The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz
Natural Sciences Master Dissertations
2016 Contribution of protected areas to the livelihoods of adjacent communities:
Mkumwena, Huddu
The University of Dodoma
Mkumwena, H. (2016). Contribution of protected areas to the livelihoods of adjacent communities: A case of Udzungwa mountains national park. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/793 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. CONTRIBUTION OF PROTECTED AREAS TO THE
LIVELIHOODS OF ADJACENT COMMUNITIES: A CASE OF
UDZUNGWA MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK
By
Huddu Mkumwena
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
of Master of Science in Natural Resources Management of the University of
Dodoma
The University of Dodoma
October, 2016 CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that he has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the University of Dodoma, a dissertation entitled: “Contribution of Protected Areas to the Livelihoods of Adjacent Communities: A Case of Udzungwa Mountains National
Park” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Natural Resources Management of the University of Dodoma.
……………………………………..
Prof. D. Mwamfupe
(SUPERVISOR)
Date ………………………………
i DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT
I Huddu Mkumwena, declares that this dissertation is my own original work and it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for a similar or any other degree award.
Signature………………………
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge with immense gratitude, the various roles played by the following personalities towards the success of this project. Prof. D. Mwamfupe, my supervisor for his advice, criticisms, friendly discussions and selfless service throughout this project work.
I am highly indebted to my daughter Yvonnerose, my husband A. B. Omtata and the family of Mr. and Mrs. I. Huddu for their inspiration, cares and moral support during this work.
Also, I wish to express my gratitude to Udzungwa Mountains National Park
Management, Village Executive Officers (of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and
Mshikamano) and participated villagers for their cooperation during my field work.
Finally, I wish to thank my friends and course mates who in various ways assisted me. May God bless them, Amen!
iii DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my beloved parents, the late Mr. and Mrs. Irak Huddu, may their souls Rest in Eternal Peace, Amen.
iv ABSTRACT
The study aimed at assessing the contribution of Protected Areas to the livelihoods communities adjacent to Udzungwa Mountains National Park. The study was conducted from May to July 2015, it was important to conduct this research in this area because, apart from these villages of Mang‟ula B, Mshikamano and Kanyenja being nearby to the National Park, still people living in this community are poor.
Semi-structured interview, Focus Group Discussion, questionnaires and observation were employed as the methods and techniques for data collection. A total sample of
100 respondents was included comprising of 99 villagers (Villages Executive
Officers included) and one respondent from the Park authority. Data collected were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
The study has revealed the benefits that local communities get from the National
Park include: employment opportunities, business, and provision of social services.
Also the findings show the major problems that hinder the local communities from the National Park as animal invasion, poaching and the environmental problem. In order to increase the rate of contributions from the National Park to the communities, study revealed different suggested mechanism measures such as active participation and involvement of locals, expanding employment opportunities and clear practical of the National Tourism Policy and the financial support for projects.
The study concludes that, by active involvement of communities in tourism activities might help the people to increase their standard of living through doing small business and being employed as drivers and cleaners.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ...... i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... x LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.0 Chapter Overview ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 5 1.3 Objectives of the Study ...... 6 1.4 Research Questions ...... 6 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 7 1.6 Organization of the Study ...... 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.0 Chapter Overview ...... 8 2.1 Definition of Key Terms ...... 8 2.1.1 Community Livelihood ...... 8 2.1.2 Tourism ...... 9 2.1.3 National Parks ...... 9 2.2 Tourism Development Approach ...... 10 2.3 Local Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process ...... 12 2.4 Tourism Benefits Sharing to Local Communities ...... 13 2.5 Theoretical Linkage Between Tourism and Poverty Alleviation ...... 14 2.6 Conceptual Framework ...... 17
vi CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 19 3.0 Chapter Overview ...... 19 3.1 Description of the Study Area ...... 19 3.1.1 Administrative Divisions and Wards ...... 19 3.1.2 Physical Features ...... 20 3.1.3 Economic Activities ...... 20 3.1.4 The Location of Udzungwa Mountains National Park ...... 21 3.2 Research Design ...... 22 3.3 Sampling Procedure ...... 23 3.3.1 Simple Random Sampling ...... 23 3.3.2 Purposive Sampling ...... 24 3.3.3 Snowball Sampling ...... 24 3.4 Sample Size ...... 25 3.5 Types of Data ...... 26 3.5.1 Primary Data ...... 26 3.5.2 Secondary Data ...... 26 3.6 Data Collection Methods and Techniques ...... 27 3.6.1 Data Collection Methods ...... 27 3.6.1.1 Semi- Structured Interview ...... 27 3.6.1.2 Focus Group Discussion ...... 28 3.6.1.3 Observation ...... 28 3.6.2 Data Collection Techniques ...... 29 3.6.2.1 Questionnaire ...... 29 3.7 Reliability and Validity of Instruments ...... 30 3.7.1 Reliability ...... 30 3.7.2 Validity ...... 30 3.8 Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation ...... 31 3.8.1 Data Processing ...... 31 3.8.2 Data Analysis and Presentation ...... 31
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 33 4.0 Introduction ...... 33 4.1 Socio- Economic Characteristics of Respondents ...... 33
vii 4.1.1 Sex Category of Respondents ...... 33 4.1.2 Age Category of Respondents ...... 34 4.1.3 Marital Status of Respondents ...... 35 4.1.4 Education Level of Respondents ...... 36 4.1.5 Sources of Income ...... 37 4.1.6 Duration of Residence of the Respondents ...... 38 4.2 Benefits from the National Park to Local Communities ...... 39 4.2.1 Physical Environment ...... 41 4.2.2 Business ...... 41 4.2.3 Foreign Currency ...... 42 4.2.4 Employment Opportunities ...... 43 4.2.5 Improvement of Social Services ...... 43 4.3 Challenges Facing Local Communities by the Presence of National Park ...... 44 4.3.1 Environmental Problem ...... 44 4.3.2 Other Challenges Facing Local Communities ...... 46 4.3.2.1 Cultural Deteriorations ...... 47 4.3.2.2 Prostitution ...... 48 4.3.2.3 Poaching ...... 48 4.3.2.4 Diseases ...... 49 4.3.2.5 Alcoholism and Drug Abuse ...... 49 4.3.2.6 Immigration ...... 50 4.3.2.7 Animal Invasion ...... 50 4.3.2.8 Price Fluctuations ...... 51 4.4 Suggestions to Accelerate Contribution of National Park to Local Community ...... 52 4.4.1 Expanding Employment Opportunities to Locals ...... 53 4.4.2 Tourism Policy ...... 53 4.4.3 Active Local Participation ...... 53 4.4.4 Financial Support for Development Projects ...... 54 4.4.5 Training of Locals into Several Fields of Tourism ...... 54
viii CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 56 5.0 Chapter Overview ...... 56 5.1 Summary of the Findings ...... 56 5.2 Conclusion ...... 57 5.3 Recommendations ...... 58 5.3.1 Financial Support ...... 58 5.3.2 Employment Opportunities ...... 59 5.3.3 Benefit Sharing ...... 59 5.3.4 Integration of Stakeholders ...... 59 5.3.5 Empowerment of Local Communities ...... 60 5.4 Suggestion for Further Research ...... 60 REFERENCES ...... 61 LIST OF APPENDICES ...... 66
ix LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Sex Category of Respondents ...... 34 Table 4.2: Age Category of Respondents ...... 35 Table 4.3: Marital status of respondents ...... 36 Table 4.4: Education Level of Respondents ...... 37 Table 4.5: Sources of Income ...... 38 Table 4.6: Duration of Residence of the Respondents ...... 39 Table 4.7: Views on the Benefits Local Communities‟ Getting from the National Park ...... 40 Table 4.8: Benefits from the Park ...... 41 Table 4.9: Other Challenges Facing Local Communities ...... 47 Table 4. 10:Suggested Mechanism to Improve Livelihoods‟ Communities ...... 52
x LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1: Conceptual framework showing the contribution of national park in improving communities‟ livelihood………………………………….18
xi LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I: Indicative Questionnaire for the Local Communities ...... 66 Appendix II: Interview Questions to Park Authority ...... 69 Appendix III: Checklists Guide for Focus Group Discussion with the Villagers ...... 70
xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IUCN International Union for Conservation in Nature
GRs Game Reserves
FRs Forest Reserves
GCA Game Controlled Areas
NCA Ngorongoro Conservation Area
UNWTO United Nation World Tourism Organization
PAs Protected Areas
MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
TANAPA Tanzania National Parks
URT United Republic of Tanzania
USD United States Dollar
TTB Tanzania Tourism Board
NGOs Non- Governmental Organizations
WTO World Tourism Organization
GDP Gross Domestic Product
UMNP Udzungwa Mountains National Park
UN United Nations
IYE International Year of Ecotourism
TTSS Tanzania Tourism Sector Survey
LDCs Least Developed Countries
PPT Pro- Poor Tourism
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
HWC Human Wildlife Conflicts
xiii CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Chapter Overview
The study investigates the contribution of Protected Areas in improving the livelihoods of adjacent communities in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, as a case study. This chapter focuses on the introduction of the study by introducing the background of the study problem, provides the statement of the problem followed by the objectives of the study and the research questions. Lastly the chapter discusses the significance of the study.
1.1 Background of the Study
In recent decades there has been a growing interest of improving rural livelihoods in developing countries within the broad framework of rural development. Emphasis has been placed on understanding the socio-economic aspects of rural households in a view to improving them. Following (Ellis, 2000) livelihoods concern with the things people do to earn a living (Chambers, 1991) elaborate the concept of livelihood as to comprise people, their capabilities and their means of living, including food, income and assets. Some assets are tangible such as resources and stores while others are intangible and these may include things like claims and access.
Different categories of protected areas exist, which vary by level of protection, management objective and enabling laws, rules or regulations (IUCN, 1994).
