MANAGEMENT GUIDE for the SANGRE DE CRISTO WILDERNESS

DRAFT USDA Forest Service and USDI National Park Service 2/22/2011

Contents INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Purpose……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Background………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Relationship to Land Management Plans……………………………………………………………. 2 WILDERNESS MANAGEMENT DIRECTION………………………………………………. 3 NATIONAL FOREST – Wilderness Direction………………………………………………………. 4 Wilderness-wide Goals…………………………………………………………………………………. 4 Wilderness-wide Standards and Guidelines…………………………………………………………. 5 The Wilderness Recreation Opportunity Spectrum…………………………………………………. 8 Direction for Pristine Wilderness Settings………………………………………………………….. 10 Direction for Primitive Wilderness Settings………………………………………………………... 13 Direction for Semi-Primitive Wilderness Settings…………………………………………………. 16 Direction for High-Use Wilderness Settings……………………………………………………….. 19 NATIONAL PRESERVE – Wilderness Direction………………………………………………….. 23 Carrying Capacity Direction…………………………………………………………………………. 23 Management Zones…………………………………………………………………………………….. 23 Backcountry Adventure Zone…………………………………………………………………………. 24 Natural / Wild Zone……………………………………………………………………………………. 25 Regulations Specific to the National Preserve……………………………………………………... 27 MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES……………………………………………………………. 28 Guarding against Air Pollution……………………………………………………………………… 28 Restoring Natural Fire Regimes……………………………………………………………………... 31 Checking the Spread of Non-native Species………………………………………………………… 35 Managing Impacts From Recreational Activities………………………………………………….. 37 Maintaining Trails……………………………………………………………………………………… 42 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS…………………………………………………………………... 44 Campsite Conditions…………………………………………………………………………………… 44 Campsite Density……………………………………………………………………………………….. 46 Crowding………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47 Dogs under Control…………………………………………………………………………………….. 49 Recreational-Stock Use………………………………………………………………………………... 50 Noxious Weed Control…………………………………………………………………………………. 52 Other Management Actions…………………………………………………………………………… 53 WILDERNESS CHARACTER MONITORING………………………………………………. 57 LIST OF PREPARERS………………………………………………………………………... 63 WORKS CITED……………………………………………………………………………….. 64 LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………….. 67 Appendix A – East Side Visitor Use…………………………………………………………………. 68 Appendix B – West Side Visitor Use……………………………….………………………………… 69 Appendix C – Allocated Outfitter Service Days……………………………………………………. 71 Appendix D – Map of Recreation Capacity by Compartment……………………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix E – Map of National Forest WROS Designations……………………………………... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Appendix F – Map of National Preserve Management Zones…………………………………… Error! Bookmark not defined. appendices continued on next page

Appendix G – Map of Visitor Use Levels…………………………………………………………… Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix H – Map of Social Encounters Exceeding Standards…………………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix I – Map of Campsites Exceeding Standards……………………………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix J – Map of System Trails Exceeding Standards………………………………………... Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix K – Map of Social Trails Exceeding Standards………………………………………... Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix L – Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Education Plan……………………………………… Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix M – Sangre de Cristo Air Quality Plan………………………………………………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Management Guide for the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness

San Isabel National Forest Rio Grande National Forest Great Sand Dunes National Preserve

INTRODUCTION

Purpose To guide wilderness managers in maintaining and restoring the comparatively pristine landscapes of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness for the re-creation of human beings and the wholeness of the earth itself.

Background The Sangre de Cristo Wilderness was designated by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Clinton on August 13, 1993, as part of the Colorado Wilderness Act of 1993. The Sangre de Cristo Wilderness encompasses a 70 mile long by 2 to 10 mile wide stretch of the Sangre de Cristo Range. Portions of the wilderness are located within the San Isabel National Forest, Rio Grande National Forest and the Great Sand Dunes National Preserve.

Beginning in 1902, public lands in the Sangre de Cristo Range were reserved from homesteading to form the San Isabel Forest Reserve. The Reserve would later become the San Isabel and Rio Grande National Forests. In 2000, the Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve Act; • changed the designation of the Great Sand Dunes from a National Monument to a National Park, • authorized the purchase of the Luis Maria Baca Land Grant which greatly expanded the boundaries of the National Park and added the 14,000 acre Baca Mountain Tract to the Rio Grande National Forest, and • created the Great Sand Dunes National Preserve from roughly 42,000 acres of lands previously administered by the Rio Grande National Forest, including 40,000 acres of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness.

Table 1.1 displays the acreage of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness by its various administrative jurisdictions. Initially, the overall size of the wilderness was estimated to be 226, 455 acres. However, the final wilderness boundary description and maps of record (completed Feb 9, 2009) determined the total wilderness acreage to actually be 219,750 acres. The figures in Table 1.1 reflect these official (2009) calculations.

Table 1.1. Official acreage of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness by its various jurisdictions (2009)

Administrative Acres Administrative Acres Jurisdiction Jurisdiction

San Isabel National Forest 93,990 San Carlos Ranger District (58,025) Alamosa County 22,802 Salida Ranger District (35,965) Custer County 45,152 Fremont County 33,135 Rio Grande National Forest 85,180 Huerfano County 15,703 Saguache Ranger District (68,115) Saguache County 102,958 Conejos Peak Ranger District (17,065)

Great Sand Dunes National Preserve 40,580

Total Acres 219,750 Total Acres 219,750

The Sangre de Cristo Wilderness contains over 50 alpine lakes and at least 40 named peaks higher than 13,000 feet in elevation, six of which exceed 14,000 feet. Wilderness visitors can access these lakes, peaks and valleys via roughly 200 miles of system trails from 35 primary trailheads. The number of day-use visitors to the wilderness is increasing, while overnight use is comparatively stable. The exception is in those basins that flank popular 14,000-foot peaks, where both day-use and overnight camping are increasing.

The long and narrow shape of the wilderness creates additional challenges for protecting the wild character of the area from nearby human influences that include: motorized incursions into the wilderness, low-level aircraft overflights, the spread of non-native species, disruption of wildlife migration patterns, and the heightened risks associated with allowing wildfires to play their ecological role in a wilderness area bordered by human improvements.

Relationship to Land Management Plans Overall guidance for the management of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness is contained within the following land management plans for the three agencies that administer this wilderness: • Land and Resource Management Plan for the Pike and San Isabel National Forests (1984) • Land and Resource Management Plan for the Rio Grande National Forest (1996) • General Management Plan for the Great Sand Dunes Park and Preserve (2007)

This Management Guide is intended to assist managers in further refining and implementing the goals, desired conditions, objectives, standards and guidelines outlined in these land management plans as they apply to the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. While, all of the guidance contained in this Management Guide equals or exceeds the standards and direction contained in the above land management plans; it has not received the analysis and public disclosure required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Therefore, the projects or actions identified in the Management Actions section of this document will need to satisfy all applicable NEPA requirements and procedures prior to being implemented.

WILDERNESS MANAGEMENT DIRECTION

What is Wilderness? Wilderness can mean many different things to a variety of people. The two main concepts are sociological or legal based. Sociologically, wilderness is a place where one can experience a recreational or social activity in a natural environment free from development. For a person from an urban environment with little experience in the natural environment, wilderness could be just about any forested area that is relatively undeveloped. The other main concept is wilderness as legally defined by the Wilderness Act of 1964; “A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain. An area of wilderness is further defined to mean in this chapter an area of undeveloped Federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements of human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand acres of land or is of sufficient size to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic or historical value.” Primary direction for managing wilderness also comes from the Wilderness Act of 1964. The Act states that wilderness areas shall be administered; “...for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness and so as to provide for the protection of those areas, the preservation of their wilderness character...” and “...wilderness areas shall be devoted to the public purposes of recreational, scenic, scientific, educational, conservation and historical use.” and “...there shall be no commercial enterprise and no permanent road within any wilderness area designated by this Act, and except as necessary to meet minimum requirements for the administration of the area for the purpose of this Act.... there shall be no other form of mechanical transport, and no structure or installation within any such area.”

NATIONAL FOREST – WILDERNESS DIRECTION

Wilderness-wide Goals 1. Maintain or enhance the following elements of Wilderness Character: a. Untrammeled – wilderness areas are essentially unhindered and free from modern human control or manipulation. b. Natural Quality – wilderness ecological systems are substantially free from the effects of modern civilization. c. Undeveloped – wilderness areas are essentially without permanent human improvements or evidence of modern human occupation. d. Solitude or Primitive Recreation – wilderness areas provide outstanding opportunities for solitude or for primitive and unconfined recreation.

2. Manage the wilderness so that changes in the ecosystem are primarily a consequence of natural forces, or within a range of natural variability and succession. 3. Wildfires are a key agent of ecological change for nearly all of the ecosystems within wilderness. 4. Maintain wilderness in a natural and untrammeled condition while accommodating human uses. 5. Assist wilderness visitors in becoming knowledgeable about primitive skills and low impact techniques, such as the “Leave No Trace” program. 6. Inspire public citizens to become stewards of the wilderness in partnership with the National Park Service and Forest Service. 7. Protect and preserve historic and cultural resources found in wilderness 8. Use the Wilderness Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS) as the framework for identifying, planning and managing recreational settings and activities within the Forests’ portion of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness.

9. Wilderness planning, baseline data, and monitoring are in place and ongoing. 10. Research needs are identified, and information is being gathered and transferred. 11. Agency field presence is apparent and effective.

Wilderness-wide Standards and Guidelines

Recreational Activities

1. Manage recreational use of wilderness areas in a manner that preserves the wilderness character of the area. Visitor-permit systems or other measures should be implemented to manage recreational use levels or recreational activity patterns when social or environmental conditions are threatened or damaged due to an excessive number of visitors in a specific area.

2. The maximum party size should not exceed 15 persons.

3. The maximum party size for groups traveling with recreational livestock should not exceed 15 persons and the combined total of persons and livestock should not exceed 25 in number.

4. Grazing or confining recreational livestock within 300 feet of streams and lakes or within riparian areas should be prohibited, except as justified by terrain or specific designs which protect the aquatic and riparian resources.

5. Where forage is limited, recreational livestock users who are camping overnight should use processed feeds or hay that is free of viable noxious weed seeds to feed their stock.

6. Camping and campfires should be prohibited within 300 feet of streams and lakes or within riparian areas, unless exceptions are justified by terrain or specific designs which protect the aquatic and riparian resources.

7. Disposal of human waste or wash water should be prohibited within 300 feet of any water source.

8. Campfires should be prohibited where use of wood for fuel is likely to; reduce vegetative diversity, cause noteworthy loss of soil nutrients, create erosion problems, or detract from the overall visual resource objectives for the area. Campfires should be prohibited in all alpine and Krummholz plant communities.

9. Pets should be prohibited from harassing wildlife or other people. Pets should be under voice control or physical restraint at all times.

10. Use of wagons, carts or other mechanized transport is prohibited, except for persons using wheelchairs as a necessary medical appliance.

11. Competitive contests, group demonstrations, ceremonies, commercial filming and similar events should normally be prohibited.

12. Commercial services may be permitted to the extent necessary for those activities which are appropriate for realizing the recreational or educational purposes of wilderness.

13. Rock collecting, recreational panning, sluicing or dredging for minerals should not be allowed.

14. The abandonment, storage or caching of equipment, supplies or other personal property should be prohibited.

15. The use of permanent climbing anchors should not be allowed: a). on existing climbing routes that did not previously have permanent anchors; or b). where establishing new routes contributes to an unacceptable density of climbing activity; or c). near sensitive heritage resources or raptor nesting sites.

Fire Management

1. Naturally-ignited wildfires should be used to achieve wilderness management objectives; including maintenance or restoration of the ecological composition, structure and functioning of fire-dependent ecosystems.

2. Adverse impacts arising from fire suppression activities should be minimized through the use of minimum impact strategies and tactics (reference Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics in the Incident Response Pocket Guide – National Wildfire Coordinating Group).

Vegetation Management

1. Plant species that are not indigenous to a particular wilderness area should not be introduced and should be removed or encouraged to depreciate where they already occur.

2. Pulling or other hand methods should be used when treating non-native invasive plant species in situations where hand methods are effective for controlling the target species. If non-native invasive plant species pose a substantial threat to wilderness values and hand treatment is not effective, chemicals or biological agents may be used after thorough evaluation of the risks to non-target species and the possible introduction of additional exotic species.

3. Native insect and disease outbreaks in wilderness areas should be controlled only when justified by the predicted loss of values outside of the wilderness area.

Livestock Grazing

1. Commercial livestock grazing activities and facilities may be permitted in accordance with congressional guidelines (reference P.L. 96-56, Sec.108, House of Representatives Report No. 96-617 dated 11/14/79). 6

Wildlife and Fish Management

1. Fish and wildlife research and management activities may be permitted in accordance with the guidelines adopted by the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (reference “Policies and Guidelines for Fish and Wildlife Management in National Forest and Bureau of Land Management Wilderness” as amended June 2006).

2. Control of problem predator animals may be permitted in accordance with guidelines contained in an agreement with the Animal and Plant Heath Inspection Service (reference “Memorandum of Understanding for Wildlife Damage Management Activities on National Forest System Lands” dated 2008).

3. Wildlife and fish species that are not indigenous to a particular wilderness area should not be introduced and should be removed or encouraged to depreciate where they already occur, except as permitted by the “Policies and Guidelines for Fish and Wildlife Management in National Forest and BLM Wilderness”.

4. Stocking of fish in lakes or streams, that have not previously been stocked, should be prohibited.

Air Resource Management

1. Air quality and related wilderness values should be protected from the adverse effects of air pollution. Wilderness managers should work with Colorado State air regulatory agencies in evaluating potential air pollution impacts to the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness and issue adverse impact determinations as warranted.

Heritage Resource Management

1. Heritage structures or features which are not eligible for the National Register of Historic Places should be removed or allowed to deteriorate naturally, unless they are deemed necessary for administrative or public purposes of the wilderness area.

2. Heritage structures, sites or features that are eligible for the National Register of Historic Places may be enhanced or stabilized to protect their historic integrity in a manner that is compatible with the wilderness setting.

