DOCSLIB.ORG

Forging the Civil Rights Frontier: How Truman's Committee Set the Liberal Agenda for Reform 1947-1965

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Forging the Civil Rights Frontier: How Truman's Committee Set the Liberal Agenda for Reform 1947-1965 Georgia State University ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University History Dissertations Department of History Spring 5-5-2012 Forging the Civil Rights Frontier: How Truman's Committee Set the Liberal Agenda for Reform 1947-1965 Edith S. Riehm Georgia State University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/history_diss Recommended Citation Riehm, Edith S., "Forging the Civil Rights Frontier: How Truman's Committee Set the Liberal Agenda for Reform 1947-1965." Dissertation, Georgia State University, 2012. https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/history_diss/30 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of History at ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in History Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FORGING THE CIVIL RIGHTS FRONTIER: HOW TRUMAN’S COMMITTEE SET THE LIBERAL AGENDA FOR REFORM 1947-1965 by EDITH SHELBY RIEHM Under the Direction of Michelle Brattain ABSTRACT At the close of 1946, a year marked by domestic white-on-black violence, Harry S. Truman, in a dramatic move, established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights (PCCR). Five years be- fore, his predecessor Franklin D. Roosevelt had formed the Fair Employment Practices Commit- tee (FEPC), under pressure from civil rights groups mobilized against racial discrimination in the defense industry. The FEPC was the first major federal civil rights legislation since Reconstruc- tion. However, when race riots later erupted in cities across the country in 1943, Roosevelt ig- nored his staff's recommendation to appoint a national race relations committee. Instead, he agreed to a “maypole” committee, which was, in actuality, a decentralized network of individu- als, including Philleo Nash, whose purpose was to anticipate and diffuse urban racial tensions in order to avert further race riots. Superficially, Truman's PCCR seemed to resemble Roosevelt's rather conservative race relations strategy of appointing a committee rather than taking direct action under the authority of the federal government. But, as this project will argue, Truman's PCCR represented a major, historical change in the approach to civil rights that would have a profound effect on activists, such as Dorothy Tilly and Frank Porter Graham, and the movement itself. Where FDR's committees were created to avoid further racial confrontations, Truman’s committee invited and ignited controversy. Its groundbreaking report, To Secure These Rights (TSTR), unequivocally declared the federal government as the guardian of all Americans’ civil rights. In essence, Truman’s PCCR elevated the civil rights dialogue to a national level by re- casting the civil rights issue as an American problem rather than just a black-American problem. Moreover, TSTR attacked segregation directly, and challenged the federal government to take the lead by immediately desegregating the armed services. These radical recommendations came on- ly six years after a reluctant FDR formed the FEPC and six and one-half years before the Unites States’ Supreme Court’s landmark ruling, Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas and the ensuing backlash. Thus, Truman’s PCCR and TSTR, in 1947, forged a new “civil rights frontier.” INDEX WORDS: Civil rights, Human rights, Truman, Roosevelt, To Secure These Rights, Pres- ident’s Committee on Civil Rights, Dorothy Tilly, Frank P. Graham, Philleo Nash, Post-war civil rights FORGING THE CIVIL RIGHTS FRONTIER: HOW TRUMAN’S COMMITTEE SET THE LIBERAL AGENDA FOR REFORM 1947-1965 by EDITH SHELBY RIEHM A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University 2012 Copyright by Edith Shelby Riehm 2012 FORGING THE CIVIL RIGHTS FRONTIER: HOW TRUMAN’S COMMITTEE SET THE LIBERAL AGENDA FOR REFORM 1947-1965 by EDITH SHELBY RIEHM Committee Chair: Michelle Brattain Committee: Clifford M. Kuhn Glenn T. Eskew Electronic Version Approved: Office of Graduate Studies College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University May 2012 iv DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the person that helped me through every step of this journey with unconditional encouragement, support, and love - my husband, Charlie Riehm. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My interest in the Civil Rights Movement began in 1987, when my mother, Margaret E. Holbrook, insisted that I join her and my father, Martin E. Holbrook, in watching a new PBS documentary, entitled “Eyes on the Prize.” She thought it would be important for me to watch this series because she believed it was a critical element of the country’s history and one that I had not experienced. My parents were involved in local politics and met many interesting and involved people. Their activism and the company they kept, coupled with the diverse population of the metro New York City area, exposed me and my siblings to people from all walks of life – rich, poor, black, white, people of all religions, national origins, and races. My parents’ exam- ples and the environment in which they raised me laid the foundation for my future interest in civil rights. Over the years, my parents’ influence has served me well and, while they are no longer living, I still thank them each and every day. This journey has been longer than anticipated, yet one that I have enjoyed immensely and I owe a huge debt of gratitude to many people. First, I must thank my under graduate advisor, Dr. Daniel J. Wilson of Muhlenberg College. When I