Definition of a protected areas adopted by International Union for Conserving in
Nature (IUCN) describes Protected Areas as areas of land or sea dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated
1 cultural resources, managed through legal or other effective means. Protected areas and park managements are the predominant methods of wildlife and wild lands protection (Hill, 2002).
In most cases there is a direct relationship between protected areas and local people‟s livelihoods. Local people cannot be expected to provide support to existence of protected areas if the conservation has negative impacts on their livelihoods (Marshall, 1995) Therefore, long-term effectiveness of protected areas requires thorough assessment and support of local people who experience the direct impacts of the establishment and management of those areas (Marshall, 1995).
Tanzania has unparalleled natural resources, about one third of the country‟s total area is protected to a certain degree as National Parks, Game Reserves, Marine
Parks and Forest Reserves, which make it one of the countries with the most extensive protected area network Africa (Williams, 2000). All these natural resources play a big role in the economy of the country in terms of social and economic goods and services.
Currently about 24% of Tanzanian total land is wildlife protected areas (PAs) of which 17.4% consist of the 14 national parks (NPs) and 34 game reserves (GRs).
About 6.4 % of the land is under the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) and 38
Game Controlled Areas (GCAs). In NCA and GCAs wildlife co-exists with humans whereas in NPs and GRs human settlement is not allowed (MNRT, 2007). A number of the country‟s wildlife protected areas are well-known internationally. Examples are Serengeti National Park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area and Selous Game
Reserve. Selous Game Reserve has been selected as World Heritage Site while
Serengeti, Lake Manyara and Ngorongoro are Biosphere Reserves (Songorwa, 2 2004).
Three institutions/agencies co-operating under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism are in charge of these wildlife protected areas. They include Tanzanian
National Parks (TANAPA), which is responsible for protection and maintenance of the national parks, the Wildlife Division, which oversees several game reserves and game controlled areas, and Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, which manages the Ngorongoro caldera and its surroundings. Like in NPs in the NCA hunting is not allowed, but the Maasai are allowed to live and graze their cattle
(Songorwa, 2004).
The forms of wildlife utilization currently practiced in Tanzania are game viewing, tourist or trophy hunting, resident hunting (for resident citizens and non-citizens), ranching, breeding and farming, and tourism (MNRT 2007). Tourism is presently practiced mainly in NPs and NCA. It is the potential earner of local and foreign currency in the country and also provides employment to local people.
Tourism is among the fast growing industry worldwide. It contributes a lot to the economic growth of even countries with poor economies through foreign exchange earnings, creation of employment opportunities and provision of public revenues
(Luvanga and Shitundu, 2003). However, evidences on positive contributions of national parks on improving livelihood of adjacent communities are not clear
(Mitchell and Ashley, 2010).
Worldwide, tourism grew phenomenally from 25 million arrivals in 1950 to 808 million in 2005, with an average annual growth rate of 6.5 percent (UNWTO, 2006).
In 2004, tourism receipts were $623 billion (100%) for the world, $326.7 billion for
3 Europe (52.5%), $21 billion (3.4%) for the Middle East, and $18.3 billion (2.9%) for
Africa. An ever increasing number of destinations worldwide have opened up to, and invested in tourism, turning tourism into a key driver of socio-economic progress through export revenues, the creation of jobs and enterprises, and infrastructure development (UNWTO, 2014). According to the World Tourism
Organization (WTO, 2006), tourism industry in Sub-Saharan Africa enjoyed annual market share growth rate of 10 percent in 2006.
While tourism generates a significant amount of foreign exchange earnings that also contribute to the economic growth of developed countries, such ingredient of growth has not been effectively harnessed in Africa. According to the World Tourism
Organization (WTO, 2005) estimates, 766million tourists who traveled worldwide in
2004 generated about $626billion (excluding transport). During the same year,
Africa received nearly 5% of the global arrivals (or 33milliontourists), an increase over the 2000 level (28.2 million) of 18%. Similar increases in receipts were also registered, as reflected by the rise in the regions market share increase from 4.1% in
2000 to 4.5% in 2005 (WTO, 2006).
According to Tanzania tourism sector report (2014), the country receives about
600,000 tourists annually. Although the industry is small, it nonetheless makes an important contribution to the economy, accounting for nearly 16% of national output
(GDP) and nearly 25% of total export earnings.
According to TANAPA (2015), Udzungwa Mountains National Park have so many attractions including animals (such as buffalos, elephants, lions, antelopes and monkeys), birds, hiking hills and waterfalls. It is also unique within Tanzania in that its closed-canopy forest spans altitudes of 250 meters (820 feet) to above 2,000 4 meters (6,560 ft) without interruption. Among the six primates species recorded, the
Iringa red colobus and Sanje Crested Mangabey both occurs nowhere else in the world, the later remained undetected by biologists prior to 1979. All these generate income to the Park through the fee paid by tourists who came to visit the place.
Apart from all these, little is empirically known about why these communities adjacent to Udzungwa Mountains National Park are still poor.
A study by Luvanga and Shitundu, (2003), in Arusha, Bagamoyo and Zanzibar and that of Kalemo (2011) in Mikumi National Park shows that, tourism industry has much contribution nationally (in terms of revenue gained from tax) and creation of employment opportunities, improvement of roads, infrastructure and communication. However, these studies do not explain why communities surrounding tourism attractions are still living in poverty. This study is a step towards addressing this knowledge gap.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Establishment of National Parks and other forms of Protected Areas in one way enables Tanzania to earn local and foreign currencies. Tourism attractions plays great role in the contribution of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and foreign income generation to nations (Yunis, 2004). Despite the benefits obtained from these attractions, people and communities living adjacent to national parks are still living in poor conditions (Kalemo, 2011).
Several issues make wildlife conservation a challenge in Tanzania, one being socio- economic status of the local communities living adjacent to wildlife PAs. The other challenge faced by most NPs and other wildlife PAs is the small contribution of the wildlife sector in sustaining local communities‟ livelihoods compared to other land 5 use practices. As a result, local people perceive wildlife conservation as a legal responsibility rather than an economic and social advantage or opportunity
(Shemwetta and Kideghesho, 2000).
This proposed research aspires to explore the contributions of Protected Areas on community livelihoods among the communities adjacent to the Udzungwa Mountains
National Park particularly in Kilombero District, Morogoro region and suggest measures to be taken so as to attain their goals and improve the standard of life of the communities living surrounding Protected Areas.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
This focused study has both general objective and specific objectives
General Objective
To investigate the contributions of Udzungwa Mountains National Park to the livelihoods of adjacent communities.
Specific Objectives i. To examine the benefits shared by the park to improve the livelihoods of the adjacent communities of Udzungwa Mountains National Park. ii. To identify the challenges associated with Udzungwa Mountains National Park in the area of local communities. iii. To propose the appropriate mechanisms that could accelerate a contribution of
Udzungwa Mountains National Park on communities‟ livelihoods.
1.4 Research Questions i. What kinds of benefits are available for communities from the UMNP? 6 ii. Are there any challenges faced by local communities due to the presence of
national park? iii. What are mechanisms which could accelerate contribution of national park
on communities‟ livelihoods?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study has a significant contribution in creating awareness of protected areas especially the national park on community livelihoods of UMNP. The study will also, enable scholars to widen their understanding of research theories related to community livelihood. The study findings, will raise the awareness among local people and other stakeholders, and encourage them to participate in tourism activities as a means of increasing their income, also serve as reference for further research on contribution of tourism to local communities. The results and recommendation from the study will be useful tool for policy makers and other development practitioners to hasten the overall process of boosting development of tourism to lively; finally it will be used to fill the knowledge gap.
1.6 Organization of the Study
This study is organized in five chapters. Chapter one presents the background information of the study, a statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions and significance of the study. Chapter two presents the literature review; this includes the empirical and theoretical studies related to research topic and the conceptual framework. Chapter three describes research methodology which includes the description of the study area and justification, and the methods used in data collection and show how such data were analyzed. Chapter four presents results of findings and discussion and the last chapter gives the summary, conclusion and recommendations and suggestion for further research.
7 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Chapter Overview
In this chapter different kinds of literatures were reviewed to give clear information on the contribution of Protected Areas in improving communities‟ livelihoods and as a means of reducing poverty, and the theoretical relationship between poverty and tourism as the major economic activities done in the National Parks. It begins by defining the key terms concept used in the study, and discusses various theories and previous research findings related to research problem. Lastly the conceptual framework of the study is presented.
2.1 Definition of Key Terms
In reviewing related literatures, the researcher will firstly focus on some definitions of key terms. The key terms to be discussed in this research are; community livelihood, tourism and national parks.
2.1.1 Community Livelihood
In social sciences, the concept of livelihood extends to include social and cultural means, i.e “the command an individual, family or other social group has over an income and/ or bundles of resources that can be used or exchanged to satisfy its needs. This may involve information, cultural knowledge, social networks and legal rights as well as tools, land and other physical resources (Blaikie, 2004). Chambers
(1991) elaborate the concept of livelihood as to comprise people, their capabilities and their means of living, including food, income and assets. Some assets are tangible
8 such as resources and stores while others are intangible and these may include things like claims and access.
2.1.2 Tourism
According to the World Bank (2009), tourism refers to the activities of people travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for no more than one year for leisure, business, and other purposes not related to an activity remunerated from the place visited. It is a collection of activities, services and industries that delivers a travel experience, including transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking establishments, retail shops, entertainment businesses, activity facilities and other hospitality services provided for individuals or groups traveling away from home (Bonarou, 2011).
Generally, tourism refers to the activities of people travelling ang staying out of their homes for more than twenty four hours but less than a year for different activities like holiday, refreshment enjoyment, sports and leisure and other activities that are not of income earning.
2.1.3 National Parks
The term National Parks can be defined and explained as a large area which has legal protection of animal and plant species, and the conservation in nature of resources.
International Union for Conserving in Nature (IUCN) has designated categories of
Protected Areas depending on their management objectives. In 1969, the IUCN declared a National Park to be a relatively large area with the following characteristics (Sumer,1992).