3. Interpretive signs or facilities should not be provided at heritage structures, sites or features.

Other Referenced Direction

Additional direction for management of wilderness areas is found in the:

Clean Air Act (1955) - (P.L. 84-159 as amended by P.L. 88-206 and P.L. 95-95 in 1977) Colorado Wilderness Act (1993) - (P.L. 103-77) Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement Act (2005) - (P.L. 108-447) Wilderness Act (1964) - (P.L. 88-577 as amended in 1978) Wilderness and primitive area regulations (36 CFR 293) Wilderness area prohibitions (36 CFR 261.18 and 261.57) Planning regulations (36 CFR 219) Mining operations in wilderness areas (36 CFR 228.15) Forest Service Manual 2300 – Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management

The Wilderness Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Recreation opportunities can be expressed in terms of three principal components: the setting, the activities, and the experience. By managing the natural resource setting and the activities within it, forest managers provide for a range of recreation experiences. The Wilderness Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS) is modeled after the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (USDA FS 1982), yet tailored to wilderness areas. The WROS is a means of classifying and managing recreation opportunities based on physical setting, social setting, and managerial setting. Each class is defined in terms of the degree to which it satisfies certain recreation experience needs, based on the extent to which the natural environment has been modified, the type of facilities provided, the degree of outdoor skills needed to enjoy the area, and the relative density of recreation use.

The WROS delineates variations in the degree of isolation from the sounds and influences of people, the amount of recreation visitor use, and management direction within wilderness areas in four general classes of recreation settings, Pristine, Primitive, Semi-Primitive, and High-use, as described in the following sections. Combinations of settings, activities, and experience opportunities are arranged along a continuum from “pristine” (with a very high probability to experience solitude, self reliance, challenge, and/or risk) to “high-use” (with a very high probability to experience social interaction with other hikers along popular trails and/or parking areas near wilderness boundaries). Refer also to Appendix E for a map showing the location of these WROS designations.

Table 2.1. Comparison of guidelines for recreational activities by WROS setting

Encounters or Evidence of other Visitors by Wilderness Setting

Wilderness Pristine Primitive Semi- High-use Setting primitive Destinations

Trail Less than Less than Less than Less than Encounters 1 per day 6 per day 12 per day 30 per day with other groups

Occupied None No more No more No more campsites than 1 than 2 than 2 within sight or sound of a visitor’s camp

Maximum 1 site per 1 site per acre 2 sites per acre 4 sites per acre density of 10 acres or or or campsites 4 sites per mile 8 sites per mile 12 sites per mile of trail of trail of trail

Campsite Cole Condition Cole Condition Cole Condition Cole Condition Condition Class 1 or 2 Class 2 or 3 Class 3, 4 or Class 3, 4 or (norm) designated 5 designated 5

Table 2.2. Comparative allocation of WROS designations within the National Forest portions of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness

Administrative Area Pristine Primitive Semi-primitive High Use (%) (%) (%) (%)

San Isabel National Forest 7 69 24 ? Rio Grande National Forest ? ? ? ? Both Forests combined ? ? ? ?

Direction for Pristine Wilderness Settings

Desired Conditions for Pristine Wilderness Settings

Pristine Wilderness (PrW) settings are characterized by extensive, unmodified, natural environments. Natural processes and conditions have not been measurably affected by the actions of users. These areas are managed to be as free as possible from the influences of human activity. Terrain and vegetation allow for extensive and challenging cross-country travel.

What types of transportation can I use? Foot and horse transportation is generally permissible for cross-country travel. There are no established trails. Motorized vehicles and wheeled vehicles are not permitted. Access for people with disabilities is extremely difficult.

What types of activities can I engage in? Primary summer activities include cross-country hiking, backpacking, and horseback riding; mountain climbing, wildlife viewing, hunting, fishing and backcountry tent camping. Primary winter activities include snowshoeing, cross- country skiing and winter mountaineering.

What does the area look like? Ecological processes, such as natural succession, fire, forest insects and disease function with no apparent human influence. There is no lasting evidence of camping activity or other human uses of the natural environment.

How many other people will I encounter? There are outstanding opportunities for solitude and isolation. Encounters with other groups or individuals are rare.

What type of experience can I expect to have? Independence, closeness to nature, tranquility and self-reliance through cross-country travel and outdoor skills are available in an environment that offers a very high degree of challenge and risk. The size of PrW settings (typically larger than 5,000 acres in area) gives a very strong feeling of remoteness from the sights and sounds of humans. PrW settings provide a variety of recreational opportunities, including: • Single and multi-day challenging recreation activities and adventures; • Off-trail scenic backcountry experiences; and a • High degree of self-discovery, solitude and challenge in natural areas.

How much development and what type of amenities will be present? Facilities for dispersed recreation activities are not provided. Visitors are expected to have basic orienteering skills. Directional signage is non-existent. User-created trails or game trails may exist, but they are not maintained or identified on maps or trail guides.

Management Strategies for Pristine Wilderness Settings

Managers monitor conditions and implement management strategies to ensure that PrW settings are retained at their current level of naturalness, or restored as needed.

PrW areas are managed to protect and perpetuate their essentially “untouched” natural conditions. Plant species are indigenous to the immediate area; exotic (non-native) plants are extremely rare. Naturally ignited wildfires are not suppressed, but instead managed as a natural ecological force.

Activities are regulated primarily to protect natural and cultural resources, or to protect the quality of recreational settings and experiences. On-site signage and controls are non-existent with regulations primarily communicated outside of the PrW area. PrW areas should not be highlighted in guidebooks, brochures or on maps for public distribution.

Trails are not constructed or maintained in PrW settings. Visitor travel should be managed so that travel routes are not readily apparent or appear to be wildlife trails. Increasing demand for recreational opportunities should not be accommodated through the expansion of trails in PrW settings.

Established campsites should be rare. Campsites may be closed, repaired, rehabilitated, but not hardened when unacceptable environmental or social impacts occur.

Facilities such as stock holding corrals are not appropriate in PrW settings. Areas receiving visitor use numbers sufficient that facilities are necessary to protect resources should not be classified Pristine, or use should be controlled to maintain pristine conditions.

Pets may be banned from PrW settings to avoid impacts or disruptions to the pristine character of these areas.

Scenic Quality • The Scenic Integrity Objective (SIO) is Preservation.

Access and Travel Management • PrW settings are not suitable for the construction or designation of new trails. • PrW settings are not suitable for the maintenance of existing trails.

Fire and Fuels Management • PrW settings are suitable for Wildland Fire Use (WFU) strategies. • PrW settings are generally not suitable for fire suppression strategies and tactics. • PrW settings are not suitable for tree cutting measures or for prescribed fire treatments.

Other Activities and Uses • PrW settings are generally not suitable for outfitter and guide operations. • Resource management activities, including livestock grazing, are not permitted in PrW settings. 11

Guidelines for Pristine Wilderness Settings

1. A very low incidence of contact with other groups or individuals should be provided within the following guidelines: a. Cross-country travel encounters should not exceed 1 other party per day on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season. b. No other occupied campsites should be within sight or sound of a given visitor’s camp on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season.

2. Manage campsites as follows: a. Density of campsites should be very low, not to exceed 1 site per 10 acres. b. All campsites should be Cole Condition Class 1 or 2. c. Restore other campsites to Cole Condition Class 1 or 2 or close them.

3. No signs should be provided for resource protection or direction.

4. Trails may exist, but they should not be maintained or constructed, nor should they be designated as National Forest System (NFS) trails. Where concentrated cross-country travel causes resource damage, take appropriate measures to protect the natural environment.

5. Soil compaction should not occur outside existing established campsites and travel routes.

6. Campfires should be discouraged.

7. There should be no measurable change in water quality due to human activity.

8. Visitor use shall seldom and only temporarily displace wildlife populations.

Direction for Primitive Wilderness Settings

Desired Conditions - Primitive Wilderness Settings

Primitive Wilderness (PW) settings are characterized by essentially unmodified, natural environments. Concentrations of visitors are low and evidence of human use is minimal. Visitors to these areas have a high opportunity for isolation, solitude, exploration, risk, and challenge.

What types of transportation can I use? Foot and horse transportation is generally permissible both on NFS trails and for cross-country travel. Motorized vehicles and wheeled vehicles are not permitted. Access for people with disabilities is very difficult.

What types of activities can I engage in? Primary summer activities include mountain climbing, hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, wildlife viewing, hunting, fishing and backcountry tent camping. Primary winter activities include snowshoeing, cross-country skiing and winter mountaineering.

What does the area look like? Ecological processes, such as natural succession, fire, forest insects and disease function with minimal human influence. There is some evidence of established campsites.

How many other people will I encounter? There is a very high probability of experiencing isolation from the sights and sounds of humans. Interaction with other parties is very low and evidence of other visitors is minimal. Campsites are dispersed; usually one does not hear or see any visitors at adjacent campsites.

What type of experience can I expect to have? Independence, closeness to nature, tranquility and self-reliance through outdoor skills are available in an environment that offers a high degree of challenge and risk. The size of PW settings (typically larger than 5,000 acres in area) gives a very strong feeling of remoteness from the sights and sounds of humans. PW settings provide a variety of recreational opportunities, including: • Single and multi-day challenging recreation activities and adventures; • Non-motorized scenic backcountry experiences; and a • High degree of self-discovery, solitude and challenge in natural areas.

How much development and what type of amenities will be present? Facilities for dispersed recreation activities are rare, and are primarily provided to protect natural resources. While maintained NFS trails are present, visitors are expected to have basic orienteering skills. Directional signage is minimal. Informational and regulatory messages may be provided at trailheads.

Management Strategies for Primitive Wilderness Settings

Managers monitor conditions and implement management strategies to ensure that PW settings are retained at their current level of naturalness, or restored as needed. PW settings are managed to protect ecological conditions, the effects of human activity are minimized.

Activities are regulated primarily to protect natural and cultural resources, or to protect the quality of recreational settings and experiences. On-site signage and controls are minimal with regulations primarily communicated outside of the PW area.

Facilities will not be provided for user comfort or convenience. Only those facilities that are essential for resource protection and visitor safety are appropriate in the PW setting. Native or natural appearing construction materials will be used.

Dispersed campsites are located outside of riparian zones and other sensitive resource areas. Campsites may be closed, repaired, rehabilitated, and/or hardened when unacceptable environmental or social impacts occur.

NFS trails are generally present at low densities in this PW setting. Existing trails are managed to protect natural resources, mitigate user conflicts and maintain recreational experiences and challenges. Some user developed trails may exist, but are not encouraged for use and rarely upgraded to NFS trails. If user-developed trails become well established, management action should be taken to rehabilitate damage and discontinue use. Reroutes of existing NFS trails may be done to protect resources or to meet wilderness objectives.

Construction of new trails in trail-less drainages or to new destinations is generally not acceptable in PW settings. Increasing demand for recreation opportunities is unlikely to be accommodated through the expansion of trails in PW settings.

Scenic Quality • The Scenic Integrity Objective (SIO) is Preservation.

Access and Travel Management • PW settings are generally not suitable for the construction and designation of new trails.

Fire and Fuels Management • PW settings are generally suitable for Wildland Fire Use (WFU) strategies. • PW settings are generally not suitable for fire suppression strategies and tactics. • PW settings are generally not suitable for prescribed fire treatments.

Other Activities and Uses • Resource management activities, with the exception of livestock grazing, are not permitted in PW settings.

Guidelines for Primitive Wilderness Settings

1. A low incidence of contact with other groups or individuals should be provided within the following guidelines: a. Trail encounters should not exceed 6 other parties per day on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season. b. No more than 1 other occupied campsite should be within sight or sound of a visitor’s camp on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season.

2. Manage campsites as follows: a. Density of campsites should be low, not to exceed 1 site per acre or 4 sites per linear mile of trail. b. Many campsites at destination locations are Cole Condition Class 2 or 3, with some Class 4. c. Restore Cole Condition Class 5 sites to a lower condition class or close them.

3. A minimal number of signs may be provided for resource protection and for direction at trail junctions.

4. Bridges may be necessary for resource protection or user safety, but should not be provided merely for user convenience. Native materials should be used as much as possible in the construction of bridges.

5. There should be no measurable change in water quality due to human activity, except for temporary changes that return to normal when the activity ceases.

6. Dead trees or dead, woody debris may be utilized for campfires in amounts that can be replaced annually through natural accumulation.

7. Visitor use may temporarily displace wildlife, but should not displace wildlife from critical habitat during critical periods (e.g. lambing and wintering ranges).

8. Outfitter-guide assigned campsites should not be authorized for longer than 14 days.

Direction for Semi-Primitive Wilderness Settings

Desired Conditions for Semi-Primitive Wilderness Settings

Semi-Primitive Wilderness (SPW) settings are characterized by predominantly unmodified natural environments of at least moderate size. System trails and established campsites are present and there is evidence of other visitors. Some facilities may be present to reduce visitor impacts.

What types of transportation can I use? Foot and horse transportation is generally permissible both on NFS trails and for cross-country travel. Motorized or wheeled transportation is not permitted. Access for people with disabilities is difficult.

What types of activities can I engage in? Primary summer activities include mountain climbing, hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, mountain biking, wildlife viewing, hunting, fishing and backcountry tent camping. Primary winter activities include snowshoeing and cross- country skiing.

What does the area look like? Ecological processes, such as natural succession, fire, forest insects and disease function with very little human influence. Evidence of established campsites is common near popular destinations.

How many other people will I encounter? There is a high, but not extremely high, probability of experiencing isolation from the sights and sounds of humans. The concentration of visitors is low but there is often evidence of others on trails and near popular destinations. Other campers may be within visible or audible range of your campsite at popular camping areas.

What type of experience can I expect to have? Independence, closeness to nature, tranquility, and self-reliance through outdoor skills offer a sense of challenge and risk. The size of SPW settings (typically larger than 2,500 acres in area) gives a strong feeling of remoteness from motor vehicles and from more heavily used and developed areas. SPW settings provide a variety of recreational opportunities, including: • Single and multi-day challenging recreation activities and adventures; • Non-motorized scenic backcountry experiences; and • Self-discovery and challenge in areas with natural conditions and solitude.

How much development and what type of amenities will be present? Facilities provided for dispersed recreation activities are minimal, and are generally designed to protect natural resources. Travel is primarily along well-defined NFS trails. Trail tread is very evident and trails are normally cleared of downed timber. Directional signage is provided at trail junctions. Informational and regulatory messages are generally provided at trailheads.

Management Strategies for Semi-Primitive Wilderness Settings

Managers monitor conditions and implement management strategies to ensure that SPW settings are retained at their current level of naturalness, or restored as needed. Human uses and activities are evident within the area. Management emphasizes sustaining and protecting natural conditions.

Activities are regulated primarily to protect natural and cultural resources, or to protect the quality of recreational settings and experiences. Directional and informational signage is in place in order to support sustainable dispersed recreation use.