decided to return for an advanced history degree, he agreed to write a letter of recommendation on my behalf. At the time I asked him if I should concentrate on the latest trends in history in order to be more marketable in my future job search. His advice was straightforward: he encouraged me to find a topic that I loved, which would ensure I would finish the program. As I had done many times as an undergraduate, I took his advice. Next, I also asked my “corporate world” manager at the time, Vicki Hoffman Robinson, to write me a letter of recommendation. In the short time I worked for Vicki (2.5 years or so) we became very good friends, and I learned a great deal from her – especially about vi how to go after what you want to do. I owe Vicki a huge thank you since she inspired me to look beyond what I was doing to the future, and to focus on what I was meant to do. I first had to get a master’s degree in history in order to qualify for Georgia State’s doc- torate program. Dr. John Matthews was the graduate advisor at the time, and as I completed the course work for my master’s degree, I selected him as my thesis advisor. When I was searching for a thesis topic, he thoughtfully guided me to Emory University’s Special Collections depart- ment, headed by his wife, Dr. Linda Matthews, and suggested I take a look at the collection of women’s manuscript collections. I hit the proverbial jackpot at Emory and found four female white civil rights activists about whom to write: Dorothy Tilly, Helen Bullard, Frances Pauley, and Connie Curry. I quickly amassed enough information to write hefty chapters on all, except Tilly. When I submitted my paltry 25-page chapter on Tilly to Dr. Matthews, he reminded me that he was expecting 50-page chapters on each of my four subjects. When I told him I was hav- ing trouble finding information about Tilly, he pointed me in the direction of the Atlanta Univer- sity Center, where I would find the Southern Regional Council Papers. He then confided to me that of all of my thesis subjects, he suspected that Dorothy Tilly was the most important – and that was correct. From that point on, I found more information on Tilly than I could have ever imagined, and I was fortunate to have had the opportunity to publish about her and her important work three times. She also figures prominently in this dissertation. Therefore I must thank Dr. Matthews for inspiring me to write about white women civil rights activists and for his expert guidance in my quest for information about Dorothy Tilly. At the time of my master’s thesis defense, a recent hire to Georgia State, Dr. Michelle Brattain, agreed to be the second reader for my thesis. When Dr. Matthews retired, Michelle became my advisor and she has become so much more than that over the years. She has been a vii teacher, colleague, mentor, confidante, cheerleader, and wonderful friend to me over the last twelve years. Michelle has read and commented on all of my publications, and I am indebted to her for the time she has generously given me and for the improvements she has made to my work, while she has pushed me to become a better historian. Her encouragement to publish, ap- ply for grants, apply for teaching jobs and, in general, to put myself “out there” as a historian has been an invaluable gift, so I am very grateful to her for all she has done to help me toward the Ph.D. degree and my career as a historian. This dissertation and my historian skills have also been significantly enhanced through the influence of the other members my dissertation committee: Dr. Clifford M. Kuhn and Dr. Glenn T. Eskew. I have truly benefitted from the assistance, guidance, and encouragement given to me from these two scholars over the years. Dr. Kuhn spent a great deal of time reviewing an earlier draft of this dissertation, which helped me tremendously in preparing it for the final steps, and for which I am greatly indebted to him.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Struggle to Redevelop a Jim Crow State, 1960–2000
    Educating for a New Economy: The Struggle to Redevelop a Jim Crow State, 1960–2000 by William D. Goldsmith Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Nancy MacLean, Supervisor ___________________________ Edward J. Balleisen ___________________________ Adriane Lentz-Smith ___________________________ Gary Gereffi ___________________________ Helen Ladd Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in The Graduate School of Duke University 2018 ABSTRACT Educating for a New Economy: The Struggle to Redevelop a Jim Crow State, 1960–2000 by William D. Goldsmith Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Nancy MacLean, Supervisor ___________________________ Edward J. Balleisen ___________________________ Adriane Lentz-Smith ___________________________ Gary Gereffi ___________________________ Helen Ladd An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2018 Copyright by William D. Goldsmith 2018 Abstract This dissertation shows how an array of policymakers, invested in uprooting an unequal political economy descended from the plantation system and Jim Crow, gravitated to education as a centerpiece of development strategy, and why so many are still disappointed in its outcomes. By looking at state-wide policymaking in North Carolina and policy effects in the state’s black belt counties, this study shows why the civil rights movement was vital for shifting state policy in former Jim Crow states towards greater investment in human resources. By breaking down employment barriers to African Americans and opening up the South to new people and ideas, the civil rights movement fostered a new climate for economic policymaking, and a new ecosystem of organizations flourished to promote equitable growth.