9 One or several ecosystem not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation where plants and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educational and recreational interest or which contain a natural landscape of great beauty.
Visitors arevallowed to enter under special conditions, for inspirational,
educative, culturtal and recreative purposes.
But, in 1971 these criterias were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. These include;
Minimum size of 1000 hectares within zones in which protection of nature
takes precedence.
Statutory legal protection.
Budget and staff sufficient to provide sufficient effective protection, and
Prohibition of exploitation of natural resources.
2.2 Tourism Development Approach
Recently, there has been global efforts trying to reconcile tourism and development at the dawn of the new millenium. For instance, the UN General Assembly designated 2002 an IYE aiming at achieving the goals of Agenda 21, in promoting the development and protection of the environment. One of the objectives of the IYE was to create an awareness regarding ecotourism‟s capacity, to improve the conservation of natural and cultural heritage as well as improving the livelihood standards of the local communities around the PAs (WTO, 2002).
Tourism as an important socio- economic activity has played a significant role in the economy of many developing countries termed by “a powerful engine of economic
10 development, recently embraced and pursued enthusiastically by most developing countries” (Shen, 2009).
There has been what observed by Shen (2009), “a significant shift from an initial focus on economic benefits, and later environmental and cultural protection, to a poverty emphasis from the beginning of the new millenium”. Tourism has in turn, gained recognition and has become the major focus of both national and international development organizations and policies.
The argument is based on the premises that tourism has the capacity to improve the livelihood condition of the local communities in rural areas with less livelihood choices and development opportunities, but rich in cultural and natural resources
(Goodwin, 2000). Therefore, a proper management of it could help in efforts to alleviate poverty. The launching of ST-EP programme by UNWTO in 2006, marked beginning of the new approach of using tourism as a tool for reducing poverty in most of the LDCs.
Recently, there is an emergence of Pro- Poor Tourism (PPT) as an approach to tourism development which aims at increasing the net benefits for the poor and is guided by one common principle of improving the linkage between tourism business and the poor by declaration was the first international forum focusing on the tourism development and assisstance met for tourism policy forum held at Washington DC from18-20 October in 2004. The outcome of it, recognizes tourism as an important sustainable development strategy which can positively address poverty reduction, economic growth, biodiversity conservation, socio- cultural integrity as well as
MDGs (WTO, 2005).
11 2.3 Local Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process
In examining the relationship between local community participation and tourism development process, Tosun (2006) has examined the involvement of local communities‟ participation in the tourism development process. The process of tourism development, appears to suggest that there is a high degree of dependence on residents for their acceptance of the industry, before it starts in a particular destination. This is to say, initial adequate involvement of local communities is fundamental to enable the initial stage of tourism development (called the exploration stage). Implicitly, the above argument about the relationship between tourism development and community participation indicates that, community involvement is indeed crucial in order to avoid more likely uncertainities and misunderstandings about tourism development in the area.
While community participation in the tourism development process is highly desirable as an element of development, it is important to note that, active involvement and participation of the local community in tourism especially at the initial stage is very important. It may have no or little infrastructural facilities in the area, but after local community involved and participate in the tourism may been influenced and start investing in tourism development like operating small scale business like guest house, economy class hotels and supply workforce for the industry. Also may increase torelance to tourist activities in the areas and eventually create sense of ownership, feeling of responsibility and practical involvement in tourism. The literature seems to acknowledge the fact that, local community participation is vital in the tourism development process. However, while exploring limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries, further observed that, “opportunities for local 12 communities to participate may vary overtime with a type and scale of tourism developed, thresholds of entry and the market served (Tosun, 2006) .
In viewing the relationship between local community participation and tourism development process, there such variations are due to the reality that, as the destination becomes more popular and attractive after considerable development (or as a result of growing commercialized tourism), more investors especially large caplital owners are attracted to the destination making competition stiffer than before. In this regard, local communities are likely to lose control over tourism development, since they often have limited financial resources and therefore it gradually becomes more difficult for them to open large scale businesses.
To avoid this situation (Tosun, 2006) suggest that, there is a deliberate need to empower local communities at initial stage of tourism development to enable them to keep control over tourism development in the area. Thus, one way to achieve this is through removing barriers that hinder local communities‟ effective participation in markets.
2.4 Tourism Benefits Sharing to Local Communities
Sharing tourism benefits with local communities has always been seen as one of the various modes of community participation in the industry. In other words, participation of local communities through sharing the benefits of tourism, is one of the major viewpoints for community participation in tourism.
Tourism is one of the powerful tools for poverty alleviation, especially due to its associated potential economic gains and as a significant economic sector in most countries with high levels of widespread poverty (Scheyvens, 2007). Although there
13 is no standard method for assessing the adequacy of community participation level, the way benefits from tourism are shared has been argued to be focus of community participation (Scheyvens, 2007). This, however simply means that, communities can be involved or attracted to participate in the tourism industry through sharing with them the benefits obtained from the industry, and one precondition successful community tourism programme is well stipulated tourism benefit sharing with
„poor‟ neighbouring communities.
As from 2002 for example, 29 percent of tourist revenue from Udzungwa Mountains
National Park in Tanzania, goes to community development projects such as schools especially shool laboratory at Mang‟ula B Secondary School and health services like the construction of female ward at Mang‟ula B hospital.
2.5 Theoretical Linkage Between Tourism and Poverty Alleviation
To be able to demonstrate systematically the contribution of tourism to poverty reduction, it is undoubtedly crucial to show how the industry is linked to the wider context of poverty reduction. However, in order to realize the linkage between poverty and poverty reduction, it is important to first understand the dimensions of poverty that may determine and reflect the relationship between tourism development and poverty reduction.
The World Bank through its document, World Development Report 2000/2001, views poverty primarily as an outcome of economic, social and political processes that interact with and reinforce each other in deprived way that can be easily reflected in people‟s life. Francis (2011) define poverty as lack of income and assets to attain basic necessities of life such as food, shelter, clothing and acceptable levels of health and education, describing this lack of assets as lack of good health, skills 14 necessary for employment, land/ housing, access to basic infrastructure, savings or access to credit, social assets such as network of contacts and reciprocal obligations which can be called on in time of need. However, it is important to note that, there are just primary causes of poverty which are often realized at community and individual levels, and there are more causes which can beobserved at national and regional level. At national level poverty can be measured in terms of GDP, at local level poverty manifest itself in the income, informal employment, lack of freedom to choose a desired quality of life, lack of land tenure for housing and lack of basic infrastructure.
Tourism is basically linked with poverty reduction because of its contribution to the economic development of the destinations (Blake, 2008). Its contribution to economic growth of a particular destination is usually reflected in three major point of views;
First, as tourists arrive at the destination, they provide local communities the opportunities for producing and selling additional goods and services for their tourists. This means tourism may raise local production of additional goods and services such as agricultural products (fruits and vegetables), livestock (beef, lamb and pork), poultry (chicken and eggs), fisheries (fish and sea food), manufacturing
(equipment and furniture), ground transport (tour operator transfers and packages, and local taxis), dairy and handcrafts (Honeck, 2008). The obvious outcomes from such activities, are income and employment opportunities. The accrued income and the generated employment can be essential tools that may help to mitigate poverty levels particularily income poverty among locals including the poor. This can be realized if the earnings from tourism are wisely spent to support their well being and
15 capabilities, and improve key poverty indicators such as health and education services.
Secondly, tourism is an important to diversify local economies. This is attributed to the fact that, tourism can develop in poor and marginal areas with limited export and diversification options (Luvanga and Shitundu, 2003). Remote areas particularily, attract tourists because of their naturality, culture, wildlife and landscape value. This means tourism can create employment opportunities and income generating projects in poor and marginal areas in the same way it does in other areas. In turn, earnings from tourism can be used to improve social facilitiesare not only improved incomes, for the poor but also their social social well- being and capabilities.
Thirdly, tourism offers labour intensive and small scale opportunities compared to other non- agricultural activities (Chok and Macbeth, 2007). It employs a high proportion of women, semi skilled labour, and values natural resources and culture, which may feature among the few assets, belonging to the poor (UNCTAD, 2007).
This means tourism through employment creation and income generation, offers a relatively wider range of poverty reduction opportunities to many members of the society including vulnerable groups such as women.
Tourism arguably contributes to poverty alleviation if it creates new jobs and provides incomes. This is probably one of the factors that make many people believre that tourism is better place towards poverty alleviation.
16 2.6 Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is a skeletal structure of justification rather than a skeletal structure of explanation based on formal logic or accumulated experience
(Eisenhart, 1991). It can also be explained as a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant field of inquiry and used to construct the subsequent presentationand provide guidance towards realistic collection of data and information.
The concept of this work includes three variables, involves independent variable, intervening variable and dependent variable. Independent variable (cause) is the
National Park which includes the number of Outreach Programmes which stimulate the increasing number of projects and provide alternative sources of income rather than depending in one source of income like agriculture.
Intervening variable includes the local communities who after the different projects being introduced to them will help to raise level of awareness and increase level of education which is more important in improving their livelihood.
Dependent variables (effects) will be the livelihood improvements which includes improvements of schools, hospitals (medical centers), and housing, per capita income, provision of safe and clean water (Figure 2.1).
17 Independent variable Intermediate variable Dependent variable
Improved livelihood Increase awareness NATIONAL -schools PARK -Hospitals Local Increase outreach Local -Housing community programs community -Foods
- Alternative -Clean and Increase willingness for safe water income sources participation -Per capital - Increased number income of projects
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework Showing the Contribution of National Park in Improving Communities’ Livelihood
Source: Researcher, 2015
18 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Chapter Overview
This chapter describes the methodology used for data collection for this study. It provides description towards adopting study approach and employing a combination of techniques for data collection together with their validity and reliability, and how such data were processed and analyzed.