Facilities will be as natural appearing as possible or will be constructed out of native material. No facilities will be constructed for user convenience or comfort. Facilitates will be placed so as to concentrate heavy impact on areas previously impacted and on sites capable of withstanding high impacts. On-site controls and restrictions (i.e. signage and travel barriers) are present but subtle.

New trails constructed in SPW settings will be designed to protect natural resources, mitigate user conflicts, or enhance recreational experiences and challenges. Increasing demand for recreation opportunities may be somewhat accommodated through limited opportunities for expansion of trails.

New trails are constructed primarily through the active involvement of advocacy groups, partnerships and volunteers. Adequate maintenance and services at some sites and trails are sustained through the work of partners and volunteers.

Scenic Quality • The Scenic Integrity Objective (SIO) is Preservation.

Access and Travel Management • SPW settings may be suitable for the construction and designation of new trails

Fire and Fuels Management • SPW settings are generally suitable for Wildland Fire Use (WFU) strategies. • SPW settings are generally suitable for fire suppression strategies and tactics. • SPW settings are generally not suitable for prescribed burning.

Other Activities and Uses • Resource management activities, with the exception of livestock grazing, are not permitted in SPW settings.

Guidelines for Semi-Primitive Wilderness Settings

1. A moderate incidence of contact with other groups or individuals should be provided within the following guideline: a. Trail encounters should not exceed 12 other parties per day on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season. b. No more than 2 other occupied campsites are within sight or sound of a visitor’s camp on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season.

2. Manage campsites as follows: a. Density of campsites may be moderate to high, not to exceed 2 sites per acre or 8 sites per linear mile of trail. b. Concentrate use in Cole Condition Class 3 and 4 sites. c. Manage Cole Condition Class 5 sites as either designated sites or restore to a lower condition class.

3. Signs may be used for resource protection. Some regulatory signage may be posted at key locations such as lakeshores and campsites to help gain visitor compliance. Posting of general information and regulations will be limited to trailheads. Directional signage will be provided at trail junctions.

5. There should be no measurable change in water quality due to human activity, except for temporary changes that return to normal when the activity ceases.

6. Dead trees or dead, woody debris may be utilized for campfires in amounts that can be replaced annually through natural accumulation.

7. Displacement of wildlife due to visitor use may be significant but should be of short duration to assure a natural ecosystem is maintained. Visitor use should not displace wildlife from critical habitat during critical periods (e.g. lambing and wintering ranges).

Direction for High-Use Wilderness Settings

Desired Conditions for High-Use Wilderness Settings

High Use Wilderness (HUW) settings are characterized by predominantly unmodified environments; however, the concentrations of visitors may be moderate to high at various times. These high-profile backcountry destination areas include: the routes and alpine basins leading to wilderness peaks that exceed 14,000 feet in elevation and scenically spectacular lake basins or meadows that are less than a day’s hike from trailheads. These areas may also have a large number of day users who are often mixed with overnight and long-distance travelers on trails near trailheads and wilderness boundaries.

How many other people will I encounter? There is a low to moderate probability of experiencing isolation from the sights and sounds of humans. The overall concentration of visitors is moderate but there is frequently evidence of others on trails and near popular destinations. Other campers are frequently within visible or audible range of your campsite at popular camping areas.

What type of experience can I expect to have? Independence, closeness to nature, tranquility, and self-reliance through outdoor skills offer a sense of challenge and risk. HUW settings provide a variety of recreational opportunities, including: • Single and multi-day challenging recreation activities and adventures; • Non-motorized scenic backcountry experiences; and • Self-discovery and challenge in areas with natural conditions.

How much development and what type of amenities will be present? Facilities for dispersed recreation activities are primarily designed to protect natural resources. Travel is primarily along well-defined NFS trails. Trail tread is very evident and trails are normally cleared of downed timber. Directional signage is provided at trail junctions. General informational and regulatory messages are provided at trailheads. Some regulatory signage may be posted at key locations such as lakeshores and campsites.

Management Strategies for High-Use Wilderness Settings

Managers monitor conditions and implement management strategies to ensure that HUW settings are retained at their current level of naturalness, or restored as needed. Despite high visitation levels, HUW settings will be managed to provide high quality backcountry experiences with acceptably low levels of resource impact. Sustaining these HUW settings requires relatively intensive maintenance of trails, campsites, lakeshores and mountaineering routes. Additionally, research and patrol activities are necessary to establish, monitor and regulate the recreational and environmental carrying-capacities of these HUW settings.

Visitor experiences in HUW settings will stress immersion in undeveloped natural landscapes with access to the inspiration and challenge that wilderness provides. Despite high visitation, opportunities for solitude, contemplation and reflection are nonetheless outstanding in relation to everyday life. In addition, HUW settings provide opportunities for initial exposure to wilderness settings, development of backcountry skills, and opportunities for outdoor education.

Activities are regulated primarily to protect natural and cultural resources, or to protect the quality of recreational settings and experiences. HUW settings absorb much of the demand for wilderness recreational experiences. Comparatively high levels of visitation will be permitted in identified HUW settings. Resource impacts will be confined spatially so that the overall impacted area of even high-use sites is minimized.

Directional and informational signage is in place in order to support sustainable dispersed recreation use. Wilderness ranger patrols and administrative contacts with visitors will occur most frequently in the HUW setting, particularly on weekends and at popular destination points.

Facilities will be constructed out of native materials or will be as natural appearing as possible. No facilities will be constructed for user convenience or comfort. Facilitates will be placed so as to concentrate heavy impacts on areas previously impacted and on sites capable of withstanding high impacts. On-site controls and restrictions (i.e. signage and travel barriers) are present but subtle.

Personnel involved in project work and monitoring activities are regularly present in HUW settings. Major work projects should be implemented during low visitor use periods. Work groups should conform to wilderness party size limitations and be sensitive to their potential impact on visitor experiences.

New trails constructed in HUW settings will be designed to protect natural resources, mitigate user conflicts, or enhance recreational experiences and challenges. Increasing demand for recreation opportunities may be somewhat accommodated through the hardening of existing trails, climbing routes and campsites.

New trails are constructed primarily through the active involvement of advocacy groups, partnerships and volunteers. Adequate maintenance and services at many HUW sites and trails are supported through the work of partners and volunteers. In addition, recreation permit or fee systems may be instituted at some HUW locations to regulate visitor use and to subsidize maintenance, wilderness ranger patrols and ecological restoration activities.

Pets and recreational livestock may be banned from HUW settings for protection of wildlife, the natural environment or other visitors’ wilderness experience.

Scenic Quality • The Scenic Integrity Objective (SIO) is Preservation.

Access and Travel Management • HUW settings are suitable for the construction and designation of new trails.

Fire and Fuels Management • HUW settings are generally suitable for Wildland Fire Use (WFU) strategies. • HUW settings are generally suitable for fire suppression strategies and tactics. • HUW settings are generally not suitable for prescribed burning.

Other Activities and Uses • Resource management activities are not permitted, with the exception of livestock grazing which is generally not suitable in HUW settings.

Guidelines for High-Use Wilderness Settings

1. A high incidence of contact with other groups or individuals often occurs within the following guidelines: a. Trail encounters should not exceed 30 other parties per day on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season. b. No more than 2 other occupied campsites are within sight or sound of a visitor’s camp on 80 percent of the days during the primary use season.

2. Manage campsites as follows: a. Density of campsites may be high, but should not to exceed 4 sites per acre or 12 sites per linear mile of trail. b. Concentrate use in Cole Condition Class 3 and 4 sites. c. Manage Cole Condition Class 5 sites as either designated sites or rehabilitate to a lower condition class. d. Overnight camping may be restricted to designated sites. e. Campfires may be prohibited. f. Camping with recreational livestock may be prohibited.

3. Signs may be used for resource protection. Some regulatory signage may be posted at key locations such as lakeshores and campsites to help gain visitor compliance. Posting

of general information and regulations will be limited to trailheads. Directional signage will be provided at trail junctions.

5. There should be no measurable change in water quality due to human activity, except for temporary changes that return to normal when the activity ceases.

6. Dead trees or dead, woody debris may be utilized for campfires in amounts that can be replaced annually through natural accumulation. Prohibit campfires in areas where human removal of dead wood exceeds the natural accumulation or where damage to live trees from wood gathering is chronic.

7. Visitor use should not displace wildlife from critical habitat during critical periods (e.g. lambing and wintering ranges).

8. Displacement and erosion of soil resulting from human activity will be limited to a rate that approximates natural processes.

NATIONAL PRESERVE – WILDERNESS DIRECTION

Carrying Capacity Direction The National Park Service defines visitor carrying capacity as “the type and level of visitor use that can be accommodated while sustaining desired resource conditions and visitor experiences in the park.” Carrying capacity does not necessarily involve identifying a “magic number” for visitor use, nor does it necessarily imply closures or use limits.

This General Management Plan (GMP) for the Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve addresses carrying capacity in the following ways:

• It identifies desired resource and visitor experience conditions for each management zone. • It identifies the principal resource and visitor experience concerns for each management zone (and related indicators) so that park managers can collect baseline data that will assist with setting preliminary standards. • For each resource concern, it lists potential management actions that might be used to address deteriorating trends or unacceptable conditions. • It identifies specific geographic areas for special monitoring attention.

A wilderness management plan, tiered off the GMP, will provide more specific direction for addressing carrying capacity. With limited NPS personnel and budgets, park managers must focus carrying capacity efforts on areas where there are definite concerns and/or clear evidence of problems. This means that monitoring should concentrate on areas where: conditions violate standards (or threaten to), conditions are changing rapidly, specific and important values are threatened by visitation, or effects of management actions or visitation are unknown. Within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness, the Upper and Lower Sand Creek Lakes areas deserve special carrying capacity attention.

Management Zones Management zones define specific resource conditions, visitor opportunities, and management approaches to be achieved and maintained in each area of the park and preserve. Similar to city or county zoning, management zones provide predictable expectations for the condition of areas of the park and preserve. Two management zones, the Backcountry Adventure Zone and the Natural / Wild Zone, have been identified for those portions of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness within the Great Sand Dunes National Preserve. Refer to Appendix F for a map of National Preserve Management Zones.

Table 2.3. Management zones within the National Preserve portions of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Administrative Area Backcountry Natural Adventure Zone / Wild Zone (% of Admin. Area) (% of Admin. Area) Great Sand Dunes National Preserve

Backcountry Adventure Zone

Overview These are natural landscapes with a few facilities, such as designated trails, backcountry campsites, and backcountry patrol cabins. Encounters with other hikers are common on trails during busy visitor periods, but solitude can always be found in off-trail areas. Hiking, backcountry camping, and horseback riding are common activities. Resources may be manipulated, when necessary, to restore damaged areas, to preserve or maintain cultural resources, or to direct visitor use to avoid resource impacts. The Backcountry Adventure Zone occurs in both wilderness and non-wilderness areas.

Resource Condition Natural systems and processes prevail, with minimal human alteration. Segments of the natural landscape may be altered (e.g. campsites defined, water bars and privies installed) to protect resources from negative impacts. Resources may be manipulated when necessary to restore damaged areas, to preserve or maintain cultural resources, or to direct visitor use to avoid resource impacts. Alterations are designed to blend with the natural landscape.

Visitor Opportunities Travel is by foot or horseback. Visitors have a sense of being in the natural landscape and opportunities to view, access, and experience some of the park’s prime resources. Encounters with other visitors are common on trails during park busy periods, but solitude can always be found in off-trail areas. Visitors are somewhat self-reliant and need basic outdoor skills. There are some opportunities for adventure and discovery. Visitors have opportunities to experience natural soundscapes and lightscapes. There may be limits on numbers of visitors, length of stay, group size, and overnight use to protect resources or visitor experience. A visitor permit system may be implemented if needed to protect resources.

Facilities and Activities Common visitor activities include hiking, backpacking, hunting (in the preserve only), fishing, backcountry camping, and horseback riding (bicycles are not permitted). Visitor access is by foot or horseback. Appropriate kinds of facilities include primitive or maintained trails, trails marked by cairns or markers, backcountry campsites, backcountry privies, and patrol cabins. In designated wilderness, management is consistent with NPS wilderness management policies. Appropriate commercial services include guided activities: hunting and fishing, hiking, horseback riding, pack animal trips, photography, bird/wildlife viewing, and mountaineering/climbing.

Carrying Capacity Principal resource concerns and indicators for the backcountry adventure zone:

␀ There is concern about invasive nonnative plants becoming established, especially in more accessible areas of the expanded national park that are newly open to public use (e.g., the northernmost portion of the national park, and Deadman and Sand Creek corridors). Possible indicators: incidence of such plants in new areas. Possible management actions to address this concern: require use of weed-free hay, increased education, and other visitor-oriented measures to limit spread of weed seeds.

␀ There is concern about soil compaction, social trails, erosion, vegetation trampling and loss, and tree damage in areas of heavy visitor/ equestrian use (e.g., around Upper Sand Creek Lake) and in areas of new visitor use (e.g., northernmost portion of the national park). This is also a visitor experience concern. Possible indicators: linear feet of social trails, number and size of problem sites (e.g., denuded areas, wide muddy spots on trails), number of damaged trees. Possible management actions to address this concern: rehabilitate disturbed areas, create designated campsites, install planking across wet areas, require “leave-no-trace” practices, allow stoves only (no wood fires), require backcountry permits, limit number (or duration of stay) of horses.

␀ There is a human waste problem— a health, water quality, and visitor experience concern—from visitors who do not adhere to the park’s sanitary regulations, particularly in the Upper and Lower Sand Creek lakes area. Possible indicators: fecal coliform counts in nearby lakes and streams, toilet tissue “counts” or surveys. Possible management actions to address this concern: provide primitive toilets in problem areas, require visitors to pack waste out, expand education efforts.

␀ Wildlife concerns include bears becoming habituated to humans, declining bighorn sheep numbers (unknown cause), and fishing impacts on reestablished native fish populations. Possible indicators: fish surveys, number of human/ bear encounters, bighorn sheep population size/health. Possible management actions to address these concerns: require use of bear canisters/lockers for food (under way); fishing restrictions designed, in consultation with the Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW), to protect native fishes, bighorn sheep research conducted jointly by the National Park Service and CDOW.

