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Finland, Civil War and Revolution, 1914–1918

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Finland, Civil War and Revolution, 1914–1918 c06.qxd 3/18/09 7:14 PM Page 1200 International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, ed. Immanuel Ness, Blackwell Publishing, 2009, pp. 1200–1202 1200 Finland, civil war and revolution, 1914–1918 Finland, civil war and revolution, 1914–1918 Kyle E. Frackman The revolution or civil war of 1917–18 in Finland is one of the decisive events in the nation’s history. Representing a forceful break with Russia, which had controlled Finland since 1809, the conflict put Finland on the short path toward independence and democratization. The concerted movement for independence began around World War I, as the Finnish political scene had previously been absent of plans for separation from Russia. The only revolutionary tendency before World War I was for a restoration of Finnish autonomy within the Russian empire. Since the thirteenth century, Finland had been under Swedish rule, administered by Swedish- speaking nobles and bureaucrats. For some c06.qxd 3/18/09 7:14 PM Page 1201 International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, ed. Immanuel Ness, Blackwell Publishing, 2009, pp. 1200–1202 Finland, civil war and revolution, 1914–1918 1201 time and to varying degrees, many Finns had as a Grand Duchy. Furthermore, Finns were been dissatisfied with their position under increasingly indignant about the poor state of Sweden’s control. Finland found itself situated the Finnish economy and the country’s over- literally between these two greater powers. whelming poverty. These sources of Finnish Nonetheless, Sweden-Finland had the benefit of rancor led merely to developing support of a strong constitutional government, something the restoration of Finnish autonomy; up to that Russia began using to its advantage already 1910 none of the political parties was planning in the eighteenth century in order to weaken on Finland becoming an independent nation. the position of the Swedish monarch. In 1809, Two groups were integral in the develop- following the successful military efforts of ments surrounding Finland’s conflicts with Russia. Alexander I of Russia (1777–1825), Finland The Young Finnish Party (Nuorsuomalainen became a part of the Russian empire. As part Puolue) or Young Finns (nuorsuomalaiset) became of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Finns were a political party in the 1890s, comprising a promised autonomy under the Russian tsars. younger generation of Finnish speakers as From Finland’s creation as a Grand Duchy well as Swedish-speaking liberals who sought a through the 1880s, Finnish autonomy was largely constitutional solution to problems with Russia. a reality. As it had before, Russia encouraged Many Finnish nationalists were suspicious of the constitutional aspirations of Finns, because the Young Finns, because of their willingness it furthered the separation of Finland from its to collaborate with the Swedish-speaking upper former ruler, Sweden. Alexander III (1845–94), class. The Old Finns (vanhasuomalaiset) or the however, who ascended the throne in 1881, members of the Finnish Party (Suomalainen grew increasingly critical of Finland’s excep- Puolue), on the other hand, were concerned tional status as an autonomous Grand Duchy. that the Young Finns’ desired resistance would He was not alone, as concerns about Finnish further erode the Grand Duchy’s autonomy and connections to Germany, Sweden, and Britain wished to cooperate as much as possible with abounded and agitated Russian nationalists. In the Russian government. Internal Russian strife, 1890, Alexander III initiated a series of efforts specifically the 1905 Revolution, made it pos- aimed at bringing Finland under tighter Russian sible for the Finnish Diet (Suomen valtiopäivät) control. After Alexander’s death and the acces- to abolish the system of the four Estates with the sion of Nicholas II (1868–1918), this period of creation of a new unicameral, 200-member legis- Russification continued and expanded through- lative body, the Eduskunta. Suddenly, Finland out the Russian empire. In Finland, this gained had a progressive form of government elected full force in 1899 when Finnish legislation came by equal and universal suffrage. Despite under the purview of the Russian government, these advances, Finnish civil rights continued starting the first “period (or years) of oppression” to be threatened until Finland had complete (sortokausi or sortovuodet in Finnish). independence. There were several factors that contributed Again in 1917 internal Russian affairs created to the revolutionary climate in Finland in the a climate in which Finland’s status could change. first quarter of the twentieth century. First Following the “March Revolution” in which the and foremost were conflicts and friction between tsar was