Women (Re)Writing Language Literary Approaches to the Linguistic Representation of Women and Men in English and German Christiane Luck UCL PhD Comparative Literature 1 I, Christiane Luck, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 2 Abstract Since the 1970s activists and linguists have argued for a more inclusive linguistic representation of women and men. As a result, editorial guidelines, legislation and everyday usage now incorporate more inclusive terms. However, in many instances men continue to be referenced as the linguistic norm. The research questions guiding this thesis are: ‘Can literary texts help to shape attitudes toward inclusive language?’ and ‘Can they help to advance linguistic change?’ My starting point is narrative research. Zwaan showed that literary texts are processed differently to non-fiction. Furthermore, literary texts are able to ‘get under the radar’ of certain preconceptions, Dal Cin et al. found. To provide the linguistic frame, I introduce key thinkers and findings from the English- and German-language context. Lakoff and Trömel-Plötz first problematised linguistic representation, followed by researchers such as Sczesny et al. who empirically demonstrated the impact of language on imagination. I combine literary, linguistic and sociological research methods to evaluate the effectiveness of fiction. Firstly, I assess texts in a wider philosophical framework. I discuss Le Guin’s The Left Hand of Darkness and Stefan’s Häutungen in relation to Leibniz’s work on language and logic. I evaluate Arnold’s The Cook and the Carpenter and Piercy’s Woman on the Edge of Time with reference to Wittgenstein’s notion that ‘eine Sprache vorstellen heißt, sich eine Lebensform vorstellen’. And I assess translations of Brantenberg’s Egalias døtre in dialogue with Freud’s thought on humour. Secondly, I conduct a focus group study to gain insight into reader responses. Analysing the data with grounded theory shows that literary texts raise awareness of the importance of inclusive language. Moreover, literary texts encourage readers to reconsider dominant practices. Together, the two perspectives illustrate the usefulness of literary texts. Fiction, I argue in conclusion, is an effective tool to advance more inclusive linguistic representation. 3 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help and support of mentors, colleagues, friends and family. No project takes place in isolation and a lot of people have encouraged me over the years – by taking an interest in my research, giving me the confidence to continue, and listening to my ideas and concerns. While I am unable to personally thank everyone, I would like to express my gratitude to those who have played a key part in the creation of this body of work. First of all, I would like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Geraldine Horan and Prof. Susanne Kord whose expertise, feedback and support have been invaluable over the course of this project. Susanne and Geraldine have always been open to my approach and ideas; with their guidance I have been able to experiment and thereby develop as a researcher and writer. I particularly appreciate their constructive reviews of my work, highlighting potential issues as well as different perspectives. Geraldine and Susanne have been fantastic mentors and role models; their insight and encouragement have enabled me to successfully complete this thesis. When starting my research I was lacking confidence and felt uncertain whether a PhD was ‘for me’; meeting other PhD students and making friends has therefore played an important role in creating a supportive context. I would like to thank my friend Mathelinda Nabugodi for starting a postgraduate discussion group which allowed me to join a wider network. My resulting friendships with Liz Harvey Katou, Magali Burnichon and Gabriella Caminotto have provided much needed camaraderie in all the highs and lows of PhD research. Over the years, Gabriella, Magali, Liz and Mathelinda helped me immensely with tips, advice and a friendly ear – thank you! I would also like to thank my friend Lauren Baker whose monthly feminist writing group has provided me with a space to experiment, share and hear different perspectives. Lauren is currently working on a children’s story which employs neutral pronouns and our discussions around sex/gender and language have allowed me to gain a writer’s perspective. Lauren has always been supportive of my research and a fantastic friend; as have my friends Rachel Watts, Mareike Brendel and Satu Viljanen. I really appreciate the many 4 hours spent providing advice and distraction – new ideas often emerged after a shared outing or break. My partner Jack Fisher has shouldered most of the emotional support over the years, and I would like to thank him, in particular. Jack has always encouraged my work; providing feedback on chapter drafts, listening to my ideas and concerns, and reassuring me when I felt disheartened. This PhD project has stimulated many discussions – sometimes antagonistic on my part – and I really appreciate Jack’s patience and understanding. These open exchanges provided a valuable experimental space and allowed me to clarify my position. Moreover, Jack’s insights as a technical and creative writer helped me to clearly structure and express my thoughts. This research project was self-funded and I would like to thank my employers UK-German Connection, the Learning Enhancement and Development department at City, University of London, and The Brilliant Club for their flexibility and support. Flexible working hours and the opportunity to practice my research, writing and teaching skills have been invaluable for my progress and development. Access to a wealth of materials and to quiet working spaces has also played a fundamental role in the completion of this thesis – I would like to thank the librarians and staff at the public and university libraries I have used over the years. Senate House Library, The British Library, Dulwich Library and Manchester Central Library have been my favourite research and writing spaces, and have allowed me to develop ideas as well as concentrate on processing them. Thank you also to all my focus group participants – their contributions have provided invaluable insights into reader perspectives on my selected texts. I have only been able to offer some home-made cake in return for their time; their commitment is therefore doubly appreciated! In fact, I believe it is their responses which render this thesis particularly fruitful. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents Gisela Luck and Wolfgang Luck who have always supported my endeavours. My father is unfortunately no longer alive but I know he would be very proud of me, as he always has been. 5 Contents INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 9 MOTIVATIONS .................................................................................................... 9 THE POWER OF LITERARY TEXTS ........................................................................ 12 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND THESIS STRUCTURE ................................................. 19 JUSTIFICATION OF TEXTS .................................................................................. 23 DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS .............................................................................. 26 CHAPTER 1: SEX/GENDER AND LANGUAGE THEN AND NOW ...................................................................................... 32 HISTORICAL DEBATES AND FINDINGS .................................................................. 32 Robin Lakoff and Dale Spender ................................................................. 32 Wendy Martyna and other voices ............................................................... 37 First empirical evidence: English ................................................................ 40 Senta Trömel-Plötz and Luise F. Pusch ..................................................... 42 More from Trömel-Plötz and Pusch ............................................................ 46 First empirical evidence: German ............................................................... 49 THE SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS ....................................................................... 52 RECENT EMPIRICAL STUDIES ............................................................................. 57 English ....................................................................................................... 57 German ...................................................................................................... 63 CURRENT DEBATES AND USAGE ......................................................................... 70 Hans-Martin Gauger and Luise F. Pusch ................................................... 79 Usage and attitudes ................................................................................... 84 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................. 90 CHAPTER 2: PROBLEMATISING THE LINGUISTIC STATUS QUO THE LEFT HAND OF DARKNESS AND HÄUTUNGEN ............................... 92 LEIBNIZ’S SALVA VERITATE PRINCIPLE ................................................................ 92 THE LEFT HAND OF DARKNESS AND HÄUTUNGEN ............................................... 94 Nouns and pronouns ...............................................................................