Principal visitor experience concerns and indicators for the backcountry adventure zone:

␀ In this zone, solitude is a desired condition in off-trail areas, but the zone allows for frequent encounters along trails during busy visitor periods. The Upper and Lower Sand Creek lakes areas are of particular concern; use is increasing so that it’s difficult at times to find solitude and good camping locations. Possible indicator: proportion of visitors who saw or heard too many other visitors in off-trail areas (exit survey). Possible management actions to address this concern: tighter restrictions on camping around lakes, create designated campsites, require visitor permits, work cooperatively with the USFS regarding capacity and management in large areas with a common boundary.

Natural / Wild Zone

Overview This is the wildest zone. It protects natural resources and provides opportunities for physical challenge, adventure, and solitude. These are relatively remote, trailess, natural areas that provide great opportunities for challenge and adventure. The expectation for solitude is high and can be found in most of this zone. Hunting (preserve only), hiking, backcountry camping, and horseback riding are common activities. Natural and cultural resources are generally unaltered and unaffected by human influences. This zone occurs in wilderness or nonwilderness.

Resource Condition Natural systems and processes prevail, and natural and cultural resources are generally unaltered and unaffected by human influences. Evidence of recreational use is not readily apparent. Resource inventory and monitoring activities help to identify and protect resources. Rare or special plant communities receive management emphasis for preservation and protection. Archeological sites are protected in place. Natural soundscapes and the dark night sky predominate.

Visitor Opportunities Visitors explore and enjoy relatively remote areas in a natural setting by foot or horseback. Opportunities for solitude, independence, closeness to nature, and adventure are readily available. Expectation for solitude is high and it can be found in most areas of this zone; there are few encounters with other people. Visitors are self-reliant and require good outdoor skills because these areas are without comforts or conveniences. Visitors have opportunities to experience natural soundscapes and lightscapes. There may be limits on numbers of visitors, length of stay, and overnight use. A visitor permit system may be implemented if needed to protect resources or visitor experience.

Facilities and Activities Common visitor activities include off-trail hiking, backcountry camping, horseback riding, guided or unguided hunting (within the national preserve only), and fishing. Visitor access is by foot or horseback (bicycling is not permitted). Overnight use may be limited in certain areas. Management activities include research and monitoring, and stabilization and restoration of natural and cultural resources. There are generally no facilities (examples of exceptions: unmaintained historic structures, research plots, and monitoring wells). In designated wilderness, management is consistent with NPS wilderness management policies. Occasional administrative use of mechanized tools or transport may be used, as necessary, outside of wilderness. Appropriate commercial services include guided activities: hunting and fishing, hiking, horseback riding, pack animal trips, photography, bird/wildlife viewing, and mountaineering/climbing.

Carrying Capacity Principal resource concerns and indicators for the natural/wild zone:

␀ Same as for the backcountry adventure zone. Principal visitor experience concerns and indicators for the natural/wild zone:

␀ In this zone, a desired condition is that solitude can be found and there are few encounters with other people. The Upper and Lower Sand Creek lakes areas are of particular concern; use is increasing so that it’s difficult at times to find solitude and good camping locations. Possible indicator: proportion of visitors who saw or heard too many other visitors in off-trail areas (exit survey). Possible management actions to address this concern: tighter restrictions on camping around lakes, require visitor permits, work cooperatively with the USFS regarding capacity and management in large areas with a common boundary.

Regulations Specific to the National Preserve

The following are regulations are applicable to public use and visitation for that portion of the Sangre De Cristo Wilderness within the Great Sand Dunes National Preserve:

• Pets must be on a leash, no longer than 6 feet long, at all times except that dogs may be loosed only while engaged in legitimate hunting activities.

• Camping is not allowed within 200 feet of trails except within campsites that were established by popular use before 11/22/2000. Camping is also not allowed within 100 feet of streams except within campsites that were established by popular use prior to 11/22/2000. These sites are marked by a Carsonite© stake with camping symbol decal affixed. Camping is not allowed in krumholtz tree zones and above.

• Fruits, nuts, and berries may be collected for personal use only in a quantity not to exceed 1 quart each. Mushrooms may be collected in a quantity not to exceed 2 pounds. Dead wood on the ground that is less than 4 inches in diameter may be collected for campfires. Otherwise, all natural products including rocks and minerals, antlers or other wildlife parts, plants, etc, may not be collected and removed.

• Human waste and wash water must be disposed of at least 100 feet from any stream or body of water.

• Caching of supplies and equipment is permissible provided that the NPS is notified in advance of when and where the cache will be made. Caches may be set in no sooner than one week in advance of the trip and must be removed within one week after the trip concludes. Caches must be stored in a wildlife proof manner and without digging or otherwise altering natural conditions.

MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES

The primary challenges to protecting the wilderness values associated with the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness are: 1) guarding against air pollution, 2) restoring the natural fire regimes, 3) checking the spread of non-native invasive species, 4) managing the impacts from recreational activities, and 5) maintaining trails. These challenges in sustaining the area’s wilderness character are summarized in the following section.

GUARDING AGAINST AIR POLLUTION Refer also to Appendix M - Air Quality Plan for the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness.

Acid deposition Acid deposition is the result of gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides that undergo complex reactions in the atmosphere resulting in the formation of sulfuric and nitric acid, respectively. The major source of sulfur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, fuel oil and diesel. The predominant sources of nitrogen oxides are motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions.

Acids accumulate in the snow pack over the winter and are released in the first 10-20% of snowmelt in a phenomenon known as the acid pulse. Some species of fish, salamanders and other aquatic life that are breeding around the time of the pulse may be adversely affected. In high elevation lakes, rising nitrogen deposition substantially increases their phytoplankton biomass, making them susceptible to eutrophication (depletion of oxygen needed by fish and other aquatic animals). High altitude lakes and ponds in Colorado tend to be very sensitive to acid deposition as they are poorly buffered (Musselman and Slauson 2004).

A 1993-95 study examined all high elevation lakes within the wilderness for their susceptibility to the effects of acid deposition. Approximately 25% of the lakes in examined in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness were found to be sensitive to acidification (Musselman and Slauson 2004).

The Forests have participated in the high mountain lake-testing program (for acid deposition) within the Rocky Mountain Region since 1995. Three lakes in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness; Upper Little Sand Creek, and Upper and Lower Stout Lakes, are currently sampled three times a year. Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 summarize the significant trends for Acid Neutralizing Capacity (ANC), Nitric Acid (HNO3) and Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) at Upper Stout Lake, Lower Stout Lake and Upper Little Sand Creek Lake.

Table 3.1. Acid deposition trends at Upper Stout Lake (1996-2007) ANC – 33 observations NO3 – 33 observations SO4 – 33 observations Sen’s Sen’s Sen’s Sig. Slope Conf. Sig. Slope Conf. Sig. Slope Conf. Trend? (units/yr) Level Trend? (units/yr) Level Trend? (units/yr) Level Outlet Trend +1.62 80% Yes +0.027 90% Yes +0.056 99% Questionable

Table 3.2. Acid deposition trends at Lower Stout Lake (1996-2007) ANC – 33 observations NO3 – 33 observations SO4 – 33 observations Sen’s Sen’s Sen’s Sig. Slope Conf. Sig. Slope Conf. Sig. Slope Conf. Trend? (units/yr) Level Trend? (units/yr) Level Trend? (units/yr) Level Outlet No -0.339 --- Yes +0.049 99% Yes +0.085 99% Trend

Table 3.3. Acid deposition trends at Upper Little Sand Creek Lake (1996-2007) ANC – 30 observations NO3 – 30 observations SO4 – 30 observations Seasonal Sen’s Seasonal Sig. Slope Conf. Sig. Slope Conf. Sig. Slope Conf. Trend? (units/yr) Level Trend? (units/yr) Level Trend? (units/yr) Level Outlet No +5.782 --- Yes -0.059 99% Yes +0.056 99%

As the tables above show, all three lakes are experiencing significant upward trends in SO4. Upper and Lower Stout Lakes also show a significant upward trends in NO3, while Upper Little Sand Creek Lake shows a downward trend in NO3. For more detailed information on acid deposition at these lakes refer to the following report: “Water Chemistry Review of Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Nitrate, and Sulfate for Upper Stout Lake, Lower Stout Lake and Upper Little Sand Creek Lake in the Sangre De Cristo Wilderness” (Gauthier and Mebane 2008).

Nitrogen deposition Increased nitrate concentrations (NO3), from urban and industrial pollution sources, have been measured in alpine ecosystems along the Front Range in the late 20th century. Long-term studies in Rocky Mountain National Park show nitrogen levels 15-20 times higher than estimated natural background levels. Measured levels of deposition have been rising about 2.5% per year over the past 20 years (Bowman et al. 2002). The biogeochemistry of some alpine ecosystems along the Front Range is now outside the historic range of variability (Veblen and Donnegan 2005).

Tundra communities are particularly susceptible to atmospheric deposition from air pollution due to their low capacity to buffer atmospheric inputs. While, some alpine plants respond to greater nitrogen availability by increasing vegetative production, this increase creates changes in the species composition of the tundra community. Many of the dominant alpine species do not respond to additional nitrogen. Subdominant species, typically grasses, some forbs, and nonnative invasive species disproportionately increase in abundance when nitrogen availability is increased and eventually out-compete the dominant flowering plants (Fenn et.al. 2003).

The amount or effects of nitrogen deposition on alpine communities in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness are unknown at this time.

Changes in Visibility Visibility is a measure of how clearly distant objects can be seen. This impairment to visibility is commonly called haze. Haze results from the scattering and absorption of light by particles and gases in the air. Visibility impairing pollutants increase the absorption and scattering of light, which thereby 29 reduces the clarity and color of what we see. Visibility is the biophysical condition related to air quality that is most sensitive to changes in human sources and activities. Long before changes are detected in other biophysical processes, such as nutrient cycling, visibility measurements will show change in both degradation and improvements.

Air pollutants can degrade scenic vistas and visitors perception of the wilderness experience. Visual air quality measurements provide a direct link between the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere and the degradation of natural clean air in the wilderness. This natural condition has been estimated for all areas of the country as part of the Environmental Protection Agencies’ regional haze tracking program. Today the average visual range in most of the western United States, including wilderness areas, is 60-100 miles. This is about 50 to 65% of the natural visual range that would exist in the absence of air pollution (National Research Council 1993).

The nearest visibility monitoring site to the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness is located at the Great Sand Dunes National Park. The data collected from this visibility-monitoring site, is shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Measurements of visibility impairment at Great Sand Dunes (US EPA 2007) Monitoring Year Annual Mean for Monitoring Year Annual Mean for (bold text indicates peak Aerosol Impairment (bold text indicates Aerosol Impairment years for visibility Units peak years for visibility Units impairment) impairment) 1991 15.16 2004 1992 13.75 2005 1993 13.90 2006 1994 15.96 2008 1995 12.11 2010 1996 13.10 2011 1997 13.29 2012 1998 15.50 2013 1999 13.59 2014 2000 17.46 2015 2001 14.04 2002 16.95 2003 14.88 Mean for the Get data through Mean for the measurement period 14.81 2010 if possible. measurement period

The data show a relatively stable trend for visibility impairment since 1991. The peak years for visibility impairment all coincide with large wildfire events that occurred upwind of the monitoring site.

Light Pollution Radiant light from distant Front Range metropolitan areas and local sources has elevated the sky brightness by only 1-10% over the natural background for most parts of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness (Albers and Duriscoe 2001). Night sky measurements at Great Sand Dunes National Park show very little degradation of the night sky viewing quality. The mean Zenithal Limiting Magnitude at Great Sand Dunes is 7.00 zlm., which places the park in Shaaf Class 7 (excellent) for night sky viewing.

RESTORING NATURAL FIRE REGIMES

Fire Management Policies In the early 1900s public concern for protecting the forests from fire ushered in a period of aggressive fire suppression, which has continued to the present. With suppression of all fires, both natural and human-caused, the fire regimes that occurred historically have been altered. Suppressing naturally ignited fires detracts from the character of the wilderness by failing to sustain fire-dependent ecological systems that are substantially free from the effects of modern civilization.

Large and severe fires are part of the natural pattern for subalpine forests, and to a lesser extent upper montane forests. Large and severe fires in these forests usually coincide with extended droughts. Once a fire becomes established, the extreme environment under which large fires in these forests typically burn often overwhelms fire suppression efforts. Fire suppression strategies have focused on keeping all fires from becoming established, suppressing them while they are still small. However, allowing naturally occurring fires to play as large a role in these landscapes as is safely feasible, under low to moderate fire conditions, would create areas of reduced fuels and reduced fire severity during extreme fire events of the future.

Forest Service policy for the management of fire in wilderness is found in FSM 2324.2. The objectives of fire management in wilderness areas are to: 1. Permit lightning-caused fires to play, as nearly as possible, their natural ecological role within wilderness. 2. Reduce, to an acceptable level, the risks and consequences of wildfire within a wilderness or escaping from wilderness.

While Forest Service and National Park Service policy states intent to manage lightning-caused fires within wilderness to achieve ecological objectives; until just recently, all potentially large fires within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness had been suppressed. In ????, the Rio Grande National Forest amended its Fire Management Plan to allow for management of naturally-ignited fires. In ???? the NPS drafted a Fire Management Plan that authorized managing wildfires for natural resource benefits. During 2008 the Forest Plan and the Fire Management Plan for the Pike and San Isabel National Forests were amended to encourage management of lightning-caused fires for ecological objectives within the San Isabel N.F. portion of the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness.

The 2009 Guidance for implementation of the Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy allows any naturally-ignited wildfire to be managed for multiple objectives by following this decision sequence: 1. Provide for the safety of employees and the public. 2. Protect communities and infrastructure, natural and cultural resources. 3. Restore and maintain fire-adapted ecosystems.

Restoring Natural Fire Regimes Wildfires are a key agent of ecological change for nearly all of the ecosystems within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. Individual plants and plant communities have evolved with fire and have adapted to it in various ways. Fires occurred naturally at certain time intervals, which varied by vegetation and climatic conditions. These fires created and maintained a mosaic of different vegetative age classes and species mixtures across the landscape. Periodic fires were essential to maintaining the health and diversity of plant communities and sustaining proper functioning of most Sangre de Cristo ecosystems. Table 3.5 displays the results of fire history study of the Sangre de Cristo Range that was completed by Colorado State University in 1998.