overthrown, political dissidents who Finland and Russia. The aforementioned Russi- had been living in exile returned to Finland fication fomented conflict as it prevented or after the replacement of the Russian Governor- hindered Finnish control of national legislation. General Franz Albert von Seyn (1862–1918) Finns desired representation in the Russian by Mikhail Stakhovich (1861–1923). The new parliament, the Duma, created after the tsar’s provisional government reinstated Finland’s con- 1905 allowance. Largely involuntary support of stitutional rights. Simultaneously, parliament the Russian military was required and simultan- convened after a 1916 election in which the eously offensive to a great portion of the Finnish Social Democratic Party (Suomen Sosialidemo- population. Russian involvement in official uses kraattinen Puolue) was overwhelmingly victori- of Swedish and Finnish fostered Finnish national ous and elected a government headed by Oskari antagonism. Additionally, there was internal Tokoi (1873–1963), who was the first socialist Russian discord over Finland’s exceptional status in the world to become prime minister of a c06.qxd 3/18/09 7:14 PM Page 1202 International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, ed. Immanuel Ness, Blackwell Publishing, 2009, pp. 1200–1202 1202 Finland, civil war and revolution, 1914–1918 democratically elected government. On July 18, the Whites’ efforts to take back Tampere and 1917, the Eduskunta passed an Enabling Act Helsinki. The latter fell on April 13, 1918 to a or Power Act in order to proclaim Finland’s German expeditionary force led by General independence from Russia in all areas except Rüdiger von der Goltz (1865–1946). The end of defense and foreign affairs. The Russian provi- the civil war was celebrated with a parade in sional government, however, did not accept and Helsinki on May 16, 1918. It has been estim- promptly dissolved the parliament in favor of new ated that around 5,500 men on both sides died elections, in which the conservatives then took in battles, although this figure does not include power. Leaders of the Democratic Party and the numbers of executions and deaths by neglect Trade Union Federation called a general strike or starvation in prison camps. Indeed, another for November 14, 1917. According to Oskari source approximates the casualties of the revolu- Tokoi, “what ensued was more than a strike; it tion to be 23,000 people, that is, those killed was rebellion and revolution” (Singleton 1998: legally and illegally as a result of battle and acts 107). A new government, elected by the Edu- of “terrorism.” skunta, assumed control under the leadership of As the violence ceased, the pressing issue a conservative Finnish nationalist, Pehr Evind facing Finns was how their government would be Svinhufvud (1861–1944). This new parliament structured. The two options under consideration issued on December 6, 1917 a declaration of were monarchy and republic. Not unrelated to independence drafted by K. J. Ståhlberg (1865– Germany’s considerable involvement and support 1952), which Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924) in the revolution, a German, Prince Friedrich Karl promptly accepted. of Hesse (1868–1940), was offered the crown. The Meanwhile, tension grew between two active issue became irrelevant after Germany’s defeat in segments of the population, namely the Reds World War I. Svinhufvud, who had been regent (punaiset), the socialists, and the Whites (valkoiset), of Finland, stepped down and was succeeded by the non-socialist conservatives. The Finns had Mannerheim. Following new elections and a no army, due to the waiving of conscription for new constitution, Mannerheim lost as the right- soldiers in favor of a monetary contribution to wing candidate to Ståhlberg, a leading force Russian military efforts. In the disorder during behind the constitutional reform, who became and following the Russian revolutions of 1917, the the first president of the Republic of Finland. absence of force was filled by the Red Guards, formed by the labor movement, and the White SEE ALSO: Anarchism, Finland; International Socialism: Mass Politics; Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich (1870 – Guards, organized and populated by conservatives 1924); Russia, Revolution of 1905–1907; Russia, and nationalist youth, volunteers from Finland Revolution of February/March 1917; Russia, Revolu- and Sweden, and defectors from the Russian tion of October/November 1917; Socialism army. Some of the Whites had been secretly trained in the Prussian 27th Jäger Battalion, References and Suggested Readings specially created to support the cause of Finnish Alapuro, R. (1988) State and Revolution in Finland. independence from Russian and Germany’s Berkeley: University of California Press. Envall, M. (1998) The Period of Independence I, interests therein. 1917–1960. In G. Schoolfield
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