3.1 Description of the Study Area
The study was undertaken in Kilombero District which is among the six Districts of
Morogoro Region. The Kilombero District is located on the Southern- West zone of
Morogoro about 380 km from Dar es Salaam, and covers the area of about 15,000 square kilometers (Parliament of Tanzania, June 2010). In the North it is bordered by
Kilosa District, in the East by Morogoro Municipality, in the South by Ulanga
District and in the West by Iringa Rural that is equivalent to about 15.5% of the total area of Morogoro Region (URT, 1997). In the South, Mang‟ula division is bordered by the Udzungwa Mountain National Park (UMNP). The rainfall is ranging between
600mm to 2000mm per year, where about 70% of the rain is raining between
November and May, and the annual temperature is 27oC.
3.1.1 Administrative Divisions and Wards
The Kilombero District is divided into 5 divisions, 23 wards and 90 villages (Census report, 2012).The 5 divisions are Mlimba, Kidatu, Mngeta, Mang‟ula and Ifakara; the wards are Kidatu, Sanje, Mang‟ula, Mbingu, Kisawasawa, Kiberege, Kibaoni,
Lumemo, Masagati, Uchindile, Idete and Mlimba. This study however was based only on Mang‟ula ward, and three (3) villages out of eight (8) villages of Mang‟ula
19 ward were involved, namely Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano. The selection of villages based on nearness of these areas to the Udzungwa Mountains National
Park. The division being closest to the park is considered to possibly have more influence to and from the park.
3.1.2 Physical Features
Kilombero District is generally covered by a dense of mountain forest which was once part of a rich belt that extended southward from Congo. Within Udzungwa
Mountains National Park there a thick stands of bamboo, as well as open moorland at the higher altitudes. In the North and West of the park, the forest descends into miombo woodland, with riverine forest along the Ruaha. There are at least 50 plant species found in the Udzungwa National Park that are endemic to Eastern Arc
Mountains, including many species of climbers, shrubs, flowers and herbs. Over 150 of these species are considered to have medicinal values and are used by the local communities (Nyundo, 2002).
3.1.3 Economic Activities
Agriculture, especially crop cultivation is the primary economic sector in Mang‟ula.
Staples grown are mainly maize and paddy crops and the some well- to –do people engage in sugar cane production. The latter is mainly meant for and remains suitable for commercial purposes and pasture or cattle grazing consecutively. Despite being the main economic activity, the area is faced with some challenges including shortage of land and the ever growing population. The former is partly because the area is surrounded by Selous Game Reserve in its Western side and the UMNP on its Eastern part which makes it not possible to expand the farms. Accordingly, there have been constant land conflicts among peasants; due to various reasons including
20 agricultural related ones (Nyundo, 2002). The latter is associated with the strategic nature of the area coupled with its conducive climate, good soil fertility and presence of pasture land for livestock. The two problems are key causes for the limited livelihood opportunities, low agricultural productivity and increasing dependence on the UMNP for the local communities.
3.1.4 The Location of Udzungwa Mountains National Park
The Udzungwa Mountains National Park is part of the Eastern Arc Mountains which has the total areas of about 10,000 km squares. The park is located in the North West of the Kilombero District and covers 1,990 km squares of which 80 percent is in
Kilolo and Mufindi Districts in Iringa Region and the rest is in Kilombero District, with its headquarters in Mang‟ula ward in Morogoro Region. The area is known for its extraordinarily rich and unique biodiversity, characterized by high endemism. It has its headquarters at 36041‟E and 7048‟S in the southern- central parts of Tanzania in Mang‟ula, Kilombero. In the whole area of the Udzungwa there are an estimated
146 villages (TANAPA, 2001).
Udzungwa National Park is a paradise for hikers and backpackers alike. Numerous breath-taking day-hikes can be organized along with multiple day excursions into the dense rain forest or onto the high plateau. One beautiful trek is up to the Sanje
River Waterfall, which plunges for 170 metres through the forest to the valley below
(Harrison, 2006).
Udzungwa National Park supports a diverse, large mammal community including elephant, buffalo, lion, leopard, African wild dog, eland, waterbuck and sable. Six species of primate are found here and two are endemic, the Iringa (Uhehe) Red
Colobus monkey, and the Sanje Crested Mangabey, which was discovered in 1979. 21 There is also a rich small bovid community including good numbers of Red, Blue and Abbots duikers, and bushbuck. Udzungwa has the richest forest bird habitat in
Tanzania. Several endemics have just been discovered recently (including a new species of francolin and the Rufus-winged sun bird). The reasons for picking this study area it is due to the fact that apart from the presence of these attractions, people livings adjacent to this National Park are still living in poor condition.
3.2 Research Design
Research design is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted
(Cooper and Schindler, 2006).This study made use of a method of a case study specifically explanatory and exploratory because it is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, how, why). The data was collected once from different groups of respondents such as local communities, Udzungwa Mountain
National Park officer and the Village Executive Officers in Mang‟ula ward. The major terms for choosing case study was to allow in- depth information relating to the topic of the study as supported by Adam and Kamuzola (2008) that, a case study aims to understand the case in- depth and in its natural setting, recognizing its complexity and its context. Therefore a case study was used to get in- depth information on the assessment of contribution of protected areas on livelihood of adjacent communities of Udzungwa Mountains National Park. The researcher has used this design because the proposed research is quantitatively in nature and due to limited amount of time and resources in conducting this study, and cross sectional design because the study needs to know what contributions the National Park helped to improve livelihood of adjacent communities.
22 3.3 Sampling Procedure
A cross sectional research design was used in this study. This method allows data to be collected at one point in time and establishes relationship between variables
(Creswell, 2003). The research design encompassed choice of sampling techniques, decision on sample size and instruments for data collection techniques. Data collected included the use of key informants‟ interviews, pilot study was carried out to get a general picture of the research area and check the applicability, reliability and validity of the instruments for data collection. In this study three sampling techniques employed, that is Purposive Sampling Technique, Simple Random
Sampling and Snowball Sampling Technique.
3.3.1 Simple Random Sampling
The study involved a simple random sampling (SRS) as an effective method to obtain communities surrounding the Udzungwa Mountains National Park as key respondents in the study area. This technique was used because it is more precise for comparative studies. The technique had the advantages of giving equal chances to all respondents to be selected in the research. Not only have that, but also the simple random sampling helped to avoid biasness during the selection of the respondents to be interviewed in the study. The random sampling method was applied in the selection of individual respondents from villages located within the study area, such villages were Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano. This technique was expected to ensure that every sampled respondents had an equal chance of being selected, hence helped to reduce biases during sampling the respondents.
23 3.3.2 Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is also referred to as judgmental sampling or expert sampling.
The selection of a purposive sample is often accomplished by applying expert knowledge of the population to select in a non-random manner a sample of elements that represents a cross-section of the population (Battaglia, 2008). It involves selecting certain units or cases based on a specific purpose rather than randomly selection. The goal of purposive sampling is to sample participants in a strategic way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions that are being posed. This technique used to get the managing director of Udzungwa National Park and the village executive officers of the selected villages whose selection is not bounded by probabilistic sampling.
3.3.3 Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is an approach whereby a researcher establishes initial contacts with a small group of people who are relevant to the research topic and then use these to make contacts with others (Bryman, 2008). It yields a study sample through referrals made among people who share or know of others who possess some characteristics that are of research interests. In this study, the researcher chose few people who have an understanding and knowledge on the relevant topic and then start discussing; this method was used in this study to make initial contacts and recruiting new research participants in the villages studied prior to conducting focus groups.
24 3.4 Sample Size
Sample size is the number of items to be selected from the population to constitute a sample (Kothari, 2009). However, according to Akitanda, (1994), the minimum size of the sample unit or sub sample for the research is that, the population ought to be not less than 30 for each sampling category. Therefore, the sample size in this study comprised 100 respondents living near Udzungwa Mountain National Park with the inclusion of VEO‟s, villager respondents and the park officer.
This sample size calculation is derived from Yamane (1967), the formula is;
n= whereby;
n= sample size
N= sampling frame e= sampling error (0.10)
From the data, total population of Mang‟ula ward is 36176, and the selected villages are three, that is Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano.
Therefore, from the data and equation above; n= ?
N= 36176 e= 0.10
n=
n= 99
From three villages, the sample size will be divided; therefore each village will have thirty three (33) respondents including the village executive officer.
25 3.5 Types of Data
This study included two types of data, primary and secondary data. Primary data is the data collected directly from the targeted respondents in the field. The collection of this data was completed by the use of questionnaire, covering among other things like education level of respondents, sex of respondents, and age of respondents and alike. Secondary data is the one collected from the already existing information about the study. This was collected from the UMNP offices in Mang‟ula and from different publications (literatures) alike.
3.5.1 Primary Data
Primary data are raw data collected directly from the field. Primary data was collected by the researcher from the respondents using non participatory methods such as structured questionnaire, observation, focus group discussion and semi structured interview with the park officer. These methods were applicable in obtaining relevant information about respondent‟s awareness, knowledge and ideas on the benefits getting from the park.
3.5.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data are data collected through reviewing of related documents. The data were collected from various previous research reports, journals, books and other articles which are related to the local community perceptions, knowledge and ideas towards the benefits getting from the park. Also the government offices and NGOs which are working in the study area on different issues concerning community livelihood were used to provide supportive data. The focus was to obtain data which could not be obtained sufficiently through primary data source. 26 3.6 Data Collection Methods and Techniques
This part describes different methods and techniques in details that were used in data collection. In research, the term “data collection” refers to gathering specific information aimed at providing some fact (Kothari, 2004). Data was collected both from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected using questionnaire (local community). The methods of observation and interview used to key informants (leaders) and focus group discussion was done to the local community to get their standings on the objectives of the study, while secondary data were collected by checking up previous records of community livelihood and their ideas on the benefits and costs from the National Park, and the internet search and written documents and research on library, altogether helped to provide more inputs on this research in the study area.