Table 3.5. Summary of historic1 fire frequency and fire extent for subalpine and montane forests on the east and west sides of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains (Alington 2008) Disturbance Size Disturbance Size Mean Fire Interval Frequency of Fires per Valley* per Valley ** per Valley (number of fires (% of forested area) (hectares / acres) (years between per 100 hectares major fire events) per 100 years) West side valley 57 1130 / 2790 92 0.06 Subalpine forest West side valley 19 377 / 930 118 0.37 Montane forest East side valley 16 16 / 230 93 0.44 Subalpine forest East side valley 6 35 / 85 30 2.13 Montane forest * Estimates are from the patch size / age distribution method ** Based on 1983 hectares of forested area in the average west side valley and 588 hectares of forested area in the average east side valley

A fire regime is the periodicity and pattern of naturally-occurring fires in a particular area or vegetative type, described in terms of frequency, biological severity, and spatial extent. The following fire regimes represent our best estimate of the “natural” ecological conditions that existed prior to Euro-American settlement. Fire regimes serve as a historical or natural benchmark for certain values, such as fire frequency, fire severity, forest structural stage and species composition.

Fire Regime Groups have been created to group major vegetative cover types into categories with similar fire return intervals and fire behavior characteristics. Table 3.6 lists these Fire Regime Groups for the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness, their associated primary cover types, and total acres in each group. Fire severity and burn characteristics are also integrated.

1 The reference period that was used for assessing the historic range of ecological conditions, prior to the Euro-American settlement period, extends from the 15th century through 1850.

Table 3.6. Fire Regime Groups Fire Fire Frequency Regime Primary Cover Type(s) (Mean Fire Return Interval); and Total Acres Group Fire Type and Severity 1 Ponderosa Pine with grass 0 – 35+ years, (Frequent); ??? Surface Fires and Mixed Surface and Canopy Fires

2 Montane shortgrass prairie and 0 – 35+ years, (Frequent); ??? mountain shrubs Stand Replacement Fires

3 Douglas / White fir, Ponderosa Pine, 35 – 100+ years, (Infrequent); ??? Gamble Oak, and Mixed Conifer Surface Fires and Mixed Surface and Canopy Fires

4 Lodgepole pine, Aspen and mountain 35 – 100+ years, (Infrequent); ??? sage and non-forested riparian areas Stand Replacement Fires

5 Englemann Spruce, Englemann 200+ years; (Rare); ??? spruce/Sub-alpine fir type, Pinyon- Stand Replacement Fires, Juniper, Bristlecone Pine and Limber with intervening Surface Fires and Pine, and alpine communities Mixed Surface and Canopy Fires

No Fire Bare soil, rock, water None ???

Using the above Fire Regime Groups and LANDFIRE modeling techniques, it is possible to produce a rough estimate of the average annual acreage burned by wildfires prior to Euro-American settlement. This same methodology can be used to create basic projections, in Table 3.7 below, for the average annual acres of wildfire burning needed to begin restoring the historic / natural fire regimes in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. For comparison purposes, the fire frequency findings from Alington’s 1998 Fire History and Patterns in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains can be used to calculate similar projections.

Table 3.7. Average annual acres of wildfire burning needed to begin restoring natural fire regimes in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Average Annual Acres Needing to be Burned, by Fire Regime Group* FRG1 FRG2 FRG3 FRG4 FRG5 TOTAL

San Isabel National Forest 225 30 520 270 40 1085 Rio Grande National Forest ? ? ? ? ? ? Great Sand Dunes National Preserve ? ? ? ? ? ? *Based on LANDFIRE modeling Check w/ Dennis on methodology, and if projections include NF lands outside wilderness and if it includes the Salida portion of the Sangres. 33

Table 3.8 is intended to be used for active tracking of the burned acreage (post 2000) in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness by year, ignition source, acres burned by severity level, and fire management strategy employed. This will allow wilderness managers to periodically compare the actual burned acreage against the desired acreage needing to burn in order to restore natural / historic fire regimes.

Table 3.8. Wildfire tracking by year, ignition source, acres burned by severity level and the fire management strategy employed (post 2000)

Fire Name Year Ignition Total Acres Acres Acres Fire Source Acres Burned Burned Burned Mgmt. Burned High Mixed Low Strategy Severity Severity Severity and Jurisdiction

????? ???? ???

Big Cottonwood 2007 lightning 300 200 100 SI - Confinement

Medano 2010 lightning 6,000 ? ? ? GSD – Eco. Objectives SI - Confinement

CHECKING THE SPREAD OF NON-NATIVE SPECIES Maintaining or restoring the historical integrity of natural plant and animal communities is an integral part of wilderness management. The introduction and spread of non-native invasive plants, animals, pathogens, and fungi can cause degradation or loss of habitat for native species and significantly alter the composition, structure, and function of natural communities. Non-native invasive species, especially those that quickly increase in population size and distribution, directly compete with native species for nutrients, food, shelter and growing space.

The non-native invasive species that pose the greatest threats to the natural plant and animal communities within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness are listed in Table 3.9. The species in Table 3.9 were introduced by modern humans and are now directly competing with, and in some cases completely displacing, indigenous species and ecological processes within the wilderness.

Table 3.9. Non-native invasive species identified in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness (2007) Common name Scientific name Prominent Locations Scope of occurrence

Non-native invasive plant species Canada thistle Cirsium arvense ???? Rare

Other non-native plants?

Non-native fungi and pathogens White pine Cronartium ribicola Medano Pass Rare blister rust Mosca Pass

Non-native fish and wildlife species Mountain goat Oreamnos americanus South Colony Basin Rare Cottonwood Lake Basin

Brook trout Salvelinus frontinalis most streams with low to Common moderate gradient

Native cutthroat Oncorhynchus nearly all of the larger Abundant trout stocked in clarki high-elevation lakes lakes or streams, Oncorhynchus where fish did not virginalis historically occur

Common name Scientific name Prominent Locations Scope of occurrence

Non-native domestic species Domestic livestock Bos taurus Upper Huerfano Valley Occasional Howard Creek area West-side allotments?

Domestic dogs Canis familiaris most trail systems and Common popular camping areas

Scope of Occurrence: • Rare – non-native species are present in less than 10 locations per wilderness area. • Occasional – non-native species are present in less than 20% of their potentially available habitat within a wilderness area. • Common – non-native species are present in 20-70% of their potentially available habitat within a wilderness area. • Abundant – non-native species are present in greater than 70% of their potentially available habitat within a wilderness area.

Fish Stocking Many of the high mountain lakes within the wilderness are stocked by the CDOW. Public and private stocking of fish has occurred in Sangre de Cristo lakes since the early 1900s. Most of the high-elevation lakes did not contain fisheries prior to on-going stocking efforts. Species that are not naturally indigenous to the area such as rainbow and brook trout were introduced many years ago.

The CDOW is now emphasizing stocking with native cutthroat strains. Two subspecies of the cutthroat trout are native to the area; with Greenback cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki) on the east side of the crest and Rio Grande cutthroat (Oncorhynchus virginalis) on the west side of the crest.

Bodies of water identified as lakes within the Wilderness area number approximately 21 on the west side and 30 on the east side. Rivers and streams within the wilderness are generally not directly stocked. Within the wilderness are also many small ponds, potholes, and riparian areas which are not stocked. These areas provide valuable aquatic habitat for non-fish species. Fish stocking has a negative effect on certain amphibians and aquatic invertebrates. Lakes, ponds and streams that currently do not have fish populations should not be stocked or restocked without further study and coordination between the various agencies.

Fish stocking has traditionally occurred by using aircraft. Coordination between the agencies should promote stocking by the use of non-mechanical means. Pack-stock were effectively used for several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s to transport and stock fish. However, most stocking is now done by dropping from airplanes or helicopters.

MANAGING IMPACTS FROM RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Recreation impacts in Pristine areas The Wilderness Act of 1964 charges the Forest Service with maintaining wilderness character so that human interference with nature and natural processes is minimized. Wilderness areas are also intended to provide opportunities for solitude and primitive and unconfined recreation. These conditions are best realized in the most pristine portions of wilderness. Opportunities for solitude and natural quiet become disproportionately rare as regional populations expand and the recreating public adopts new technologies (e.g., GPS units, cell-phones, high performance clothing and equipment) that facilitate easier access into backcountry areas.

A few of the areas classified as pristine within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness – those lands with the least signs of human impact and greatest opportunities for solitude – are being incrementally degraded. Incremental loss of pristine environments is a serious concern for the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. Low-use areas are highly vulnerable to being adversely impacted by even small increases in recreation use. At newly established campsites, an estimated 60-80 percent of the eventual impacts to soils and vegetation occur during the first 10 nights of campsite use. Similarly, most of the impacts from new user-created trails occur during the initial establishment of the treadway (Cole 1982 and 1986). Recreation impacts in pristine settings are a noteworthy problem in the following areas: • Lower Cottonwood Creek to Cottonwood Lake • Other Locations?

Recreation impacts in Semi-primitive and High-use areas High levels of backcountry use at popular destinations can cause unacceptable losses of soil and vegetation at campsites and lakeshores, and lead to the creation of non-system social trails. Backcountry opportunities for solitude and self-reliance are devalued by numerous trail and campsite encounters with other hikers / campers. Obvious signs of human feces result in aesthetic and biological degradation. Opportunities for wilderness solitude and self-reliance are diminished. Wildlife is displaced from their natural habitats. The trail system requires a higher (more expensive) standard of construction and more frequent maintenance. Specialized trails are required to reduce visitor impacts in sensitive areas (steep slopes, alpine plant communities, riparian areas).

Crowding The Wilderness Act of 1964 directs that outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive and unconfined types of recreation be provided. Research has shown that several factors can affect the type of experience that a wilderness visitor is having. Many people expect to have high probability of experiencing solitude within wilderness. Some are sensitive to the numbers and types of visitors they encounter. Some prefer to see no one, while others plan their trips to avoid areas where others congregate. Some do not mind seeing other visitors while traveling and even camp in close proximity to other parties. Wilderness visitors have a wide range of tolerance to crowding.

Encounters with other groups on travelways and in camp have commonly been used as an indicator of crowding or lack of solitude. Trail encounters measure the number of other parties 37

that a visitor will pass during a day’s travel. Typically the travel route will be between a trailhead and a campsite, but could include day-trips from a base-camp, or daily encounters between camps for multi-day trips.

Campsite encounters are generally the most critical measurement of visitor satisfaction. Studies document that solitude/privacy from persons in other parties and other users camping near one’s campsite, is the most important attribute of the wilderness experience (Stankey 1973; Grafe et.al. 1986). Encounters at campsites are determined by the number of campsites within sight or sound of the sampler’s campsite.

Crowding can be affected by other factors, such as the type and location of encounter, the behavior of parties encountered, frequency, and the size of groups. Because of the diversity of factors that can affect crowding, management actions will be taken only after looking at the interrelationship of all of the crowding indicators, and making a determination based on the degree and amount that guidelines are being exceeded.

Recreational Carrying Capacity Recreational carrying capacity is defined as the maximum number of recreational users that a given area can sustainably handle without having unacceptable degradation of natural resources or undesirable social interaction. Determining the appropriate levels of recreation use for an area requires looking at the social, physical, and biological impacts from recreational activities. The Forest Service uses coefficients for numbers of people per acre or per mile of trail to determine a theoretical capacity for an area. These coefficients are derived from a mathematical equation that sets a minimum spacing between people within an area or on a trail. Because recreation use does not occur in a regulated or a consistent pattern, these coefficient capacities are only used as a starting point. Other factors, such as campsite availability, trail and camp encounters, campsite conditions, trail miles available, vegetation height, percent usable ground, and wildlife concerns, are then used to derive a capacity number which better reflects on-the-ground conditions. This methodology is further described in the Recreation-Use Capacity Analysis for the San Isabel National Forest (date?) and in Appendix C of the Environmental Impact Statement for the Rio Grande National Forest Land Management Plan (1986).

These carrying capacities are expressed in terms of thresholds for Persons At One Time (PAOT) within a drainage or recreation compartment. The carrying capacity thresholds for each drainage or recreation compartment are displayed in Appendix D – Map of Recreation Capacity by Compartment. Currently, visitor encounter levels are exceeding WROS thresholds for backcountry solitude at the following popular trails and destinations within the wilderness. Hot Springs Canyon Cottonwood Creek / Lake Basin North Crestone Trail South Colony Basin South Crestone Trail Horn Peak Trail ?? Willow Lake Trail Other Locations ??? Willow Lake Basin

Refer also to Appendix H for a map showing the areas where guidelines for visitor encounters are currently being exceeded. Continued monitoring of these popular compartments is needed to verify current levels of visitor use and validate (or modify) the threshold.

Efforts to gather reliable visitor use numbers have been sporadic over the past years. Efforts have been made to collect visitor use information through trailhead registration data and electronic trail counters. There have also been some efforts to randomly sample individual trailheads to determine approximate levels of use and coefficients of registration compliance. Appendices A and B summarize visitor use estimates by compartment for various years between 1994 and 2010. Refer also to Appendix J for a map displaying average daily visitor use levels by trail corridor.

There are presently no limits on visitor use levels for either overnight camping or day-trips in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. However, trends in activities and travel patterns change over time. Continued growth in visitation will likely cause managers to attempt management actions that preserve the visitor experience and the condition of the natural resources. Some people have expressed concern over management actions that infringe upon the freedom of visitors’ activities within wilderness. Others have expressed concern over a perceived lack of action by the agencies, which they believe has resulted in unacceptable resource damage or that did not adequately reduce use. The managers’ challenge is to determine the best methods for minimizing impacts to the wilderness resource while maximizing visitor freedom within wilderness.

Group Size Restricting the size of parties entering wilderness areas is a common method to reduce the effects of large groups on the area’s physical, biological, and social resources. There is considerable research showing that larger groups cause greater adverse social impact than do smaller groups (Driver, 1980). Impacts from larger groups on the physical-biological environment suggest that the devegetated area in campsites increases as parties get larger (Holmes, 1976).

Preference for group-size limitations varies by the type of user, from one area to another and by the type and location of encounters with groups. In areas of the wilderness where horse use is common, there seems to be a greater acceptance of larger groups. Acceptance alone, however, is not the sole criterion for determining appropriate levels for group size.

Group size has an economic effect on commercial outfitter-guide operations. Commercial operators, especially those using stock to transport guests, generally support a group size limit that will allow them to make trips economically feasible, while maintaining a wilderness experience. Input from commercial operators has generally settled on a party size ratio of 1.5 stock per guest, to allow for transport of the guests, their supplies, and equipment.

