing Cemeteries in ShastaReservoir Area (Symbol llr-1373), 5 Jrumruy 1942. Recorded on 7 March1942 in Book189 at Pg. 8 of OfficialRecords, Shasta Com1ty, Califomia

United States Depru1Inent of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation Commissioner to Honorable Harold T. Johnson, House of Representatives, 12 Noven1ber 1973. Photocopy from the privatecollection ofMaik Franco.

RG 75 (Records of the Bureau of lndiM Affairs, 1793-1989). Sacramento Area Office rurl Sacran1ento lndiru1 Agency Records. National Archives-Pacific Region. SaJ1 Bruno, Califomia

161 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

RG 233 (Recorrlsthe U.S. Houseof Representativesat theNational Archives, 1789-1989), Rcrords ofthe Committee on Indian Affairs (1821-1946). NationalArchivcs-WashingtonD.C..

DuBois, Cora. "Wintu Ethnography." University of California Publications in American Archaeologyand Ethnol ogy, vol. 36. Berkeley,CA: Universityof CaliforniaPres.s, 1935.

Heizer, Robert F. ed., The Eighteen Unrat[fied Treaties of 1851-1853 Between The CaliftJrnia Indians and The United States· Government. Berkeley: Archaeological Research Facility, DepartmentofAnthffi!X)logy, University of California, 1972.

Hogue,l lelen Steadman,ed. MargaretM. Kardell. WintuTraiL�. Redding: ShastaHisto1ical Society, 1977; reprint,Redding: Shasta Historical Society, 1995.

--�· PeacefulNow the Trails. Redding:Shasta Histrnical Society, 1948.

May,Viola P. etal., 'The Site,The Ghosts ofY e:,terday." In ShastaDeon and It� Builders. Redding: PacificConstructors, Inc., 1945.S pecialCollections, Shields Libraiy,University of California, Davis.

Meniam, C. Hart Studies· of Californin Indians. Berkeley, Los Angeles, CA: University of CalifomiaPress,1955.

AcademicJoumals/Reporls

Guilford-Kardell,Margaret "Paperson WintuEthno graphy: 239 WintuVillages in ShastaCotmty Circa 1850." Occa�ional Papers ofthe Redding Museum Paper No. I. Redding, CA: ReddingMuseum and Center.Art December 1980.

Smith,CE. and W.D. Weymouth."Repo1ts of the Universityof CaliforniaArchaeological Survey, No. 18, Archaeology of the Shasta Darn Area, California." 171e UniversityCalifornia of Archaeologi.cal Survey. Department of Anthffi!X)logy, University of California, &"'lkcley, California20 November1952.

PrivateCollections and PersonalCorrespondence

Bell,Nellie, Wintoon Tribe ofNorthcm California, INC.. Privatecollection.

Franco,Mark, Winnernern Wintu tnbc. Privatecollection.

162 Farnham - The Wintu People

Torres,Ricardo April to Farnham, l November2005. Electronic mail.

WintoonTnbe ofNorthem California, INC. toApril Farnham, 3 December2005. Electronicmail.

WintoonTribe of NorthernCalifornia JNC. toApril Farnham, 8 December2005. Originalletter in thehand ofApril fanharn

SECONDARYSOURCES Booksand Periorucals

Chase-Dunn, Christopher K and Mann, Kelly M. The Wintu and Their Neighbors. Tucson: Universityof Arizona Press, 1988.

Colby,Howard. Once Urxm a Dam Site: ColHoward by's ShastaPhoto Dam graphs, 1938-1959. Redding,CA: ReddingMuseum and ArtCenter, 1987.

Cummings, Claire Hope. "Hu'p Chonas (War Dance)." News fivm Native Cal!fomia 18, no. 3 (Spring 2005):4-9

Hovernan,Alice. Journeyto Justice, The WintuPeo ple andthe Salmon. Santee:Bordeaux Printers, Inc.© TurtleBay Exploration Paik, 2002.

Hurtado, Albert. Indian Sw-vival on the Califomia Frontier. New Haven, Connecticut Yale UniversityPress, 1988.

Knudtson, Peter M. The Wintun Indians of Califomia And Their Neighbors. Happy Ounp, California:Naturegraph Publishers Inc, 2002;original printing 1977.

LaPena,Frank R "Wintu."In Handbookof North American Indians, vol 8, California, ed. Robert F. Heizer.Washington, D.C.: SmithsonianJrn,iitution, 1978.

__. "Wintu EthnographyRevised." M.A. thesis,Califomia StateUniversity, Sacramento, 1978.

Masson, Marcelle. A Bag of Bones. Happy Ounp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers, 1998; original printing 1966.

163 Ethnic Studies Review Volume 30: 1&2

Melendrez,Thomas S. "John Collier'sIndian New Dealin California FederalIndian Policy and the Sacramento Indian Agency, 1933-1945." MA thesis, California State University, Sacramento,1979.

Ortiz,Beverly R. "An Interviewwith Florence Jones." Newsfrom Native California 9, no. 3 (Spring 1996):39-41.

Rocca, Alvieri Mario. America's Shasta Dam, A Histo,y ofConstruction, 1936-1945. Redding: HaivestPrinting, 1994;reprint, Redding: HaivestPrinting, 1995. SpecialCollections, Shields Library,University of California,Davis.

__. 'TheShasta Dam Boomtowns: A Socialand Eronomic ry Histo , 1938-1950." PhD. Diss., University of California Davis, 1991. Special Collections, Shields Library, University of California,Davis.

Smith,Dottie. TheHisto,y ofthe Indians a/ShastaCounty. Redding:©Dottie Smith, 1995.

Theodoratus,Dorothea J. andLaPcna, Frank R. "WinruSacred Geography ofNorthem California" In SacredSites, Sacreded. Places David L. Carmichael.New York:Routledge, 1998.

Websites

Bureauof LandManagement, California Land Patents Database. ShastaCounty, CA -indexto FederalLand Record5. Availableat ftpJ/ftp.roo�-web.corn/pub/usgenweb/ca/sm,ia/land/sha!:.ia.txt. Accessa:lon 27 November2005.

Jim ThorpeLibraiy, University of Oklahoma LandJndian Titles. Availableat http)/thorpe.ou.cdu/treatises.html. Acces.sedon 28 November2005.

SequoyahResearch CenterAmerican Native Press Archives. Three California Writer:<;:Alji-ed C. l Gillis. Availableat http://www.aima.ualr.edu/digital libnuyfhra·California/al:fred,tjllis.htm. Acces.sed21 November2005.

ShastaCollllty Historical Society. Available fromhttpJ/www.slllli>i'dllli,iorical.org. Acces.sed on 5 September2005.

U.S. Department of the Jnterior, Bureau of Reclaination, History Program Reckunation Pmject Histories. Available athttp://www.usbr.gov!historv/projhisthtm. Acces.sedon 5 September 2005.

164 Farnham - The Wintu People

U.S. Department oflnterior, CaliforniaRedding (ShastaCounty) Quadrangle for 1901. Available at httpJ/cricket.csuchico.edu/spcfotosimap&:'topo search.html Accessed l O December2005.

Winnemem Wintu TribeThe longJoumey to Justice.Available at httpJ/www.winnememwintu.us/;. Accessedon5September 2005.

Winnemem Wintuposition regarding Shasf£1 Dam ABSTRACTfor Prepared the Senate Select CommitteeHearings in WashingtonDC, June 4, 2002. Availableat httpJ!mdian.senate.gov/2002hrgs/060402hrg/Franco.PDF;. Accessed0115 September 2005

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