3.6.1 Data Collection Methods
3.6.1.1 Semi- Structured Interview
A semi-structured interview is a qualitative method of inquiry that combines a pre- determined set of open questions (questions that prompt discussion) with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further
(Campbell and Quincy, 2013). The method uses interview guides with open-ended questions to nurture dialogue in the interview session. Semi-structured interview
(Appendix 2) was used in this study with the Managing Director of the UMNP. The purpose of using semi- structured interview is that, some questions were asked together with some open ended ones so as to provide depth data which is not possible to get by using questionnaires, also because the method saves time, by limiting interviews to specific issues of interest on a pre-determined research topic.
27 Since this study is bounded by time, then semi-structured interview method is considered appropriate.
3.6.1.2 Focus Group Discussion
Focus Group Discussion is a tool for collecting qualitative data from the group where the researcher has to follow a predetermined interview guide to direct the discussion (Hohman, 2006). Focus group discussion was conducted using checklists
(Appendix 3). Focus Group Discussion was used because it was cheaper and quicker method of collecting data than individual interview with the same number of respondents, and in order to cross-check with the findings obtained through semi- structured interviews. One focus group discussion was conducted from each selected villages of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano. Each focus group discussion comprised seven villagers and the researcher as the moderator. This number of participants in each group is a reliable as explained by Morgan (1997) that, focus group should consist six to ten participants. The use of focus group discussion in each village improved the reliability of answers provided by respondents in questionnaire and interview.
3.6.1.3 Observation
This is considered as a simple technique for collecting data on behavior or issues.
Observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviors in their usual contexts (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). Observation is useful technique because it provides a chance for the researcher to witness how the phenomenon is conducted at a given place. Field observations was carried out alongside other research methods in order to learn more about the physical realities of phenomena taking place in the field, such as the challenges of tourism activities; economic
28 activities of local people, benefits local communities getting; among others. This process was very important in this study because helps the researcher observe beyond appearances and probe by investigating motives, feelings, responses, tone of voices, facial expression and hesitations of the respondents, also helps to understand and verify data collected through other research methods. Transect walk also was used to get eye witness of the study area.
3.6.2 Data Collection Techniques
Data collection techniques are the ways of interacting with respondents and to extract the intended and required information which will constitute the findings and results of the research problem under investigation (Kothari, 2002). The technique of data collection was observed from the primary source of data.
3.6.2.1 Questionnaire
The questionnaire consisted of close- ended questions and open- ended questions
(Appendix 1). Open- ended questions have an advantage of giving respondents room to give their own views, opinions and comments without being influenced by a researcher. Also it helped to acquire much information which could not be obtained by using other methods that needs discussion and invites free responses (Adama,
2010). On the other hand, close- ended questions are questions where respondents are given a set of alternatives from which they are asked to choose the one that most closely represents their views. This is good in collecting quantitative data and simplifies data analysis. In these questionnaires the aspects to be covered include socio-economic profile of respondents, benefits gained, challenges facing communities and suggestions to improve their livelihoods.
29 3.7 Reliability and Validity of Instruments
Reliability is the ability of instruments to gather consistent and appropriate data from subjects without variation in order to render valid results after interpreting the data collected, while validity is the ability of instruments to collect the intended specific data which are true for the particular research problem (Golafshani, 2003).
3.7.1 Reliability
Reliability is a matter of whether a particular technique is applied repeatedly to some objects which would yield the same results each time (Kothari, 2004). In gathering data, different methods were used by a researcher which helped to strengthen the objectivity and reliability of the data, while at the same time thinning the chance of biased information. The interview was used as the tool to make reliable of data. Data collection will be insured by use of different methods of data collection including observation, semi-structure interview and focus group discussion. By using observation, the researcher will be able to crosscheck the results obtained from semi structured interview and focus group discussion.
3.7.2 Validity
Validity refers to a degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept the researcher is attempting to measure (Adama, 2010). It is a measure of accuracy and whether the instruments of measurement are actually measuring what they were intended to measure (Kothari, 2004). To ensure validity,
Mathison, (1988) introduce the concept of triangulation (referring to uses of different methods of data collection) as an important methodological issue in quantitative and qualitative approaches to evaluation in order to control bias and establishing validity. In this study validity of data was insured by use of different 30 methods of data collection including observation, semi-structure interview and focus group discussions and questionnaire. Additionally, in order to ensure validity of the findings the researcher conducted face to face administered questionnaire which were pre piloted to similar respondents before the beginning of focus group discussion. Furthermore, the sampling technique facilitated the research to be valid or not. Techniques such as snowball and purposive sampling apart from other benefits they have, but also run off the concept of biasness.
3.8 Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation
3.8.1 Data Processing
According to Bryman (2004), field editing, sorting and coding are done soon after data collection to correct omissions, interpreting abbreviations, knowledge, and attitudes in completing questionnaires/ interview checklists where necessary. Also central editing was employed during data processing by going through all questionnaires and checklists having qualitative information collected through verbal discussions during key informant interview by completing checking of the accuracy and check for the uniformity.
3.8.2 Data Analysis and Presentation
According to Adama (2010), analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming and modeling data with the aim of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions and supporting decision making. Data analysis was done both quantitatively and qualitatively with an aid of a computer using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) so as to process, describe and draw conclusions of the study. The data analysis involved computation of frequencies, minimum and
31 maximum and the bivariate data analysis involving cross- tabulation and correlation to determine the relationship or association of the dependent variable and independent variables especially on the benefits local communities getting from the
Udzungwa area against community livelihood. The data collected from the study area were presented in chapters that constitute wording and tables.
32 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings and results obtained from the field work of the study area where aimed at assessing the contribution of Udzungwa Mountains
National Park towards the adjacent local communities‟ livelihoods. The findings are presented in a way that allows a logical flow of ideas as governed by study objectives and research questions. The chapter begins by describing local community socio- economic and demographic characteristics. The second part deals with explanations on the benefits which the park provides to local communities in improving their livelihoods, challenges associated with the presence of the National
Park in the area of local communities and the suggestion measures to Udzungwa
Mountains National Park towards the local communities‟ livelihoods.
4.1 Socio- Economic Characteristics of Respondents
This part provides the socio- economic characteristics that were concerned in this study. The socio- economic characteristics include the sex, age, marital status, and education level, sources of income and duration of residence. The socio- economic characteristics have an impact on knowing the contribution does the park made on improving community livelihood. Each of these variables is presented separately in this section.
4.1.1 Sex Category of Respondents
The study has intended to collect information on the sex of respondents from the field to avoid biasness of the results. An overall results shows both males and females were included in the study. However, the majority (59%) were males
33 compared to females who counted for 41% (Table 4.1). This is due to the fact that, the study area has been dominated by swahili culture; men are the head of the household, so are the ones who questioned and women are not allowed to been questioned without man‟s permission. Despite the men forming the majority of respondents in all three villages of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano, still women positions in discussing the matter concerning their ideas, views and knowledge on the contribution of the Protected Areas in improving their livelihood are also seen from the field data. The value of findings is determined by the level of biasness of respondents, but the study by focus group discussion revealed that, there is no bias once women are also included in the study.
Table 4.1 Sex Category of Respondents
Sex Frequency Percentage Male 59 59.0 Female 41 41.0 Total 100 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015
Gender relationships were analyzed to determine the importance of both men and women is present socio- economic set- up and activities in the area.
4.1.2 Age Category of Respondents
As for age, the researcher has divided the respondents into four groups that means different age groups were included in the study sample and the study includes people of the age from 18 years onwards. The results from the study shows, 40% of respondents were in the age group of 26 to 35 (Table 4.2), which means that, people from this group were physically and economically active, because young age group is very active, violent and motivated by needs of their family and careering of their 34 aged parents. In national picture this is not surprisingly because, most of young people of the age from 25 to 40 are engaged in many economic activities like in running heavy machines and doing heavy works once they are more physically and economically active compared to other groups of people.
Table 4. 2 Age Category of Respondents
Age category (years) Frequency Percentage 18-25 22 22.0 26-35 40 40.0
36-45 26 26.0 Above 45 12 12.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field data, 2015
4.1.3 Marital Status of Respondents
According to URT (2006), the minimum age at marriage in Tanzania is 16 and 18 years for females and males respectively. The categories are used to classify respondents‟ status whether a person is married, single, divorced, or widow/ widower.
35 Table 4.3 Marital status of respondents
Marital status categories Frequency Percentage Not married 30 30.0 Married 56 56.0 Divorced 8 8.0 Widow 6 6.0 Total 100 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015
From the study (Table 4.3), 56% of respondents in the study area were married. This results indicates that, the higher number of marriage could probably influenced by the culture of Islam of having more children and polygamy system, once people from the study area were seems to be Muslim with respect to their names and clothing styles for men and women, being engaged into marriage at younger age.
Also, this study implies that a greater proportion of respondents were mature people capable of providing valid and reliable information. Knowing their status of relationship in this study will help to show the size of household in which the respondent is dependent and to which extent does the economic activities he/ she is doing depends on the park, which helps to measure the degree of benefits the
National Park provides to the local communities.
4.1.4 Education Level of Respondents
The average rate of educated (literate) people in Tanzania is 69.4%, and in
Morogoro region is 85.8% (CIA World Fact book- July 12, 2011). Research result shows that people from different education level were included, 52% of respondents were secondary school education level, 39% had attained primary schools, while 7% attained higher learning (especially diplomas) and only 2% had not attained school
(Table 4.4). This is influenced by the presence of ward schools in each of the village 36 and District as the government of Tanzania enhanced the people to attend schools.
Also this show that, the study area is not far from the national average rate of education. The rate of respondents who attained higher learning is those employed as
Village Executive Officers (VEO) and in TANAPA.