Campsite Conditions One of the major effects of recreational activity on natural conditions is campsite impacts. These include effects on soils, visual quality, and vegetation from campfires, trampling and mechanical manipulation – such as tying ropes to trees and breaking off branches for firewood. To determine the effects of campsite creation and usage on the natural condition, monitoring programs have been developed to measure conditions and determine how they are changing.

From 1986 through 1993, campsite condition surveys were conducted using the Frissel Campsite Monitoring System. A majority of the campsites inventoried were situated around lakes or in frequently traveled drainages. Beginning in 1994, extensive whole-drainage surveys were conducted using the 39

Modified Cole Long Form, but without GPS locations. From 2002 to 2007 campsite condition surveys were completed using the Modified Cole Long Form with GPS locations and digital photographs. Starting in 2008, the Rapid Assessment Campsite Condition Short Form was introduced and is now being used as well as the Modified Cole Long Form. Campsite condition survey data has been complied and stored manually, but will eventually be entered into INFRA WILD database.

There appears to be a trend in the creation of more campsites in areas that are popular destination stops for wilderness users. As crowding increases or sites become over-used, additional campsites are established. Additional inventories need to be completed to determine the extent of new campsite creation.

Currently, WROS guidelines for campsite conditions are being exceeded at the following locations within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. Hot Springs Trail North Brush Lake Basin Major Creek Trail Lakes of the Clouds Basin Cotton Creek Trail Comanche Lake Basin Rito Alto Trail Macey Lakes Basin North Crestone Trail South Colony Lake Basin South Crestone Trail Other Locations???? Willow Lake Trail Cottonwood Lake Basin Deadman Lake Basin Zapata Creek Trail

Refer also to Appendix I for a map showing areas where guidelines for campsite conditions are currently being exceeded.

Campfire Wood Gathering Firewood gathering can decrease the available amount of organic matter that is returned to the soil. Larger diameter woody material contributes the most to soil structure and moisture holding capacity. In popular destination areas, downed and dead material has been picked clean, leaving very little to contribute to soil structure. Organic matter contributes to soil structure formation, which decreases runoff and erosion and increases soil moisture holding capacity. Organic matter also increases microbial and plants metabolic rates while supplying nutrients. These processes are critical at high elevations where the growing season is short and biomass production is limited.

Trees are felled for firewood, tent poles, hitch-rails, removed to create camping space, and carved or hacked up with axes. Tying stock to trees exposes root systems and damages the tree by the pulling action of the restrain on the bark. A human browse line can be seen around many camps where campers have broken off the branches that they can reach for firewood.

Uncontrolled Dogs Dogs that are not properly restrained can have adverse effects on wildlife populations and on visitor experiences. Uncontrolled dogs have chased wildlife, harassed pack-stock, damaged personal property, attacked other visitors, and created unwanted noise at popular camping locations. Monitoring of this behavior is difficult. 40

Recreational-Stock Effects on the Wilderness Resource Most of the information related to this issue is based on field observations, rather than empirical data and research conducted in other areas. Very little monitoring has been completed that shows trends or quantifies the actual extent of impacts related to recreational stock. The use of recreational stock has a long history in the Sangre de Cristo Range. Recreational-stock use accounts for about XX% of the total overnight visitor use within the wilderness.

Research has shown that the use of stock in backcountry areas has an impact on trail and campsite conditions (Weaver, 1978). Many of these impacts can be reduced through educational efforts to change behavioral patterns. The size of stock parties influences the severity of a number of problems, particularly in little used and off-trail places.

Deterioration of areas grazed by recreational livestock occurs mainly when grazing use is excessive or when it occurs in fragile areas or at times of the year when fragility is high. Excessive grazing can result from either too many animals or overly concentrated grazing (Cole et.al. 1987). In areas grazed by recreational stock, native colonizer species may increase in importance, or alien species brought in as seed in feces, on coats or hooves, or in supplemental feed may proliferate. Such changes represent substantial alteration of natural conditions. (Cole 1989).

Additional monitoring of stock-use areas in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness needs to be conducted, to determine localized effects of stock use on meadows and riparian areas, and at campsites.

Wilderness Education Wilderness managers recognize visitor education as a proactive management tool. Managers also know that educating wilderness visitors today can reduce or, in some cases, prevent resource damage in the future and save money in the long run. A wilderness education plan is a tool for identifying issues, assigning action items and tracking accomplishments related to the education of wilderness visitors and land managers on the importance and protection of the wilderness resource.

The Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Education Plan explains in detail the goals, issues and the impact of the issues on Wilderness areas. It identifies key messages for targeted users in terms of etiquette and ethics. The plan also includes key messages with regard to noxious weed mitigations. Refer to Appendix L for the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Education Plan.

Commercial Outfitter-Guides Commercial services should be permitted within wilderness to the extent necessary for those activities that are proper for realizing the recreational or other wilderness purposes of the area (Wilderness Act of 1964). Commercial services facilitate a variety of recreational activities within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness including; (arranged from the most widespread commercial services to least) overnight backpacking trips, hunting trips w/stock, summer overnight trips w/stock, day-trip hiking, day trips w/stock, and mountaineering.

Use associated with commercial outfitting and guiding services is estimated to comprise less than 10% of total visitor use on the San Isabel National Forest portion of the wilderness. The percentage of

41 commercial use is estimated to be slightly higher on the Rio Grande National Forest. Visitors using commercial services tend complete longer trips than other visitors in terms of both mileage and duration.

A Needs Analysis for Commercial Outfitting and Guiding Services has been completed for both San Isabel and Rio Grande National Forest portions of the wilderness. These analyses determine the extent and need for commercial services both within and outside of wilderness. Refer to Appendix C for the Allocation of Outfitter Service Days by Recreation Compartment.

MAINTAINING TRAILS Many of the National Forest System (NFS) trails in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness have deteriorated over the past two decades. The logistical challenge of maintaining remote wilderness trails often makes these trails relatively more expensive to maintain. Declining budgets for trail maintenance and increased trail traffic has in many places made the trail tread wider, deeper, and more difficult to maintain. The typical cost for deferred trail maintenance or reconstruction varies from $1,000 to over $20,000 per mile of trail.

Constructing and maintaining trails with the help of volunteers, state and private grants, and partnerships with non-profit organizations has become an integral, and in many situations an essential component, of the trail program. High-profile trails, such as the climbing routes to the “fourteeners” (peaks higher than 14,000 feet) have received contributions from grants, volunteers and non-profit groups towards capital construction and maintenance in recent years. These high-profile trails are the exceptions to an overall downward trend in trail maintenance and construction on the Forests.

In contrast, the general condition of trails within the National Preserve is……..improving???

Guidelines for trail conditions are currently being exceeded on major segments (greater than ½ mile) of the following trails: Lower Cotton Creek Trail Venable Lakes Trail Stout Lakes Trail Comanche Trail above the lake Swift Creek Trail Other Locations ????

Refer also to Appendix J for a map showing locations where guidelines for system trails are currently being exceeded.

Many of the trail routes in the Sangre de Cristo Range were originally established for commodity extraction and land management purposes (prospecting for minerals, livestock movement and access for fire control). Recreational travel needs were not part of the initial design and network of many of these trails. As a result, there has been a tendency by recreational users to create new unauthorized routes to accommodate their needs and destinations. Climbers have created routes to the summits of popular peaks and hunters and anglers have created new routes to popular hunting and fishing locations. The total mileage of non-system trails created by recreational users has not been documented, but is estimated to be at least 20 miles. 42

Social (non-system) trails are a noteworthy problem in the following areas: Northwest from Hayden Pass Big Cottonwood Creek Broken Hand Pass to Milwaukee Peak Rattler / Dollar Parks Deadman Creek South Branch of Brush Creek Mosca Pass to Carbonate Mountain Humboldt Saddle to Bears Playground below South Zapata Lake Mount Lindsey Climbing Route Other locations????

Refer also to Appendix K for a map showing locations where guidelines for social (non-system) trails are being exceeded.

MANAGEMENT ACTIONS

This section describes the management actions / options that are planned to help achieve desired conditions. Management actions are techniques, regulations, or responses that can be implemented to affect wilderness conditions on the ground. Management actions are selected in relation to the level by which a particular standard or guideline is exceeded. Management actions are categorized into three levels (I, II, III). Level I management actions can take place immediately and are generally an indirect method to bring the condition back to meeting a standard or guideline. Level II and III management actions are more direct or restrictive in their response and are not undertaken until standards or guidelines are exceeded by a certain limit and/or for a sustained period. Thresholds are the upper limit in terms of time period or degree to which the guideline is exceeded. When a threshold is exceeded, the next level of management action should be undertaken.

CAMPSITE CONDITIONS Campsite conditions reflect the visual signs of human use, as well as impacts to soil and vegetation and often, hydrologic processes and water quality. A Modified Cole Campsite monitoring system is used to classify camp-area conditions. Conditions are grouped into five categories based on a score that is determined by surveying a variety of factors that affect campsite impacts. The scale ranges from Condition Class 1, having the least impact, to Condition Class 5, having the highest impact.

Table 4.1. Campsite Condition Guidelines WROS Setting Guidelines Pristine a) All sites within Cole Condition Class 1 or 2.

Primitive a) No greater than 40% of sites in Cole Condition Classes 3 and 4. b) No less than 60% of sites in Cole Condition Classes 1 and 2.

Semi-Primitive a) No greater than 60% of sites in Cole Condition Classes 3 and 4. b) No less than 40% of sites in Cole Condition Classes 1 and 2. c) No sites in Cole Condition Class 5 unless designated.

High Use a) No greater than 80% of sites in Condition Classes 3 and 4. b) No less than 20% of sites in Condition Classes 1 and 2. c) No sites in Cole Condition Class 5 unless designated.

Table 4.2. Campsite Condition - Management Options Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Campsite Condition • Voluntary • Discourage the inclusion of • Shorten length-of- Number of sites dispersal of use information in publications or stay period. within a through education guidebooks that directs visitors to • Implement permit compartment that efforts by agency high-use areas. quota system for exceed the personnel, volunteers, • Inform users about alternative specific areas that are guidelines for and publications. areas. exceeding guidelines. Campsite • Inform visitors of • Implement area-wide non- • Implement area-wide Conditions opportunities outside quota permit system to increase permit quota system at wilderness. visitor education. trailheads or at • Emphasize Leave • Limit improvements of individual destinations. No Trace education trailhead access to areas where • Implement closure of efforts. crowding is a concern. specific areas to the use • Limit improvement of trail of campfires and access in areas where crowding remove fire rings. is a concern. • Restrict campfire use to previously used sites. • Limit camping to designated campsites in high-use zones, to minimize establishment of new sites. • Close and rehab selected campsites where campsite density is high. • Limit group sizes, to reduce impact on sites. • Implement regulations to restrict recreational stock from being tied to trees in campsites.

Table 4.3. Campsite Conditions - Thresholds Meeting Guidelines At Guidelines Guidelines Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options Guideline not exceeded Guideline exceeded, but not by Guideline exceeded by more in past three years more than 25%. than 25%.

CAMPSITE DENSITY The Campsite Density Guideline describes the maximum allowable number of established campsites per acre or per linear mile of trail. Established campsites have evidence of fire ring(s), barren ground caused by compaction, long-term vegetative impacts or other significant signs of human use.

Table 4.4. Campsite Density Guidelines WROS Setting Guidelines Pristine 1 site per 10 acres Primitive 1 site per acre or 4 per linear mile of trail Semi-Primitive 2 sites per acre or 8 per linear mile of trail High-Use 4 sites per acre or 12 per linear mile of trail

Table 4.5. Campsite Density - Management Options Indicators Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Campsite Density • Voluntary • Discourage the inclusion of information • Shorten length- Maximum dispersal of use in publications or guidebooks that directs of- stay period. number of through education visitors to high-use areas. • Implement established efforts by agency • Inform users about alternative areas. permit quota personnel, campsites per • Implement area-wide non- quota permit system for specific volunteers, and acre or linear system to increase visitor education. areas that are mile of trail publications exceeding • Limit improvements of trailhead access • Inform visitors of guidelines. in areas where crowding is a concern. opportunities outside • Implement an • Limit improvement of trail access to wilderness. area-wide permit areas where crowding is a concern. • Emphasize Leave quota system at No Trace education • In site-specific areas, increase the trailheads or efforts for all distance that campsites must be from individual wilderness users. water. destinations • Agency • Restrict campfire use to previously personnel educate used sites. users to use existing • Limit camping to designated campsites campsites in high- in high-use zones to minimize use areas. establishment of new sites. • Close and rehab selected campsites where campsite density is high.

Table 4.6. Campsite Density - Thresholds Meeting Guidelines At Guidelines Guidelines Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options Guideline not exceeded in Guideline exceeded, but not by Guideline exceeded by more past three years more than 25%. than 25%.

CROWDING Crowding is measured by the number of campsite and trail encounters with other groups (parties), the number of large groups encountered, and by surveying wilderness users to determine their degree of “perceived crowding”.

The Campsite Encounter Guideline monitors the average number of occupied campsites within sight or sound of the monitor’s campsite per Recreation Use Compartment. The monitored number of encounters is averaged over the summer use season that varies by compartment.

The Trail Encounter Guideline monitors the average number of encounters with other groups on a trail or cross-country route. Trail encounters measure the number of other groups that a visitor will pass during a day’s travel. Typically the travel route will be between a trailhead and a campsite, but could include day-trips from a base-camp, or daily encounters between camps for multi-day trips. Trail or route encounters with large groups are monitored by the same methodology. Large groups are defined as groups having more than 10 people.

Another method for monitoring crowding is to survey wilderness users to determine their perceptions of crowding during their wilderness experience. The crowding scale ranges from Not Crowded to Extremely Crowded. The guideline refers to the percentage of respondents who reported feeling Moderately to Extremely Crowded.

Table 4.7 portrays the Crowding Guidelines for the different WROS settings. Table 4.8 shows the management actions that could be taken to alleviate crowding, while Tables 4.9 and 4.10 show the threshold levels for crowding.

