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Curente Literare I De La Umanism Pana La Samanatorism

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Curente Literare I De La Umanism Pana La Samanatorism Curente literare I De la Umanism pana la Samanatorism Umanismul Termenul de Umanism (din latină: humanitas = omenie, umanitate) are două semnificaţii: • Poziţie filozofică care pune omul şi valorile umane mai presus de orice, orientându-se în special asupra omului ca individ. Omul constituie astfel valoarea supremă, este un scop în sine şi nu un mijloc. Umanismul implică un devotament pentru căutarea adevărului şi moralităţii prin mijloace umane, în sprijinul intereselor umane. Axându-se pe capacitatea de autodeterminare, umanismul respinge validitatea justificărilor transcendentale cum ar fi dependenţa de credinţă, supranaturalul sau textele pretinse a fi revelaţii divine. Umaniştii susţin moralitatea universală bazată pe condiţia umană ca loc comun, sugerând că soluţiile problemelor sociale şi culturale umane nu pot fi provincialiste. • Mişcare spirituală care stă la baza Renaşterii, apărută în Italia în secolul al XIV-lea şi care s-a extins în mod progresiv în Europa apuseană până în secolul al XVII-lea. Ea este marcată de reîntoarcerea la textele antichităţii greco-romane, care servesc ca modele ale modului de viaţă, de gîndire şi de creaţie artistică. Istoric Ca prim reprezentant al umanismului poate fi considerat Protagoras, sofist grec din secolul al V-lea î.Chr., pentru care "omul este măsura tuturor lucrurilor". Termenul de "humanitas" îl întâlnim deja în scrierile lui Cicero, în care omul ocupă un loc aparte printre alte vieţuitoare. În Evul Mediu, se vorbeşte despre "humaniores litterae", care reprezintă ansamblul cunoştinţelor profane predate în facultăţile de arte (artes liberales), spre deosebire de "diviniores litterae", care îşi au sursa în studiul Bibliei şi sunt predate în facultăţile de teologie. În secolul al XVI-lea, "umaniştii" studiau ceea ce ei numeau "umanităţile" (studia humanitatis), înţelegându-se prin aceasta scrierile clasice ale antichităţii. Pentru aceşti erudiţi ai Renaşterii, noţiunea de "humanitas" avea acelaşi sens ca în epoca ciceroniană şi însemna acea cultură care, desăvârşind calităţile naturale ale omului, îl fac demn de acest nume. Cuvântul "Umanism" în înţelesul actual apare mult mai târziu, şi anume în 1808 în scrierea lui Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer Începuturile. Umanismului modern În mod tradiţional, istoricii situează începuturile umanismului modern în Italia secolului al XIV-lea, fiind legat de numele lui Francesco Petrarca şi Giovanni Boccaccio. După invadarea Imperiului Bizantin de către turci, un mare număr de învăţaţi greci se refugiază în peninsula italică, aducând cu ei manuscrise în limba lor de origine. Literaţii italieni, ca Guarino din Verona, Francesco Filello sau Giovanni Aurispa, învaţă limba greacă veche şi traduc în italiană operele clasice greceşti. Poezia latină a epocii romane este redescoperită graţie lui Lorenzo Valla, iar Coluccio Salutati şi Gian Francesco Poggio traduc în limba italiană operele scriitorilor romani. Pico della Mirandola face parte din rândurile filozofilor şi savanţilor umanişti, apreciaţi pentru erudiţia lor. Difuzarea textelor este favorizată de descoperirea tiparului şi perfecţionarea imprimeriilor, dar şi de dezvoltarea oraşelor şi universităţilor, locul de întâlnire al învăţaţilor. Un eveniment important îl constituie înfiinţarea "Academiei" din Florenţa sub impulsul lui Cosimo de Medici, condusă de Marsilio Ficino - traducător al Dialogurilor lui Platon -, unde se întâlnesc umanişti ca Pico della Mirandola, Pietro Bembo şi Angelo Poliziano. "Academia" florentină este dedicată în primul rând filozofiei platoniciene, opunându-se scrierilor lui Aristotel introduse în Europa de Averroes şi Avicenna şi acceptate de Biserica Catolică. Activitatea "Academiei" a exercitat o mare influenţă asupra dezvoltării literaturii, picturii şi arhitecturii din epoca Renaşterii. Aşa, de exemplu, Pirro Ligorio pictează tabloul "Alegoria Ştiinţelor". Răspândirea Umanismului în Europa Umanismul se propagă în primul rând în Germania şi Olanda. Ambele ţări cunoscând o mare expansiune a imprimeriilor, se organizează adevărate târguri de cărţi care favorizează schimburile culturale. Germania Johannes Reuchlin se opune împăratului Maximilian I, care voia să interzică scrierile în limba ebraică, cu excepţia Bibliei. Reuchlin afirmă că textele interzise fac parte din patrimoniul cultural al omenirii. În Germania, umanismul a pregătit calea Reformei lui Martin Luther. Discipolul său, umanistul Philipp Melanchton, profesor de Filologie la Universitatea din Wittenberg, redactează prima formulare ştiinţifică a principiilor Reformei în lucrarea "Loci communes rerum theologicarum" (1521), iar în 1540 redactează "Confesiunea de la Augsburg". El dorea ca răspândirea