Table 4.4 Education Level of Respondents
Education level categories Frequency Percentage Primary 39 39.0 Secondary 52 52.0 higher learning 7 7.0 not attended school 2 2.0 Total 100 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015
Education is one of the long term strategies that may be used to suggest some of mechanism used to accelerate the community livelihood from the National Park.
4.1.5 Sources of Income
The categories used to collect information on their sources of income were classified as; agriculture, fishing, small business, animal keeping and others (like carpentry, welding, driver, guards). This justifies their capability of using their resources and the benefits from the presence of the park in their area.
37 Table 4.5 Sources of Income
Sources of income Frequency Percentage Agriculture 52 52.0 Fishing 4 4.0 small business 29 29.0 animal keeping 4 4.0 Others 11 11.0 Total 100 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015
The sources of income observed from the study area (Table 4.5) include agriculture which accounts for 52% of the total respondents, small business about 29%, fishing and small business accounts for 4% and others (like carpentry, welding, drivers and guards) accounts for 11%. However agriculture remains the major source of income in Mang‟ula area just like other areas rural areas in Tanzania. Small scale farming is the most dominant type of farming in the area where rice is main crop cultivated for both food and sale. Maize, beans and millet are also cultivated in a small scale as added crops. Sugarcane is cultivated as cash crop whereby few businessmen cultivate and sell it to Kilombero Sugar Company. Agriculture as the main source of income of respondents does not fulfill the necessity of life for the local communities.
This is due to the fact that most of respondents depend on small scale farming.
4.1.6 Duration of Residence of the Respondents
According to this study, Mang‟ula ward is one of the wards which have much influence of migration. Nearly many of respondents in the area seem to have migrated from different areas of the country like Iringa, Shinyanga and Tabora. Few other migrants have their origin in Ulanga District within Morogoro region. The migration of people in this study area is supported by many reasons like fertile land
38 for agricultural activities and the green pasture to their animals especially for the pastoralists. But for recent years, the area attracts more people due to tourism attractions and activities.
Table 4.6 Duration of Residence of the Respondents
Period Frequency Percent 0-3 years 8 8.0 4-7 years 21 21.0 8-11 years 20 20.0 12-15 years 13 13.0 above 15 38 38.0 Total 100 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015
From the study area (Table 4.6), shows that 38% of respondents were above 15 years residents, this shows that, in the area there is much influence of migration of people due to fertile land for agricultural activities and other tourism activities. The area being influenced with migration, actually it is easy for the area to get development facilities of social services.
4.2 Benefits from the National Park to Local Communities
In this part the researcher intended to assess the benefits on which the national park provides in improving the livelihood communities of Udzungwa Mountains National
Park. Data collected through questionnaire and Focus Group Discussion revealed that, the benefits which the National Park provides to local community of Udzungwa
Mountains National Park are based on the presence of the National Park at the area, and even the tourists who come in the park. To assess the kind of benefits the communities get from the park depends on the respondents‟ views and knowledge.
39 Therefore, respondents give out their ideas and views if the presence of the national park in their area is beneficial to them or not. Table 4.7 shows the standings of the respondents from the study area in all three villages of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and
Mshikamano about their views on the benefits sharing from the National Park.
Table 4.7 Views on the Benefits Local Communities’ Getting from the National Park
Response Frequency Percentage Yes 84 84.0 No 16 16.0 Total 100 100.0 Source: Field Data,(2015)
From the study area (Table 4.7), shows people‟s responses on the benefits of the
National Park to the local community. Some of respondents respond positively and others negatively on the benefits gained from the park. This is based on their ideas, views, knowledge and perceptions on the importance of the park.
Field data (Table 4.7) revealed that 84% of respondents from all three villages of
Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano respond positively on the benefits gained from the existence of the park in their area. The perceived benefits from the respondents in the study area are indicated in the Table 4.8, which some are economic services namely small business (handcraft business), employment opportunities, and foreign currency, also improvement of social services, and physical environment.
40 Table 4.8 Benefits from the Park
Benefits Response* Frequency (n=84) Percentage (%) Rank Physical Environment 34 30.7 1 Business 18 16.2 3 Employment 26 23.4 2 Foreign Currency 17 15.3 4 Social Services 16 14.4 5 Total 111 100.0 Source: Field Data,(2015) * Multiple responses
4.2.1 Physical Environment
From the study area, Table 4.8, 30.7% of respondents from all three villages of
Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano agreed that, the presence of the National
Parks benefits them from receiving good climate for their daily agricultural activities, getting rains from the trees and helps to stabilize the climatic condition of their area. The study revealed this as the most important benefit from the park to local communities. Also even the environmental friendly projects like bee keeping and trees planting are both supported by the forest of Udzungwa. In the point getting water for sustainable use, the communities of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and
Mshikamano are getting from the Udzungwa Mountains Waterfalls. Because of its good and conducive climate of the study area, is one of the reason of why many people from the Kilombero District especially nearby the Udzungwa Mountains
National Park are engaged in farming activities of rice and banana.
4.2.2 Business
It is known in most of the communities living nearby Protected Areas, are benefiting from the small business, they produce local products which is more attractive to
41 tourist. From the study area, 16.2% of respondents from the three villages of
Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano (Table 4.8), agreed that the National Parks helps them in getting income for satisfying their everyday basic needs. The study also has revealed that, the money people get from selling their products is not much enough to solve their financial problems. Muganda, (2010) realized that indirectly tourism has created more business and other income generating projects, as well as self-employment opportunities for the local people.
4.2.3 Foreign Currency
Foreign currency is one of the benefits from the Protected Areas which contribute to the Gross Domestic Product and increase the national revenue. From the results,
15.3% of total respondents as indicated in Table 4.8 received foreign currency from selling their products (handcrafts products) to tourists. This indicates that, most of people in the study area made handcrafts products and sell them to tourists, and the money earning helps them for other basic consumption like for school fees, money for clothing and other everyday human being consumptions. A study carried in
Zanzibar revealed that tourism industry is one of the key foreign exchange earnings in Zanzibar Government, 87.5% of the government staff respondents interviewed argued that tourism contributes significantly to the National GDP 22%, government revenues 80%, employment creation about 36,500 direct employments and 201,000 indirect employments, balance of payment, diversifying the economy, and promoting infrastructure projects which also serve other sectors of economy such as fishing, farming and services sector (Magigi, 2013).
42 4.2.4 Employment Opportunities
From Table 4.8, 23.4% of all respondents in the study area of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano agreed that, the National Park helps them get employed due to nature of the real situation of the ground where by self-employment and employment in tour companies, hotels and environmental management related programs. Once the study involves group of young age people in getting information, it is not surprisingly because young age group people are very active physically and mentally. Some of the people were employed as a drivers, tour guides and guards.
The study also has revealed that, tree nurseries employed people in the tourism sector through nature tour. This results shows that the people in the study area are benefited in improving their standard of living even though there is a competition with immigrants because the workers from the Park authority are not indigenous of the Kilombero District.
Muganda, (2010), identified benefits of tourism as created a direct job opportunities as cooking, laundry, housekeeping and tour guides; various positions in tourists lodges, hotels, campsites, bars, restaurant and shops; as providers of cultural goods and services; and as street vendors.
4.2.5 Improvement of Social Services
The results from Table 4.8 shows that, 14.4% of total respondents from all the three villages mentioned that, National Parks in improvement of social services like improved water supply, rehabilitation of schools example laboratory building at
Mang‟ula Secondary School, improvement of health services (hospitals) example a construction of women ward at Mang‟ula B hospital, development of infrastructure and police station which helps them in their everyday life. Furthermore, Chok
43 (2007) argued that, social services delivery such as water supply and health services have been and are being improved in the study area, because of the increasing number of tourists and the development of tourism establishments such as hotels and lodges. These services in spite of being only used by guests, also local communities were benefiting. Hence, the study revealed that, presence of social services in an area is one of the indicators of development in the area which could lead to improving the standard of people living in the particular area.
4.3 Challenges Facing Local Communities by the Presence of National Park
The researcher intended to analyze the major challenges the local communities facing from the presence of National Park in the study area. Respondents give out their views on the major problems that caused by National Park to local communities. Majorities of respondents (92%) agreed that there are some problems of environmental, socio- cultural and economic in their communities as a result of the National Park.
The major problems mentioned by respondents from the three villages of study area is environmental problem (disposal of wastes and spread of plastic bottles), and other problems such as animal invasions, cultural deterioration, alcoholism and drug abuse, diseases, price fluctuation, immigration and prostitution.
4.3.1 Environmental Problem
Tourism development include both positive and negative environmental impacts to the surrounding communities of Udzungwa Mountains National Park, while, overtime the increasing number of tourists boosts pressures on the environment and can lead to various negative impacts. As tourist practices become more widespread especially in mass tourism areas, the capacity to absorb large numbers of people are 44 challenged and environmental problems tend to increase. Unplanned and uncontrolled constructions distorted urbanization and inadequate infrastructure damage the natural environment and wildlife and cause air and water pollution.
Overuse or misuse of environmentally fragile, archaeological and historical sites can lead to damage.
The major environmental problem caused by the presence of National Park to the local community of Udzungwa is environmental littering. From the study area, the results show that, respondents agreed that the National Park contributes to the environmental problems such as spreading of plastic bottles and throwing out garbage. This is due to increasing number of tourists in the area (overcrowding). The increasing number of tourists and the environmental problem are related to each other, this is simply means that, if number of tourists in the area increases, the extent of environmental problem also increase and vice versa is true. Environmental problems such as spreading of plastic bottles and garbage are not a new thing in the
National Park which is more attractive to tourists and has unique rare features.
Andrew (2009) explained that, basically waste products such as plastic bottles which were deposited in or near the residential areas and were openly burned which caused disturbance for the local community and for environmental as well. Actually the city waste products from domestic households and business sector including tourists industry were deposited in uncontrolled dumpsites which many cases were located in the middle of city near people‟s everyday neighborhood. This can obviously cause environmental disasters such as water pollution, air pollution (bad smell and smoke) and during rainfall waste products could cause a chronic flooding in urban
45 community and increased the risk of transmission of diseases such as cholera and diarrhea.