    [Show full text]
  • President's Daily Diary Collection (Box 74) at the Gerald R
    Scanned from the President's Daily Diary Collection (Box 74) at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library THE WHITE HOUSE THE DAILY DIARY OF PRESIDENT GERALD R. FORD PLACE DAY BEGAN DATE (Mo., Day, Yr.) HYATT REGENCY HOUSE FEBRUARY 4 1975 ATLANTA, GEORGIA TIME DAY 7:55 a.m. TUESDAY PHONE - TIME ACTIVITY In Out The President was an,overIiight guest)(at the Hyatt Regency House, 265 Peachtree Street, Atlanta, Georgia. 8:00 The President went to the Tudor Ioom. 8:00 9:35 The President attended a working breakfast with newspaper editors, publishers, and broadcast executives. For a list of attendees, see APPENDIX "A.II 9:35 The President returned to his suite. 10:20 11:25 The President met with Ernest J.E. Griffes, Treasurer of Haxelhurst and Associates, consulting actuaries in Atlanta, Georgia. 11:31 The President went to his motorcade. 11:34 11:36 The President motored from the Hyatt Regency House to the Marriott Hotel, Courtland and Cain Street~, N.W. 11:36 1:25 The Fresident attended a luncheon for the 11th Annual Convention of the Opportunities Industrialization Centers. 11:36 The President was greeted by: Leon H. Sullivan, Founder of Opportunities Industrialization Center (OIC) and pastor of Zion Baptist Church, Philide~phia, Pennsylvania Maurice Dawkins, National Director of OIC Richard Stormont, Marriott Hotel General Manager The President, escorted by Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Dawkins, went to the Nation .fuf Brotherhood Room. The President met with headtcable guests. For a list of head table guests-i see APPENDIX liB." 11:56 The President went to the holding room.
    [Show full text]
  • VOTING RIGHTS and ECONOMICS in the AMERICAN SOUTH Gavin Wright Stanford University April 2016 [Preliminary: Do Not Quote]
    0 VOTING RIGHTS AND ECONOMICS IN THE AMERICAN SOUTH Gavin Wright Stanford University April 2016 [Preliminary: Do not quote] 1 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 revolutionized black political participation in the American South. Black voter registration rates jumped almost overnight in targeted areas and were soon comparable to national norms. The rise in black elected officials was longer and slower in coming, requiring extensive litigation to overcome “vote dilution” tactics on the part of white politicians. Subsequently the number of black elected in the South continued to rise throughout the 1980s and 1990s, nearly doubling the non-South by the end of the century. Small wonder that the Act has been hailed as the most successful Civil Rights law in history.1 In Sharing the Prize, I showed that enhanced political participation was not just of moral and symbolic value but also contributed positively to the economic wellbeing of black southerners and the South as a whole. The most immediate gains were in municipalities and counties, where post-VRA surveys found more paved roads and street-lights in black residential areas, better access to city and county services, and increased black hires into public-sector jobs, including police and firemen. But advances were also observable at the state level, even though blacks were not close to a voting majority in any southern state. Economists Elizabeth Cascio and Ebonya Washington show that the VRA’s elimination of literacy tests in 1965 was systematically associated with greater increases in state transfers to counties with higher black population shares. The shift in state resource allocation was also associated with higher voter turnout but occurred well before any major black representation in state government.
    [Show full text]
  • Primary Source Document with Questions (Dbqs) the POTSDAM DECLARATION (JULY 26, 1945) Introduction the Dropping of the Atomic Bo
    Primary Source Document with Questions (DBQs) THE POTSDAM DECLARATION (JULY 26, 1945) Introduction The dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki remains among the most controversial events in modern history. Historians have actively debated whether the bombings were necessary, what effect they had on bringing the war in the Pacific to an expeditious end, and what other options were available to the United States. These very same questions were also contentious at the time, as American policymakers struggled with how to use a phenomenally powerful new technology and what the long-term impact of atomic weaponry might be, not just on the Japanese, but on domestic politics, America’s international relations, and the budding Cold War with the Soviet Union. In retrospect, it is clear that the reasons for dropping the atomic bombs on Japan, just like the later impact of nuclear technology on world politics, were complex and intertwined with a variety of issues that went far beyond the simple goal of bringing World War II to a rapid close. The Potsdam Declaration was issued on July 26, 1945 by U.S. President Harry Truman, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and President Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China, who were meeting in Potsdam, Germany to consider war strategy and post-war policy. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin also attended the Potsdam Conference but did not sign the Declaration, since the Soviet Union did not enter the war against Japan until August 8, 1945. Document Excerpts with Questions From Japan’s Decision to Surrender, by Robert J.C.