Protestantismului să se realizeze cu mijloace paşnice şi s-a străduit să păstreze unitatea Bisericii apusene. Olanda Erasmus din Rotterdam, teolog şi erudit olandez, este unul din cei mai eminenţi umanişti din perioada Renaşterii şi Reformei din secolele al XV-lea şi al XVI-lea, "primul european conştient" (Stefan Zweig). Prin poziţia lui critică faţă de Biserica Catolică, este considerat precursor al reformei religioase, deşi el însuşi nu a aderat la protestantism, preconizând în mod conştient spiritul de toleranţă religioasă. Franţa În Franţa, umanismul pătrunde prin învăţaţii şi artiştii italieni aflaţi la curtea papală din Avignon (printre aceştia Petrarca). Traduceri din Titus Livius şi Aristotel circulau deja la curtea regelui Carol V le Sage. Războaiele lui Francisc I în Italia au contribuit la luarea de contact şi cunoaşterea curentelor culturale aflate acolo în plină efervescenţă. Francisc I creează Collège des lecteurs royaux, unde se predau limbile clasice greacă şi latină, precum şi ebraica de către Jacques Lefèbre d'Étaples. Etienne Dolet propagă gândirea inspirată din Platon, adaptată creştinismului, fapt care influenţează poeţii "Pleiadei" ca Pierre de Ronsard sau Joachim du Bellay. Montaigne susţine că raţiunea permite omului să se elibereze de ideile preconcepute. François Rabelais întruchipează perfect modelul umanismului din epoca Renaşterii, luptând cu entuziasm pentru reînoirea gândirii în spiritul antichităţii clasice, ideal filozofic al timpului său. Anglia În Anglia, Thomas Morus scrie o lucrare fundamentală de istorie a ideilor politice ("Utopia", 1516), devine cancelar al regelui Henric VIII, dar - opunându-se reformei religioase a acestuia - cade în disgraţie şi este executat. Alte ţări Umanismul este prezent şi în Ungaria la curtea regelui Matei Corvin, în Polonia cu Jan Kochanowski, în Spania cu cardinalul Jiménez de Cisneros, fondator al unei universităţi trilingue la Alcalà de Henares şi editor al unei Biblii poliglote, şi Juan Luis Vives, Astfel, către 1540 mişcarea umanistă cuprinde întreaga Europă apuseană, unificând în acelaşi ideal acest mod de gândire optimist, încrezător în progresul omenirii. Umanismul antrenează crearea unor noi discipline şi sfere de activitate ca Geografia, Cosmologia, Filozofia politică, Teoria istorieişi implică libertatea şi independenţa faţă de religie dând astfel impuls reformei religioase. Umanismul permite eliberarea gândirii omului de cadrul îngust al dogmelor şi apariţia spiritului de toleranţă. Religie Umanismul respinge în mod clar apelul la credinţe supranaturale pentru soluţionarea problemelor umane, dar nu şi credinţele însele; unele curente umaniste sunt chiar compatibile cu unele religii. El este în general compatibil cu ateismul şi agnosticismul, dar acestea din urmă nu îi sunt necesare. Cuvintele "ignostic" (american) şi "indiferentist" (britanic) sunt uneori aplicate umanismului pe motiv că acesta este un proces etic, nu o dogmă asupra existenţei sau nu a zeilor; umaniştii pur şi simplu nu au nevoie să se preocupe de asemenea probleme. Agnosticismul sau ateismul singure nu implică în mod necesar umanismul; multe filosofii diferite şi uneori incompatibile se întâmplă să fie ateiste. Nu există nicio ideologie unică şi niciun set de comportamente unic la care să adere toţi ateii, şi nu toate dintre cele proprii ateilor sunt umaniste. De vreme ce umanismul include curente intelectuale trecând printr-o mare varietate de gândiri filosofice şi religioase, mai multe ramuri ale umanismului îi permit să îndeplinească, suplimenteze sau suplinească rolul religiilor şi în special să fie adoptat ca filosofie de viaţă completă. Într-un număr de ţări, din motive legate de legile care acordă drepturi "religioase" specifice, filosofia de viaţă umanistă seculară a fost recunoscută ca "religie". În Statele Unite, Curtea Supremă a admis că umanismul este echivalent cu o religie în sensul limitat al autorizării umaniştilor să oficieze ceremonii de obicei conduse de reprezentanţi ai cultelor religioase. Departe de a "declara umanismul religie", această luare de poziţie pur şi simplu declară echivalenţa dreptului umaniştilor de a acţiona în moduri de obicei specifice religiilor, cum ar fi marcarea ceremonială a momentelor importante ale vieţii. Umanismul renascentist şi accentul său asupra întoarcerii la origini au contribuit la reformarea protestantă, ajutând la producerea a ceea ce protestanţii consideră o traducere mai fidelă a textelor biblice. Cunoaştere Conform umaniştilor, este în sarcina oamenilor să găsească adevărul, prin opoziţie cu căutarea lui în revelaţie, misticism, tradiţie sau orice altceva care e incompatibil cu aplicarea logicii asupra dovezilor observabile. Cerând ca oamenii să evite acceptarea orbească a unor opinii nesusţinute, el sprijină scepticismul ştiinţific şi metoda ştiinţifică, respingând autoritarismul şi scepticismul
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