Thus, although tourism is often considered to be an environmental friendly development strategy as alternative to more extractive industries, it invariably has some impacts on the environment. Improper waste disposals, overuse of water and habitat destruction during construction are common examples of environmental impacts. Necessarily, increased numbers of people in an area creates a higher demand on its natural resources which can lead to their depletion.
4.3.2 Other Challenges Facing Local Communities
According to the field data, respondents from all three villages of Kanyenja,
Mshikamano and Mang‟ula B had the similar views on the other problems caused by the national park to local communities in the area apart from environmental problems. The most serious problems mentioned by respondents are prostitution, cultural deterioration, alcoholism, drug abuse, diseases, price fluctuation, immigration and theft and animal invasions (Table 4.9).
46 Table 4.9 Other Challenges Facing Local Communities
Villages (n=100) Total Responses* Kanyenja Mang’ula B Mshikamano Cultural deteriorations 10 16 13 39 25.64% 41.02% 33.33% Prostitutions 7 10 8 25 28% 40% 32% Poaching 4 7 5 16 25% 43.75% 31.25% Diseases 9 14 11 34 26.47% 41.17% 32.35% Animal Invasion 8 26 12 46 17.39% 56.52% 26.08% Immigration 4 19 5 28 14.29% 67.85% 17.85% Alcoholism and Drug Abuse 5 7 8 20 25% 35% 40% Price Fluctuation 2 6 3 11 18.18% 54.55% 27.27% Total 49 105 65 219
Source: Field data, 2015 * multiple response
4.3.2.1 Cultural Deteriorations
Cultural deterioration is mentioned as one of the challenges facing the local communities of Kanyenja, Mshikamano and Mang‟ula B. The study revealed that,
25.64% of respondents from Kanyenja, 33.33% of respondents from Mshikamano and 41.02% of respondents from Mang‟ula B (Table 4.9) had the similar views on the matter of cultural deterioration as one of the major challenges facing their community. Respondents argue that, the presence of National Park in their area contribute negatively to socio- cultural aspects where most of youth imitate the
47 culture of the tourists like wearing style, language and the general way of life, and abandoned their traditional or indigenous, norms and taboos of their societies.
4.3.2.2 Prostitution
From the study area, (Table 4.9) shows 40% of respondents from Mang‟ula B, 28% of respondents from Kanyenja and 32% of respondents from Mshikamano mentioned prostitution as one of the challenge facing their community. Villagers explained that, ladies at young age are the one who practice this activity to tourist.
However, even the local men from the society where the study was conducted also engage in this activity with their ladies for the reason of ladies seeking for money to run their lives and at least been able to sort out their everyday basic needs like clothing and food. The study revealed that, most of the youth ladies are the most engaged in this business compared to men.
4.3.2.3 Poaching
The problem of poaching is not a surprisingly issue to the nation and worldwide as the one of the challenge facing nearby communities of the Protected Areas (National
Park especially). Example, Tanzania is one of the countries which has much involved in poaching and killing of animals especially elephants so as to get ivory, and is the leading country for this business of selling and exporting ivory to Far East countries especially China and India. From the Table 4.9 results indicates that,
43.8% of respondents from Mang‟ula B, 25% of respondents from Kanyenja and
31.2% of respondents from Mshikamano include poaching as also the problem facing their communities. People kill animals‟ for domestic consumption, and the most killed animals are buffaloes and gazelle. According to the results from the study areas revealed that, these animals are killed most due to the needs of
48 communities in the area. Even though the problem of poaching is solved by the
Government of Tanzania under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism through the campaign against poaching in the country, but still the problem exists at a little in the Protected Areas.
4.3.2.4 Diseases
In areas where there is overcrowding of people, diseases is likely to appear because of the environmental littering, air pollution, water pollution and environmental pollution. All these problems lead to diseases, and in the National Park diseases in not a new thing to happen once there is a direct relationship between population increase and the rate of diseases. Diseases are also mentioned as the one of challenges facing the local communities of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano.
The study results from all three villages shows, 41.2% of respondents from
Mang‟ula B, 26.5% of respondents from Kanyenja and 32.3 % of respondents from
Mshikamano (Table 4.9) mentioned diseases as the challenge facing their community, diseases like malaria and eruption diseases like diarrhea, vomiting and cholera seems to be most affect the study area due to the fact that, the coming of tourists led to spreading of wastes like plastic bottles and garbage which deteriorate the environment (environmental pollution), air pollution through the car smoke.
4.3.2.5 Alcoholism and Drug Abuse
Alcoholism is one of the refreshment to both people in rural and urban areas. From the study area (Table 4.9), shows 35% of respondents from Mang‟ula B, 25% of respondents from Kanyenja and 40% of respondents from Mshikamano mentioned the problem of alcoholism and drug abusers is affecting their community once the youth engage in smoking marijuana, and elders and youth are drinking local beer
49 like komoni, mdafu, kimpumu, pombe ya mpunga. This problem of alcoholism and drug abusers is much influencing by the tourists who came with their beer and heavy drinks and attract the local people are adopting the culture of drinking beers which is affecting the economy of the communities once peoples use most of their time in the bar drinking those local beers.
4.3.2.6 Immigration
Immigration is the process of getting in the area from other area, with respect to the study, immigration refers to people who are moving from different parts of the country and enter in the Kilombero District for different activities like business, agricultural activity and even employment opportunities. But in the study area the problem of immigration is noted as one of the challenge of National Park to nearby local communities of UMNP. It has been revealed that, in many areas of tourism activities such as Kilombero District, there was a high in- migration especially in high season. Table 4.9 shows 67.8% of respondents from Mang‟ula B, 14.3% of respondents from Kanyenja and 17.9% of respondents from Mshikamano confirm the problem of immigration is the one of the causative factors of environmental and social problems of alcoholism and robbery is widespread in the area.
4.3.2.7 Animal Invasion
The problem of animal invasion in areas nearby the National Parks and other
Protected Areas is the common problem and has caused to emergence of conflicts such as Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC). From the field data, (Table 4.9) revealed
56.5% of respondents from Mang‟ula B, 17.4% of respondents from Kanyenja and
26.1% of respondents from Mshikamano complain on the problem of animal invasion is one of the major challenges of the local communities from the presence
50 of National Park in their area. This is due to the fact that, animals invade into human‟s settlements and farms, and the most animals who invade the communities are elephant that destroy the houses and farms of the local people, these results to
Human Wildlife Conflicts. But, in common sense animals can‟t invade but the peoples are the ones invade animals once they set up their lives nearby the National
Park, and this is because animals don‟t have boundaries. The Government of
Tanzania under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism through Tourism
Policy of 1999 set up the compensations to the peoples who are invaded by the wild animals, but that compensation has terms and agreement which consider people who live one kilometer away from the Protected Areas.
4.3.2.8 Price Fluctuations
The problem of price fluctuation is not a national problem. This is the global problem because the economy of the world is measured by the value of dollar, once the US Dollar shrink, the economy and value of Tanzanian Shillings also shrink and vice versa is true. The study revealed that,54.5% of respondents from Mang‟ula B,
18.2% of respondents from Kanyenja and 27.3% of respondents from Mshikamano
(Table 4.9) mentioned the problem of price fluctuation of products especially finished products is highly influenced by the presence of National Park in the area.
Therefore, it can be observed through the coming of tourists for tourism activities made the prices of finished products especially soft drinks to increase from the normal price to tourists‟ price.
Honey (2008) concluded that, tourism undoubtedly harms the livelihoods of some locals either directly or indirectly by creating demand for resources (land) that takes them away from other uses. An estimate of the amount of destroyed livelihoods that
51 are replaced jobs in the tourism industry would be useful to more completely assess impact may be though the number ought to be small given the very different skill sets between occupations. Tourism also may harm the poor by causing prices of goods to rise. An increased demand for scarce goods like fish raises their market price, while higher fish prices could benefit the fishermen who supply them. The scarcity of fish simultaneously made it more difficult to fishermen to enjoy a prosperous catch.
4.4 Suggestions to Accelerate Contribution of National Park to Local
Community
This objective covered the respondent‟s response on the suggesting measures which would accelerate the Udzungwa Mountains National Parks contributions to adjacent local communities. Respondents from all the three villages of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano had the similar views on what has the National Park needs to do so as to improve the livelihood of adjacent communities of UMNP, these mechanisms for improvements includes (Table 4.10).
Table 4.10 Suggested Mechanism to Improve Livelihoods’ Communities
Mechanism Measures* Frequency Percentage Rank (n=100)
Expanding Employment Opportunities 53 30.1 1 Active Local Participation 42 23.9 2 Tourism Policy 21 11.9 5 Financial Support for Development 32 18.2 3 Projects Training of Locals into Several Fields of 28 15.9 4 Tourism Total 176 100 Source: Field data, 2015 52 4.4.1 Expanding Employment Opportunities to Locals
Government must create a better environment that convinced the investors who had facilities like hotels and tour companies in the National Park, to employ the local people (Tanzanians) at a small percent to help them in improving their livelihood.
By expanding employment opportunities to local communities, does not mean that the park has to employ people to work in the park because it is difficult, but the
TANAPA should emphasize the investors to build tourism facilities like hotels, lodges and shops, then employ the local people to work as security guards, tour guides, gardeners, cleaners etc, so as to reduce the rate of unemployment people and dependence ratio in the nation.
4.4.2 Tourism Policy
The Tanzania Tourism policy aimed to ensure sustainable tourism development of the country through establishment of Tanzania Tourists Board (TTB), improvement of private sectors participation and approval of new related tourism projects. Also the policy aimed at ensuring the tourism activities to be of ecologically friendly and environmentally sustainable so as the local community benefits from it. But the national policy was only theoretically, because almost in all Protected Areas, the local communities living nearby are still in the poor condition (Kalemo, 2011) and they faced with many problems of conflicts (land conflicts and human wildlife conflicts), environmental problems and the problem of employment opportunities.