    [Show full text]
  • Fortress of Liberty: the Rise and Fall of the Draft and the Remaking of American Law
    Fortress of Liberty: The Rise and Fall of the Draft and the Remaking of American Law Jeremy K. Kessler∗ Introduction: Civil Liberty in a Conscripted Age Between 1917 and 1973, the United States fought its wars with drafted soldiers. These conscript wars were also, however, civil libertarian wars. Waged against the “militaristic” or “totalitarian” enemies of civil liberty, each war embodied expanding notions of individual freedom in its execution. At the moment of their country’s rise to global dominance, American citizens accepted conscription as a fact of life. But they also embraced civil liberties law – the protections of freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and procedural due process – as the distinguishing feature of American society, and the ultimate justification for American military power. Fortress of Liberty tries to make sense of this puzzling synthesis of mass coercion and individual freedom that once defined American law and politics. It also argues that the collapse of that synthesis during the Cold War continues to haunt our contemporary legal order. Chapter 1: The World War I Draft Chapter One identifies the WWI draft as a civil libertarian institution – a legal and political apparatus that not only constrained but created new forms of expressive freedom. Several progressive War Department officials were also early civil libertarian innovators, and they built a system of conscientious objection that allowed for the expression of individual difference and dissent within the draft. These officials, including future Supreme Court Justices Felix Frankfurter and Harlan Fiske Stone, believed that a powerful, centralized government was essential to the creation of a civil libertarian nation – a nation shaped and strengthened by its diverse, engaged citizenry.
    [Show full text]
  • The George-Anne Student Media
    Georgia Southern University Digital Commons@Georgia Southern The George-Anne Student Media 10-25-1994 The George-Anne Georgia Southern University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/george-anne Part of the Higher Education Commons Recommended Citation Georgia Southern University, "The George-Anne" (1994). The George-Anne. 1331. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/george-anne/1331 This newspaper is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Media at Digital Commons@Georgia Southern. It has been accepted for inclusion in The George-Anne by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Georgia Southern. For more information, please contact [email protected]. In politics > Sweep ' I In the spotlight Letter writers ask students to support Melissa Burnette led cross country ^*. Another faculty recital will be held politicians in the Nov. 8 election Lady Eagles to victory Saturday \^T^ Thursday in the Foy Building Please see "YourOpinion,"page 5 Please see story, page 7 Please see story, page 8 m EAGLELINE The BLUE EDITION Tuesday, October 25,1994 Vol. 67, No. 28 Georgia State wins grant for high-tech telescopes Trie Associated Press Old friends take home the honors ATLANTA — The National Science Foundation will go halves on Georgia State University's $ 11 million telescope Dickerson named first Homecoming King Whitaker captures title of Queen array which will give scientists their clearest view ever of cur nearer neigh- bors. The foundation will pay $5.5 million. The university will raise the rest for the project, expected to be built in the south- western United States. The array will consist at first of five 39-inch telescopes arranged in a Y- shape.