Table 4.7. Crowding Guidelines Guidelines WROS Setting Campsite Trail / Route Large Group Crowding Encounters Encounters Encounters Perception Pristine 0 <1 <1 < than 15% Primitive 1 6 2 < than 15% Semi -Primitive 2 12 2 < than 20% High-Use 2 30 2 < than 30%

Table 4.8. Crowding - Management Options Indicators Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Crowding Maximum number of • Voluntary dispersal • Discourage the inclusion • Institute parking campsites occupied of use through of information in publications fees at high-use within sight or sound of education efforts by or guidebooks that directs trailheads. your campsite per agency personnel, visitors to high-use areas. • Shorten length-of- compartment (season volunteers, and • Inform users about stay period. average). publications. alternative areas. • Implement • Inform visitors of Maximum number of • Implement area- wide backcountry use fees opportunities outside encounters (parties) on non-quota permit system to for high-use areas. wilderness. trails or cross-country increase visitor education. • Implement permit routes per eight- (8) hour • Inform visitors of the • Limit group sizes in areas quota system for day (season average). type of experience (i.e., of concentrated use. specific areas that are high encounter rate, • Limit improvements of exceeding guidelines. numerous campsites, Maximum number of trailhead access to areas • Implement a area- etc.) they will have. encounters with large where crowding is a concern. wide permit quota groups on trails or cross- • Inform visitors of • Limit improvements of system at trailheads or country routes per eight- areas or times best to trail access in areas where individual destinations. (8) hour day (season visit that will reduce crowding is a concern. average). crowding. • In specific areas, Percent of sampled increase the distance that visitors who report being campsites must be from moderately to extremely water. crowded within a compartment.

Table 4.9. Crowding (Camp, Trail, and Large Group Encounters) - Thresholds Meeting Guideline At Guideline Guideline Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options Guideline not exceeded In at least 2 of the past 3 years: In at least 2 of the past 3 years: in past three years Guideline is exceeded by more than Guideline is exceeded more than 20% 20% of the days that guideline is of the days that the guideline is monitored; monitored; and/or and/or the season average does not exceed the the season average exceeds the guideline by more than 20%. guideline by more than 20%.

Table 4.10. Crowding (Crowding Perception) - Thresholds Meeting Guideline At Guideline Guideline Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options 0 - 15% of sampled visitors 16-30% of sampled visitors More than 30% of sampled visitors moderately to extremely crowded moderately to extremely crowded moderately to extremely crowded

DOGS UNDER CONTROL Determining the number of dogs encountered that are not under control is monitored to determine the extent of the problem. A “dog out of control” is defined as an unleashed dog and not immediately responsive to commands; or a dog chasing wildlife, livestock, or packstock (excluding working dogs), or disturbing other visitors.

The Guideline is that less than 5 percent of dogs encountered will be out of control. In the Great Sand Dunes National Preserve, ALL dogs must be leashed.

Table 4.11. Dogs Under Control - Management Options Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Dogs under control • Educate visitors about • Institute Forest Order • Institute Forest Percent of dogs problems and concerns requiring dogs to be on a Order prohibiting encountered that with dogs in wilderness, leash while in wilderness. dogs within are not under and methods that they wilderness area. control. might use (leash, voice command) to reduce conflicts. • Institute Forest Order requiring dogs to be under control while in wilderness.

Table 4.12. Dogs Under Control - Thresholds Meeting Guideline At Guideline Guideline Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options 0-5 % of dogs encountered 5-15% of dogs encountered More than 15% of dogs are not under control. are not under control. encountered are not under control.

RECREATIONAL-STOCK USE The impact of recreational stock use on vegetation, meadows and riparian areas is determined by monitoring the condition of meadow and riparian vegetation and stream banks. Conditions are monitored by; measuring utilization of vegetation; taking transects of key riparian stream bank reaches, conducting rangeland or riparian health evaluations to determine upward or downward trends in vegetative and/or aquatic conditions.

Table 4.13. Recreational-Stock Use - Monitoring Guidelines Monitoring Guidelines For All Management Areas Elements Utilization of 40% utilization by weight on bunchgrass bunchgrass and 50% utilization by weight on bluegrass bluegrass

Riparian utilization Will not exceed established stubble heights on Carex and Juncus species. Stubble height will be 4 inches in the riparian during the growing season and 6 inches by the end of the growing season. Utilization of other herbaceous species in riparian areas up to 40-50% by weight. No more than 15-20% utilization of current annual growth on woody plants.

Riparian Stream bank No more than 20-25% of key area stream reaches may be trampled. Trampling

Table 4.14. Recreational-Stock Use - Monitoring Guidelines by WROS Monitoring WROS Setting Elements Pristine Primitive Semi-Primitive and High Use Rangeland Health At least 95% of At least 90% of At least 85% of Evaluation or surveyed areas show surveyed areas show surveyed areas show Riparian healthy conditions. healthy conditions. healthy conditions. Characteristics Trend must remain Trend must remain Trend must remain Evaluation stable or upward stable or upward stable or upward throughout the area. throughout the area. throughout the area.

Table 4.15. Recreational-Stock Use - Management Options Indicator(s) Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Recreational-Stock Use Percent of utilization by • Educate public on • Limit the number of stock per • Close specific weight on herbaceous proper use of party in areas that are exceeding areas to use by species within surveyed recreational-stock in guideline. recreational- riparian areas. the backcountry. • Require certified feed/hay be stock. • Voluntary used for recreational livestock in • Close entire Percent of key surveyed dispersal of use place of grazing. drainages or stream reaches that are through education • Prohibit picketing in areas where compartments to trampled. efforts. guidelines are exceeded. use by recreational- • Inform visitors of • Enforce regulations to prohibit stock. Percent of utilization by opportunities outside resource damage caused by tying weight on bunchgrass these areas. stock to trees. and bluegrass within • Emphasize Leave • Restrict grazing within areas surveyed areas. No Trace education that are exceeding guidelines to no efforts for all more than 1/3 of the grazing Trend of health of backcountry users, season. with emphasis for surveyed areas using • Establish an “on” date for stock users. the Rangeland Health recreational-stock use or a season Evaluation or Riparian of use. Characteristics • Develop a rotation system within Evaluation a compartment or drainage that would allow recreational-stock grazing only within specified areas. • Limit the length of stay by recreational stock within areas that are exceeding guidelines.

Table 4.16. Recreational-Stock Use - Thresholds Meeting Guideline At Guideline Guideline Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options Utilization guidelines not Any riparian-area utilization Any riparian-area utilization guidelines exceeded in past year, guidelines are exceeded in the past are exceeded in 2 of the past three or year, years, trend is currently stable or or or upward. Utilization is 41-55% on bunchgrass Utilization is >56% on bunchgrass or or 51-65% on bluegrass in 2 of the >66% on bluegrass in 2 of the past 3 past 3 years, years, or or trend is downward, trend has not stabilized, or or Rangeland or riparian health is Rangeland or riparian health is determined to be unhealthy. determined to be unhealthy and has not shown improvement.

NOXIOUS WEED CONTROL

Noxious Weed guidelines define the percentage of noxious weeds that are part of the total overall vegetative canopy of selected survey areas.

Table 4.17. Noxious Weed Control - Guidelines WROS Area Guidelines Pristine Aggressively treat any patch of noxious weeds. Primitive Aggressively treat any patch of noxious weeds. Semi-Primitive & High Use Aggressively treat any patch of noxious weeds.

Table 4.18. Noxious Weed Control - Management Options Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Presence of • Educate public on • Use Integrated Pest • Continue use of Noxious proper use of recreational- Management (IPM) Integrated Pest Weeds stock in the backcountry. techniques to prevent Management (IPM) • Inventory surrounding further spread. This could techniques. Use areas for noxious weeds. include manual or chemical control if the biological treatment, as noxious weeds pose a • Implement mechanical well as altering grazing threat to wilderness control through chopping to practices (as described values and habitat. reduce amount and prevent under the Recreational- further spread. stock- Management Options - Table 4.15).

Table 4.19. Noxious Weed Control - Thresholds Meeting Guidelines At Guidelines Guidelines Exceeded Level 1 Options Level 2 Options Level 3 Options Guidelines exceeded in past Guidelines exceeded for 2 Guidelines exceeded for 3 year. consecutive years consecutive years

OTHER MANAGEMENT ACTIONS

User-Created Trails Add user-created (non-system) trails to the Trail System only when there is an overriding benefit to the protection of natural resources or wilderness values. A user-created trail is any non-constructed path created by the passage of visitors, which is discernable and would not likely recover naturally within one year.

Consider allowing a user-created trail to remain, without adding it to the Trail System, under the following conditions; a) An existing system trail or another acceptable user-created trail does not provide similar access to a destination. b) The user type and level of use meets management objectives for visitation and resource protection for the area. c) The user-created trail is not causing identifiable impacts to TES species or their habitats or to heritage resources. d) Incidental physical treatments, including short reroutes and redirection of users, are sufficient to mitigate natural resource impacts and protect wilderness values.

Consider closing and eliminating a user-created trail under one or more of the following conditions: a) An existing system trail or more appropriate user-created trail provides similar access. b) The user-created trail facilitates levels or types of access that do not meet management objectives for the area. c) The user-created trail is causing identifiable impacts to TES species or their habitats, or to heritage resources. d) Incidental physical treatments, including rerouting and redirection of users, cannot mitigate identified resource impacts. e) It is likely the closure will be effective at preventing further impacts or establishment of another user-created trail.

Consider adding a user-created trail to the Trail System after completion of the appropriate NEPA analysis and public involvement process, using one or more of the following criteria: 1) No other existing trail provides access to the destination. 2) The user-created trail provides access consistent with management objectives for visitation and resource protection for the area. 3) The user-created trail is causing extensive resource impacts, which cannot be mitigated with incidental treatments; but which could likely be controlled through the use of standard trail treatments and regular maintenance. 4) Mitigation of the resource impacts caused by the user created trail will likely result in significant or recurring protection or restoration efforts. 5) Closure would likely be ineffective, or will result in the creation of another user-created trail.

Low-level Aircraft Overflights Coordinate with the Federal Aviation Administration to update wilderness boundaries on flight charts. Notify the appropriate military authority of low-level military flights over the wilderness until the incursions cease.

Fish Stocking The State of Colorado, Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW) has jurisdiction and responsibility for managing fish populations within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. The International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (IAFWA) Memorandum of Understanding serves as the framework for cooperation between the Forest Service, Park Service and the CDOW. Any Forest Service or Park Service recommendation to the CDOW on fish management will be consistent with IAFWA agreement and the need to protect wilderness values.

The IAFWA agreement recognizes that specific on-the-ground conditions will determine different applications of the guidelines. Ideally, specific lake-by-lake and stream management decisions between the CDOW, Forest Service and Park Service will be reached through the development of a cooperative Fish Stocking Management Plan for Sangre de Cristo Wilderness.

Fish stocking will be conducted by the CDOW, using means appropriate for wilderness, for the following purposes: a) to reestablish or maintain an indigenous species adversely affected by human influence; this involves maintaining genetic refuges in high quality aquatic habitat or improving genetics of native sensitive species; b) to perpetuate or recover a Threatened or Endangered species; c) to provide fishing recreation where appropriate.

Lakes and streams that do not currently have fish populations should not be stocked or restocked without further study and coordination between the various agencies.

Fish stocking must be consistent with wilderness values. In most instances the CDOW will be stocking fish that are indigenous to the specific wilderness being stocked. Emphasis will be on stocking native strains of cutthroat trout. Use of pack-stock or other means of non-mechanical transport for fish stocking should be promoted.

Wildlife Management The CDOW has jurisdiction and responsibility for managing wildlife populations within the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. The Forest Service and Park Service will work closely with the CDOW in all aspects of wildlife management, including the issues surrounding the tendency of wildlife to become habituated to food or other attractants brought into the wilderness by humans. Any Forest Service or Park Service recommendation to the CDOW on wildlife management will be consistent with wilderness values and the need to protect and maintain the wilderness resource.

Black bears and bighorn sheep have a tendency to become habituated to food and other attractants brought into the wilderness by humans. While small mammals and birds share the 54 same tendency, black bears and bighorn sheep have the potential for higher levels of conflict with human use. Other factors, such as natural food availability has also contributed to the extent of the problem. Elk in concentrations will tend to overgraze areas in much the same way that domestic livestock will. When they browse on subalpine willows, they can destroy or damage potential bird habitat and increase the potential for bank erosion. The Deadman Creek and Pole Creek areas are currently experiencing extensive and damaging browsing and grazing impacts by large elk populations.

Potential Additions to the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness The San Isabel National Forest has tentatively identified 28,800 acres in the following roadless tracts adjoining the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness as being capable and suitable for wilderness recommendation. The final recommendation will occur when the revision of the Land Management Plan is finalized.

• Potential Wilderness Area #14 – Blanca Peak to Slide Mountain – 4,100 acres • Potential Wilderness Area #15 – Medano Pass to Carbonate Mountain – 5,300 acres • Potential Wilderness Area #16 – Alvarado Campground to Music Pass – 8,000 acres • Potential Wilderness Area #17 – Lake Creek to Hermit Pass – 11,400 acres

Are there any adjoining areas that the Rio Grande National Forest has recommended as being capable and suitable for wilderness?

Additional direction for management of wilderness study areas and recommended wilderness areas is found in Forest Service Manual 1900 – Land Management Planning, Chapter 1923 – Wilderness Evaluation; and in Forest Service Handbook 1909.12 – Land Management Planning, Chapter 70 – Wilderness Evaluation.

Permissible Uses and Activities 1. Any congressionally designated wilderness study area or inventoried roadless area recommended by the Forest Service for wilderness designation is not available for uses or activities that may reduce the wilderness potential of the area. 2. Activities or uses that are currently permitted may continue, pending congressional designation, if they do not compromise the wilderness characteristics of the area.

Search and Rescue Operations The respective County Sheriffs have primary responsibility for search and rescue operations. Is this statement true for the National Preserve? Develop standardized MOUs with the County Sheriffs to provide consistent guidelines for the approval and use of mechanized transport and motorized equipment with the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness.

Wilderness Signage Develop a standardized signage protocols, materials, messages, and layouts to provide consistency and uniformity across agency boundaries.

Do we want to include pictures of the standardized signs?

WILDERNESS CHARACTER MONITORING

The Wilderness Act of 1964, Use of Wilderness Areas Section 4(b), describes the primary direction for wilderness stewardship as “each agency administering any area designated as wilderness shall be responsible for preserving the wilderness character of the area”.

The Wilderness Act doesn’t define wilderness character; however a National Framework for Monitoring Conditions Related to Wilderness Character (Landres et al 2005) concluded that wilderness character is ideally described as the unique combination of the following:

• Natural environments that are relatively free from modern human manipulation and impacts; • Opportunities for personal experiences in environments that are relatively free from the encumbrances and signs of modern society; and • Symbolic meanings of humility, restraint, and interdependence in how individuals and society view their relationship to nature.