4.4.3 Active Local Participation
The participation of local communities in tourism activities and development process will help in developing the tourism industry of the country. Local people should be involved in planning process and decision making from the initial points 53 to the last point. Enhancing locals participation will help in providing hospitality to tourists, controlling poaching and cases of theft and robbery will not happen because local communities will have the efforts and heartens of protecting the National Park as they protect their families and themselves. There is a direct relationship between local community participation and tourism development, Muganda, et al. (2009) argue that, that active involvement and participation of the local community in tourism especially at the exploration stage is crucial because at this initial stage of tourism development, there is normally little or no tourism infrastructure in the area and therefore local people, after accepting the idea of introduction of tourism in their area, usually start, own and operate small scale guest-houses, economy class hotels or souvenir shops, and supply the workforce for the industry especially in many developing countries (Tosun, 2000).
4.4.4 Financial Support for Development Projects
The villages of UMNP are suggesting the government had to help them in giving the financial support for running the development projects like bee keeping which is the environmental friendly project. People complain that, the government under
TANAPA provides 30% of money for the development project and the local communities should contribute 70% of money. People are asking where they get such amount of money for running that project while even the money for school fees for their children they do not have. Therefore, the government had to look at that into a wider way and in deep.
4.4.5 Training of Locals into Several Fields of Tourism
This is because, from the study area many people had attained a secondary level education which is not sufficient for them to get employed in the tourism sector.
54 Therefore, they suggest having short course trainings sessions on the matters concerning tourism sector such as security courses and other courses related to tourism activities so as the local communities do not waste their time for the government to bring changes in their area and improve their livelihood, but they had to brought changes themselves which is a developer tool against poverty in the area.
55 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Chapter Overview
This chapter summarizes and concludes the whole study, recommend and suggests for further research studies. It explains how the study was conducted, what has been discovered in the study about the contribution of Udzungwa Mountains National
Park in improving livelihoods of adjacent communities.
5.1 Summary of the Findings
The main objective of this study was to assess the contribution of Protected Areas on livelihood communities adjacent to UMNP. The study was guided by different objectives in chapter one such as assessing the contribution of Protected Areas in livelihood communities adjacent to Udzungwa Mountains National Park, to assess the major challenges caused by the National Park to local community and to suggest measures for accelerating the rate of National Park contributions to local community. With regard to the findings, Udzungwa Mountains National Park was less benefited local communities‟ livelihood as they were highly dependent on it.
The findings revealed that, the study area has many tourists‟ attractions and facilities like lodges and guest houses which were directly and indirectly contributed in improving local communities‟ livelihood. Benefits observed from the study area were, employment opportunities, earning foreign currency and exchange, improvement of social services like schools, hospitals and market, business especially local business of handcraft products and benefits on physical environment like getting rains and easy accessibility of water (Table 4.1).
56 Apart from benefits getting, findings also revealed some limitations(challenges) to local communities of UMNP from the National Park like cultural deteriorations, animal invasion, poaching, diseases, immigration, price fluctuations, alcoholism and drug abuse which are mentioned as the most problems affecting local communities of the study area (Table 4.2).
Alternative solutions on mechanisms for improvement of the local communities livelihood includes an active participation of local communities in the tourism development process and decision makings, expand employment opportunities, financial support from the government to local communities to run projects which are ecologically friendly and environmentally sustainable and emphasis on training courses on tourism activities like courses on tour guides and security guard to local communities (Table 4.3).
Furthermore the findings revealed that, by adopting the suggested solutions there was a wide chance of the local communities to benefit from tourism activities and reducing rate of poverty among local communities if the stakeholders are involved and local communities participate actively in tourism development process.
5.2 Conclusion
The study demonstrates that, there were some indications that tourism accommodations were contributing directly and indirectly towards local community livelihood improvement; this has been revealed by the results based on percentage.
Overall respondents had the feeling that employment opportunities, foreign exchange, local products market have been improved as a result of tourism development in the area.
57 Through understanding the potentials in both sides (tourism and local communities) on which if the efforts were done, locals might improve their standard of living and enjoy benefits from the national parks. Despite these positive achievements, there were a number of barriers that limit the ability of local communities to capture tourism that create opportunities fixed by applying appropriate mechanisms which could improve local‟s benefits gaining as for discussed.
5.3 Recommendations
The purpose of the case study was to assess the contribution of Udzungwa
Mountains National Park on livelihood of adjacent communities. Basing on the results and conclusions derived from the study, the researcher recommends on follows;
5.3.1 Financial Support
The national under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) have to establish an identified system which could support the local communities to engage into different tourism projects like bee keeping and fish keeping which are ecologically friendly and environmentally sustainable so as to improve their livelihood. The seventy percent which the government provides to local communities for the initiated projects is not a bad idea, but the question still remains on where those communities get the remained money to conduct the projects. Thus, the government under the responsible ministry of natural resources and tourism has to look the issue into wider way.
58 5.3.2 Employment Opportunities
Local communities are benefiting from the National Park by getting jobs, but most of the works local communities get is self-employment in the aspect of producing local products and sell to tourists, but being employed by the National Park is not responsible once most of the people from the study area are not educated (have not attained higher learning education) so as to be employed as tour guides, guards or drivers of the Park. Thus the government and community have to find other alternative sources for getting income rather than depending only on tourism activities and business.
5.3.3 Benefit Sharing
Through the National Park, the government should establish the system of collecting revenue from the National Park and divide the benefits with local community directly. Local communities adjacent to Protected Areas don‟t want indirectly benefits like schools, hospitals and other social services, while they need the direct benefits which they want money instead. This is the most difficult thing for the government to resolve once it is not a simple task to give money to every household, and instead they provide social services.
5.3.4 Integration of Stakeholders
It is very important for stakeholders to be involved in the National Park to accelerate the rate of its contribution to local communities. These stakeholders include NGO‟s, private institutions, tour operator and government itself. Example private institutions might build the lodges and hotels which will facilitate the rate of employment to local people, and the NGO‟s might build hospitals and schools which will improve the social services of the area. 59 5.3.5 Empowerment of Local Communities
Special measures to empower local communities especially youth and aged people in tourism development process in making decisions and active participation, will help to raise awareness of people in tourism activities and have hospitality and willingness in tourism which is more important in tourism market.
5.4 Suggestion for Further Research
Areas recommended for further research include;
The study has covered only a small part of Protected Areas (Udzungwa
Mountains National Park) in Morogoro region. The findings reflected all other
parts of the country where there is other Protected Areas either is a National
Park, Game Reserve or Forest Reserve on its contribution to improving
livelihood. Similar study can be carried into other parts of the country to
present a different picture and the magnitude of the contribution to the local
people.
Study has been conducted to assess the contribution of National Parks on
improving livelihood of adjacent communities of UMNP, but the issues related
to effectiveness of National Policy to National Park whose communities were
still poor and costs and conflicts of National Park to local communities have
not been conducted and identified. Hence it is important for more studies to be
conducted in these areas.
Furthermore studies should be conducted to find out the reasons why the local
communities of nearby National Parks are still poor despite the fact they are
benefiting a little from the park.
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65 LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I: Indicative Questionnaire for the Local Communities These questions are designed to help the researcher on getting the data from the villagers of Mang‟ula B, Kanyenja and Mshikamano in Kilombero District on the contribution of protected areas on improving livelihood of adjacent communities of
Udzungwa Mountains National Park. Kindly, respond to the questions attached as possible. The information provided will be treated as confidential. The researcher will not reveal or disclose the identity of the respondents under any circumstances.
Village ………………………………
Ward ………………………………...
Part A: Personal information.
1. Sex a. Male b. Female
2. Age ………………………
3. Marital status a. Single b. Married c. Separated d. Divorced e. Widowed
4. Level of education ………………………..
66 Part B: i. Benefit sharing and livelihood improvement
5. What is your source of income?
A. agriculture
B. fishing
C. small business
D. pastorals
E. others
6. For how long you have been living in this area? a. 0-3 years b. 4-7 years c. 8-11 years d. 12-15 years e. Above 15 years
7. Are your economic activities relying on the park?
…………………………………......
8. How are you benefiting from the park?
......
... ii. Costs facing local communities
9. How do you rank the relationship between the park and your village?
A. Very good
B. Good
C. Neutral
D. Bad 67 E. Very bad.
10. What are the costs facing your communities in the presence of tourism activities in your area?......
...... iii. Suggestions for improvement
11. Do you think the existence of the park in your village can help to improve the communities‟ livelihood? (Yes/no).If yes, explain how?......
......
......
12. How does people in this village participate in improving their livelihood?......
......
13. What do you think should put in a place for you to benefit more from the benefits you receive from the National Park and tourism activities?
......
......
68 Appendix II: Interview Questions to Park Authority 1. Age: a. 18- 23 old b. 24- 29 old c. 30- 35 old d. 36- 41old e. Above 41
2. Level of education: ……………………………………………………..
3. What is your working experience? a. 0-2 years b. 3-5 years c. 6-8 years d. 9-11 years e. Above 11 years
4. How does the park share benefits with the livelihood of the adjacent communities?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
5. What are problems facing local communities in the presence of National Park and tourism activities in the area?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
6. What mechanisms did the government under the responsible ministry doing to accelerate the rate of livelihood in the area?
……………………………………………………………………………………..
69 Appendix III: Checklists Guide for Focus Group Discussion with the Villagers 1. What are the major economic activities conducted in this area?
2. How do the people of this area benefit from the Udzungwa Mountains
National Park?
3. What are the problems do the people of this area face as a result of the
National Park?
4. What should be done to solve those problems?
5. What mechanisms should the government has to do to improve the communities‟ livelihoods of villages adjacent to Udzungwa Mountains National
Park?
6. What are your opinions on this issue of benefits from the National Park?
70