    [Show full text]
  • A Counterintelligence Reader, Volume 2 Chapter 1, CI in World
    CI in World War II 113 CHAPTER 1 Counterintelligence In World War II Introduction President Franklin Roosevelts confidential directive, issued on 26 June 1939, established lines of responsibility for domestic counterintelligence, but failed to clearly define areas of accountability for overseas counterintelligence operations" The pressing need for a decision in this field grew more evident in the early months of 1940" This resulted in consultations between the President, FBI Director J" Edgar Hoover, Director of Army Intelligence Sherman Miles, Director of Naval Intelligence Rear Admiral W"S" Anderson, and Assistant Secretary of State Adolf A" Berle" Following these discussions, Berle issued a report, which expressed the Presidents wish that the FBI assume the responsibility for foreign intelligence matters in the Western Hemisphere, with the existing military and naval intelligence branches covering the rest of the world as the necessity arose" With this decision of authority, the three agencies worked out the details of an agreement, which, roughly, charged the Navy with the responsibility for intelligence coverage in the Pacific" The Army was entrusted with the coverage in Europe, Africa, and the Canal Zone" The FBI was given the responsibility for the Western Hemisphere, including Canada and Central and South America, except Panama" The meetings in this formative period led to a proposal for the organization within the FBI of a Special Intelligence Service (SIS) for overseas operations" Agreement was reached that the SIS would act
    [Show full text]
  • Timeline of the Cold War
    Timeline of the Cold War 1945 Defeat of Germany and Japan February 4-11: Yalta Conference meeting of FDR, Churchill, Stalin - the 'Big Three' Soviet Union has control of Eastern Europe. The Cold War Begins May 8: VE Day - Victory in Europe. Germany surrenders to the Red Army in Berlin July: Potsdam Conference - Germany was officially partitioned into four zones of occupation. August 6: The United States drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima (20 kiloton bomb 'Little Boy' kills 80,000) August 8: Russia declares war on Japan August 9: The United States drops atomic bomb on Nagasaki (22 kiloton 'Fat Man' kills 70,000) August 14 : Japanese surrender End of World War II August 15: Emperor surrender broadcast - VJ Day 1946 February 9: Stalin hostile speech - communism & capitalism were incompatible March 5 : "Sinews of Peace" Iron Curtain Speech by Winston Churchill - "an "iron curtain" has descended on Europe" March 10: Truman demands Russia leave Iran July 1: Operation Crossroads with Test Able was the first public demonstration of America's atomic arsenal July 25: America's Test Baker - underwater explosion 1947 Containment March 12 : Truman Doctrine - Truman declares active role in Greek Civil War June : Marshall Plan is announced setting a precedent for helping countries combat poverty, disease and malnutrition September 2: Rio Pact - U.S. meet 19 Latin American countries and created a security zone around the hemisphere 1948 Containment February 25 : Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia March 2: Truman's Loyalty Program created to catch Cold War
    [Show full text]
  • Harry S. Truman and the Fight Against Racial Discrimination
    “Everything in My Power”: Harry S. Truman and the Fight Against Racial Discrimination by Joseph Pierro Thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in History Peter Wallenstein, Chairman Crandall Shifflett Daniel B. Thorp 3 May 2004 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: civil rights, discrimination, equality, race, segregation, Truman “Everything in My Power”: Harry S. Truman and the Fight Against Racial Discrimination by Joseph Pierro Abstract Any attempt to tell the story of federal involvement in the dismantling of America’s formalized systems of racial discrimination that positions the judiciary as the first branch of government to engage in this effort, identifies the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision as the beginning of the civil rights movement, or fails to recognize the centrality of President Harry S. Truman in the narrative of racial equality is in error. Driven by an ever-increasing recognition of the injustices of racial discrimination, Truman offered a comprehensive civil rights program to Congress on 2 February 1948. When his legislative proposals were rejected, he employed a unilateral policy of action despite grave political risk, and freed subsequent presidential nominees of the Democratic party from its southern segregationist bloc by winning re-election despite the States’ Rights challenge of Strom Thurmond. The remainder of his administration witnessed a multi-faceted attack on prejudice involving vetoes, executive orders, public pronouncements, changes in enforcement policies, and amicus briefs submitted by his Department of Justice. The southern Democrat responsible for actualizing the promises of America’s ideals of freedom for its black citizens is Harry Truman, not Lyndon Johnson.
    [Show full text]
  • Mcleod Bethune Papers: the Bethune Foundation Collection Part 2: Correspondence Files, 1914–1955
    A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of BLACK STUDIES RESEARCH SOURCES Microfilms from Major Archival and Manuscript Collections General Editors: John H. Bracey, Jr. and August Meier BethuneBethuneMaryMary McLeod PAPERS THE BETHUNE FOUNDATION COLLECTION PART 2: CORRESPONDENCE FILES, 19141955 UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS OF AMERICA A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of BLACK STUDIES RESEARCH SOURCES Microfilms from Major Archival and Manuscript Collections General Editors: John H. Bracey, Jr. and August Meier Mary McLeod Bethune Papers: The Bethune Foundation Collection Part 2: Correspondence Files, 1914–1955 Editorial Adviser Elaine Smith Alabama State University Project Coordinator Randolph H. Boehm Guide Compiled by Daniel Lewis A microfilm project of UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS OF AMERICA An Imprint of CIS 4520 East-West Highway • Bethesda, MD 20814-3389 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bethune, Mary McLeod, 1875–1955. Mary McLeod Bethune papers [microform] : the Bethune Foundation collection microfilm reels. : 35 mm. — (Black studies research sources) Contents: pt. 1. Writings, diaries, scrapbooks, biographical materials, and files on the National Youth Administration and women’s organizations, 1918–1955. pt. 2. Correspondence Files, 1914–1955. / editorial adviser, Elaine M. Smith: project coordinator, Randolph H. Boehm. Accompanied by printed guide with title: A guide to the microfilm edition of Mary McLeod Bethune papers. ISBN 1-55655-663-2 1. Bethune, Mary McLeod, 1875–1955—Archives. 2. Afro-American women— Education—Florida—History—Sources. 3. United States. National Youth Administration—History—Sources. 4. National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs (U.S.)—History—Sources. 5. National Council of Negro Women— History—Sources. 6. Bethune-Cookman College (Daytona Beach, Fla.)—History— Sources.