Using the Definition of Wilderness, Section 2(c) from the Wilderness Act, the federal land management agencies identified the following four qualities of wilderness that make the idealized description of wilderness character relevant, tangible, and practical to forest planning, management, and monitoring. For more background refer to Keeping It Wild: An Interagency Strategy to Monitor Trends in Wilderness Character (Landes et.al. 2008). These four qualities can be applied to the stewardship of all federal wildernesses – regardless of size, location, or other unique place-specific attributes – because they are based on the legal definition of wilderness and every wilderness law includes specific language that ties it to the definition.

Untrammeled quality - The Wilderness Act, Section 2(c) states that wilderness is “hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man,” in which wilderness is essentially unhindered and free from modern human control or manipulation. Actions that intentionally manipulate or control ecological systems inside wilderness degrade the untrammeled quality of wilderness character, even though they may be taken to restore natural conditions. Indicators and sample measures are provided below in Table 5.1.

Natural quality – One of the major themes running throughout the Wilderness Act is that wilderness should be free from the effects of “an increasing population, accompanied by expanding settlement and growing mechanization” and that the “earth and its community of life…is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions” (Sections 2(a) and 2 (c), respectively). Indicators and sample measures are provided below in Table 5.2.

Undeveloped quality – Wilderness is defined in Section 2(c) of the Wilderness Act as “an area of undeveloped Federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements of human habitation” with “the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” The Wilderness Act identifies “expanding settlement and growing mechanization” as forces causing wild country to become occupied and modified, and further clarifies in Section 4(c) that “there shall be no temporary road, no use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment or motorboats, no landing of

aircraft, no other form of mechanical transport, and no structure or installation.” Indicators and sample measures are provided below in Table 5.3.

Solitude or primitive and unconfined quality – The Wilderness Act states in Section 2(c) that wilderness has “outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation.” Primitive and unconfined environments together provide ideal opportunities for the physical and mental challenges associated with adventure, real consequences for mistakes, and personal growth that result from facing and overcoming obstacles (Borrie 2000, Dustin and McAvoy 2000). Indicators and sample measures are provided below in Table 5.4.

In addition to the four qualities of wilderness character that are discussed above, there are also important intangible aspects such as the feelings of inspiration and spiritual connection.

Table 5.1. Indicators and Measures of Untrammeled Character

Quality Indicator Measures

Actions authorized Number of actions to manage plants, animals, pathogens, soil, Untrammeled by the Federal water, or fire; weed spraying, fuels reduction projects; naturally Wilderness is land manager that occurring fire managed for resource benefit, or fires set for essentially unhindered manipulate the management objectives and free from modern biophysical human control or environment manipulation Percent of natural fire starts that received a suppression response

Administration of Outfitter / Guide permits with a wilderness ethics emphasis; number and locations of camps and non- system trails; are inspections, monitoring and minimum-impact education efforts effective; carrying capacity guidelines properly evaluated and utilized

Number of lakes and other bodies of water stocked with fish; are the stocked fish naturally present; genetically pure? If stocking is solely for recreation are non-wilderness alternate sites available?

Actions not Illegal or non-permitted Outfitter / Guide activities; placer authorized by the mining; commercial gathering of plants or other materials; Federal land gardening activities manager that manipulate the biophysical Fire suppression planning not coordinated with Fire Resource environment Advisors; MIST tactics not implemented; Suppression Repair Plans not developed or not completed

Trespass grazing occurrences

Table 5.2. Indicators and Measures of Naturalness Quality Indicators Measures

Abundance, distribution, or number of indigenous species that are listed as Natural Plant and threatened or endangered, sensitive; Big Horn Sheep counts Wilderness animal species ecological and systems are communities Number of extirpated indigenous species substantially free from the effects of Number of non-indigenous species modern civilization

Abundance, distribution, or number of invasive non-indigenous species

Number of acres of authorized active grazing allotments and number of animal unit months (AUMs) of actual use inside Wilderness

Change in demography of composition of plant or animal communities

Air quality - visibility based on average deciview and sum of anthropogenic fine Physical nitrate and sulfate resources

Air quality - ozone air pollution based on concentration of N100 episodic and W126 chronic ozone exposure affecting sensitive plants

Water quality – acid deposition based on concentration of sulfur and nitrogen in wet deposition

Extent and magnitude of change in water quality

Extent and magnitude of human-caused stream bank and lake shore erosion (domestic livestock and people trampling)

Extent and magnitude of disturbance or loss of soil or soil crusts; trails and camps; livestock salting areas and gathering points, herd movement patterns

Departure from natural fire regimes; historical records of suppression activities and subsequent condition surveys

Extent and magnitude of global climate change based on timing of green-up from MODIS satellite imagery; change in temperature and precipitation from RAWS data

Change in snow depth from SNOTEL data; change in the distribution of select plant communities (for example, treeline) from photo points

Table 5.3. Indicators and Measures of Undeveloped Character

Quality Indicator Measures

Non-recreational Index of authorized physical development; ditches, water Undeveloped structures, storage structures; power and communications lines (including Wilderness retains its installations, and maintenance access permissions and clearing standards); primeval character and developments constructed helispots influence, and is essentially without permanent improvement Index of unauthorized (user-created) physical development; or modern human water diversions; unpermitted O/G camps and trails; occupation equipment caches; squatter camps

Inholdings Area and extent of existing or potential impact of inholdings; mode of transport accessing the properties, wildlife migration or other disruptions, construction traffic, visitor experience impacts, etc.

Use of motor Type and amount of emergency use of administrative and non- vehicles, motorized emergency use of motorized vehicles, motorized equipment, of equipment, or mechanical transport mechanical transport Type and amount of emergency use of motorized vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport

Type and amount of motor vehicle, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport use not authorized by the federal land manager; bicycles, chainsaws, generators, wheeled game carts, snowmobiles, ATVs, motorcycles, 4x4s, aircraft, hang gliders, etc.

Loss of statutorily Number and severity of disturbances to cultural resources protected cultural resources

Table 5.4. Indicators and Measures of Opportunities for Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation

Quality Indicators Measures

Remoteness from Amount of visitor use Solitude or sights and Primitive and sounds of people Unconfined inside the Number of trail contacts Wilderness Recreation Wilderness provides Number and condition of campsites outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive and Remoteness from Area of Wilderness affected by access or travel routes that are unconfined recreation occupied and adjacent to the Wilderness modified areas outside the Wilderness Night sky visibility averaged over the Wilderness

Extent and magnitude of intrusions on the natural landscape

Facilities that Type and number of agency-provided recreation facilities; is decrease self- internal signing kept to the minimum needed to provide for reliant recreation public safety and resource protection, destination signing absent; huts or constructed shelters

Trail Number of trail miles in developed condition classes development level

Management Type and extent of management restrictions; are Special restrictions on Orders and regulations are current, valid and posted; fire visitor behavior restrictions; are Wilderness Ranger patrols visible; is advertisement for Permitted commercial or sponsored activities consistent with Wilderness management goals; geo-caching prohibition; fee areas, i.e. South Colony

Educational Pre-planning info and Leave-No-Trace guidelines available on materials Forest websites, trailhead kiosks impart the spirit of available to assist stewardship and discovery; register boxes stocked visitors enhance their experiences

Frequency of Monitoring & Evaluation

Prepare a schedule and details for monitoring

LIST OF PREPARERS

The Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Operations Team Current and Past Members

Christine Cloninger………...... San Carlos Ranger District Mike Smith …...... San Carlos Ranger District Carl Bauer ...... San Carlos Ranger District Jeffer Wingate ...... San Carlos Ranger District Jeff Outhier ...... San Carlos Ranger District Daryl Bressan...... San Carlos Ranger District Mike Sugaski………...... Salida Ranger District Brett Beasley ...... Salida Ranger District Ben Lara ...... Salida Ranger District Sid Hall …...... Saguache Ranger District Kristi Murphy………...... Saguache Ranger District Sean Noonan………...... Saguache Ranger District Gerald Sandoval………...... Saguache Ranger District Dario Archuleta………...... Conejos Peak Ranger District Jim Hong ...... Conejos Peak Ranger District Antonio Lucero ...... Conejos Peak Ranger District Jim Bowman ...... Great Sand Dunes Park and Preserve Others??? ......

WORKS CITED

Albers, S. and Duriscoe, D. 2001. Modeling Light Pollution from Population Data and Implications for National Park Service Lands. Pages 56-68: in Protecting Dark Skies, Vol 19, no 1. The George Wright Forum. Hancock, MI

Alington, K. 1998. Fire history and landscape pattern in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Colorado. PhD Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. 55p.

Bahls, Peter, 1992, The status of fish populations and management of high mountain lakes in the Western United States, Northwest Science. Vol. 66. No. 3, 1992.

Bowman, W.D., D.M. Cairns, J.S. Baron, and T.R. Seastedt. 2002. Islands in the sky: alpine and treeline ecosystems of the Rockies. Pages 183-202 in: Rocky Mountain Futures: An ecological perspective. J.S. Baron, editor. Island Press. Washington, D.C.

Bronaugh, Whitcomb, M. 1977, A field study of the mountain goat in the Needle Mountains, Research paper prepared for the San Juan National Forest.

Cole, David N. 1982. Wilderness Campsite Impacts: effect of amount of use. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper, INT-284. Ogden, UT. 34p.

Cole, David N. 1986. Ecological changes on campsites in the Eagle Creek Wilderness, 1979 to 1984. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper, INT-368. Ogden, UT. 15p.

Cole, David N. 1989. Viewpoint: Needed research on domestic and recreational livestock in Wilderness, Journal of Range Management 42(1), January 1989

Cole, David N., Petersen, M., Lucas R. 1987. Managing wilderness recreation use: common problems and potential solutions. General Technical Report INT-230, Odgen UT: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station

Driver, B.L., Lucas, Robert C., 1980, Rationale for Wilderness party size limitations, Rocky Mountain and Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station

Fenn, M.E.; Baron, J.S.; Allen, E.B.; Rueth, H.M.; Nydick, K.R.; Geiser, L.; Bowman, W.D.; Sickman, J.O.; Meixner, T.; Johnson, D.W.; Neitlich, P. 2003. Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition in the western United States. Bioscience. 53:404-420.

Gauthier, B. and Mebane, A. 2008. Water chemistry review of acid neutralizing capacity, nitrate, and sulfate for Upper Stout Lake, Lower Stout Lake and Upper Little Sand Creek Lake in the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. An unpublished draft report on file: San Isabel National Forest, San Carlos Ranger District Office, Canon City, CO. 30p.

Grafe, Alan R.; Donnelly, Maureen, P. and Vaske, Jenny. 1986. Crowding and specialization: a reexamination the crowding model. In: Lucas, Robert C., comp. Proceedings-national Wilderness research conference: current research; 1985 July 23-26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-212. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 333-338

Holmes, Daniel O and Dobson; Heidi E.M., 1976. Ecological carrying capacity research: Yosemite National Park. Calif. The effects of trampling and urine on subalpine vegetation, a survey of past and present backcountry use and the ecological carrying capacity of Wilderness. Univ., Berkeley, Dept. of Plant Pathology, NPS Contract CX 8000-4-0026.

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Landres, P.; Barns, C.; Dennis, J.G.; Devine, T.; Geissler, P.; McCasland, C.S.; Merigliano, L.; Seastrand, J.; Swain, R. 2008. Keeping it wild: an interagency strategy to monitor trends in wilderness character across the National Wilderness Preservation System. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-212. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 85p.

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National Research Council, Committee on Haze in National Parks and Wilderness Areas. 1993. Protecting visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas. National Academy Press. Washington, DC. 316p.

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A – East Side Visitor Use

Appendix B – West Side Visitor Use

Appendix C – Allocated Outfitter Service Days by Compartment

Appendix D – Map of Recreation Capacity by Compartment

Appendix E – Map of National Forest WROS Designations

Appendix F – Map of National Preserve Management Zones

Appendix G – Map of Average Daily Summer Visitor Use Levels

Appendix H – Map of Social Encounters Exceeding Standards

Appendix I – Map of Campsites Exceeding Standards

Appendix J – Map of System Trails Exceeding Standards

Appendix K – Map of Social Trails Exceeding Standards

Appendix L – Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Education Plan

Appendix M – Sangre de Cristo Air Quality Plan

APPENDIX A – EAST SIDE VISITOR USE

Sangre de Cristo Wilderness – East Side Visitor Use by Recreation Compartment During the Summer Season (5/15-9/15) Recreational 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 Compartment (visitor (visitor (visitor (visitor (visitor days) days) days) days) days) Simmons Peak Hunts Lake West Creek Lake Stout Creek Lake Bushnell Lake Middle Prong South Prong Big Cottonwood North Brush Creek Middle Brush Creek South Brush Creek Texas Creek Lakes of the Clouds North Taylor Creek Goodwin Creek Venable Lake Comanche Lake North Cottonwood Dry Lakes Horn Creek Macey Creek North Colony Creek South Colony Creek Marble Mountain Music Pass South Cottonwood Muddy Creek Mt. Zwischen Lower Huerfano Upper Huerfano Dutch Creek Slide Mountain Totals

APPENDIX B – WEST SIDE VISITOR USE

Sangre de Cristo Wilderness – West Side Visitor Use by Recreation Compartment During the Summer Season (5/15-9/15) Recreational 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 Compartment (visitor (visitor (visitor (visitor (visitor days) days) days) days) days) Dorsey / Decker Creeks Bushnell Peak Nipple Mountain Black Canyon Hot Springs Creek Garner Creek Major Creek Cotton Creek Wild Cherry Creek Rito Alto Creek San Isabel Creek North Crestone Creek South Crestone Creek Willow Lake Spanish Creek Cottonwood Creek Deadman Creek Pole Creek Music Pass Lower Sand Creek Medano Lake Mosca Pass Mosca Creek North Zapata Creek South Zapata Creek Pioneer Creek Lake Como

Totals

APPENDIX C – ALLOCATED OUTFITTER SERVICE DAYS

Recreational Permitted Recreational Permitted Compartment Service Compartment Service (East-side) Days (West-side) Days Simmons Peak Hunts Lake West Creek Lake Stout Creek Lake Bushnell Lake Middle Prong South Prong Big Cottonwood North Brush Creek Middle Brush Creek South Brush Creek Texas Creek Lakes of the Clouds North Taylor Creek Goodwin Creek Venable Lake Comanche Lake North Cottonwood Dry Lakes Horn Creek Macey Creek North Colony Creek South Colony Creek Marble Mountain Music Pass South Cottonwood Muddy Creek Mt. Zwischen Lower Huerfano Upper Huerfano Dutch Creek Slide Mountain Totals