    [Show full text]
  • The North Atlantic Treaty Organization the Origins of NATO the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION
    The Origins of N A TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION European Economic Recovery power production), and dollar reserves to pay for necessary and European Integration imports. The war had rent the social fabric of many nations, setting social class against social class and ethnic group n the aftermath of the total defeat of Nazi Germany in against ethnic group. Political tensions were exacerbated by 1945, Europe struggled to recover from the ravages of the participation of many Europeans in collaborationist occupation and war. The wartime Grand Alliance be- regimes and others in armed resistance. Masses of Europe- tweenI the Western democracies and the Soviet Union ans, radicalized by the experience of war and German collapsed, and postwar negotiations for a peace settlement occupation, demanded major social and economic change foundered in the Council of Foreign Ministers. By 1947 and appeared ready to enforce these demands with violence. peace treaties with Italy and the defeated Axis satellites were The national Communist Parties of Western Europe stood finally concluded after protracted and acrimonious negotia- ready to exploit this discontent in order to advance the aims tions between the former allies, but the problem of a divided of the Soviet Union.2 and occupied Germany remained unsettled. U.S. leaders were acutely aware of both the dangers of In April 1947 Secretary of State George Marshall re- renewed conflict in Europe and of their ability to influence turned from a frustrating round of negotiations in the the shape of a postwar European political and social order. Council of Foreign Ministers in Moscow to report that the Fresh from the wartime experience of providing major United States and the Soviet Union were at loggerheads over Lend-Lease aid to allied nations and assistance to millions of a prescription for the future of central Europe and that the refugees through the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Soviets appeared ready to drag out talks.
    [Show full text]
  • Women in the Missions Organizations of the United Methodist Church and Predecessor Denominations a Working Bibliography
    Women in the Missions Organizations of The United Methodist Church and Predecessor Denominations A Working Bibliography Guides and Reference: Rowe, Kenneth E. Methodist Women: A Guide to the Literature. Lake Junaluska, N.C.: General Commission on Archives and History, The United Methodist Church, 1980. Turner, Kristen D. A Guide to Materials on Women in The United Methodist Church Archives. Madison, N.J.: The Commission, 1995. Warrick, Susan E., ed. Women in the Wesleyan and United Methodist Traditions: A Bibliography. Revised edition. General Commission on Archives and History: www.gcah.org, 2003. Yrigoyen, Jr., Charles and Susan E. Warrick. Historical Dictionary of Methodism. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2013. Histories of The United Methodist Church and Predecessors: Barclay, Wade Crawford. History of Methodist Missions. 4 vols. New York: Board of Missions, the Methodist Church, 1949-1957. Blair, Sarah D. Brooks, comp. The Evangelical United Brethren Church: a Historical Sampler. Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House, 2000. Cameron, Richard M. Methodism and Society in Historical Perspective. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1961. Cole, Charles E., ed. Chrisitan Mission in the Third Millennium. New York: GBGM Books, 2004. Cole, Charles E., ed. Initiatives for Mission, 1980-2002. New York: General Board of Global Ministries, The United Methodist Church, 2003. Daugherty, Ruth A. The Missionary Spirit: The History of Mission of the Methodist Protestant Church, 1830-1939. New York: General Board of Global Ministries, The United Methodist Church, 2004. Ferguson, Charles W. Organizing to Beat the Devil; Methodists and the Making of America. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1971. Gesling, Linda. Mirror and Beacon: The History of Mission of The Methodist Church, 1939-1968, New York: General Board of Global Ministries, The United Methodist Church, 2005.
    [Show full text]