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Climate on the Blanca Massif, Sangre De Cristo Mountains, Colorado, USA, During the Last Glacial Maximum

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Climate on the Blanca Massif, Sangre De Cristo Mountains, Colorado, USA, During the Last Glacial Maximum quaternary Article Climate on the Blanca Massif, Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Colorado, USA, during the Last Glacial Maximum Keith A. Brugger 1,* , Eric M. Leonard 2, Kurt A. Refsnider 3 and Peter Dolan 4 1 Geology Discipline, University of Minnesota, Morris, MN 56267, USA 2 Department of Geology, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO 80903, USA; [email protected] 3 101 W Goodwin St #3849, Prescott, AZ 86302, USA; [email protected] 4 Statistics and Computer Science Disciplines, University of Minnesota, Morris, MN 56267, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Temperature-index modeling is used to determine the magnitude of temperature de- pression on the Blanca Massif, Colorado, required to maintain steady-state mass balances of nine reconstructed glaciers at their extent during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The mean temperature depression thus determined is ~8.6 +0.7/−0.9 ◦C where the uncertainties account for those inherent in the glacier reconstructions, in model parameters (e.g., melt factors), and possible modest changes in LGM precipitation. Associated equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) exhibit a statistically significant directional dependency being lower toward the north and east. Under the assumption that regional temperature change was uniform, required changes in precipitation vary systematically—also exhibit- ing a directional dependency coinciding with that in ELAs—and indicate increases (over modern) occurred on the eastern side of the massif while decreases occurred on the western side. This disparity represents a strengthening of a precipitation asymmetry, particularly winter precipitation, which Citation: Brugger, K.A.; Leonard, E.M.; Refsnider, K.A.; Dolan, P. exists today. The modern precipitation asymmetry may be a consequence of snow being blown Climate on the Blanca Massif, Sangre over to the eastern side of the massif (advective transport) by southwesterly flow. Intensification of de Cristo Mountains, Colorado, USA, this flow during the LGM would have enhanced advection, and augmented snow accumulation on during the Last Glacial Maximum. glaciers, thus explaining the lower ELAs and increased precipitation on that side of the massif. Quaternary 2021, 4, 27. https:// doi.org/10.3390/quat4030027 Keywords: Last Glacial Maximum; paleoglacier reconstruction; paleoclimate; temperature-index model; Blanca Massif; Sangre de Cristo Mountains; Colorado Academic Editors: Leszek Marks and Nathan D. Stansell Received: 9 June 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 18 August 2021 Published: 30 August 2021 Estimates of temperature change during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) based on mass balances and/or equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) of paleoglaciers have contributed Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral to our current understanding of Late Pleistocene climate in the Colorado Rocky Moun- with regard to jurisdictional claims in tains [1–8]. These estimates, however, generally assume either no significant change in published maps and institutional affil- LGM precipitation from modern values or assume arbitrary departures, the latter often to iations. assess the sensitivity of inferred temperature depressions. This shortcoming arises from both the lack of precipitation proxies in the region, and the fact that the region commonly lies along a transition from wetter to drier LGM conditions indicated in large-scale paleo- climate modeling (e.g., the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) [9]). Moreover, broader regional trends in paleoclimate (especially precipitation) are poten- Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. tially complicated by topographic and meteorological settings that would have affected This article is an open access article local energy and mass balances of glaciers. Thus, vexing questions remain—how did distributed under the terms and LGM precipitation, precipitation patterns, and associated moisture transport differ from conditions of the Creative Commons the present? Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The significance of the answers to these questions goes beyond the determination of creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ LGM temperature change. They carry with them implications for changes in atmospheric 4.0/). circulation and hydroclimate during a time of extreme climate change that are not fully Quaternary 2021, 4, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat4030027 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/quaternary Quaternary 2021, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 28 The significance of the answers to these questions goes beyond the determination of LGM temperature change. They carry with them implications for changes in atmospheric Quaternary 2021, 4, 27 circulation and hydroclimate during a time of extreme climate change that are2 ofnot 26 fully understood [9–17]. In turn, a better understanding of overall climate dynamics during the LGM strengthens our ability to test the skills of climate models used to project future cli- mateunderstood change [18,19]. [9–17]. In turn, a better understanding of overall climate dynamics during theThis LGM paper strengthens follows our a prior ability regional to test the study skills in of which climate Refsnider models used et al. to [3] project concluded future that paleo-ELAsclimate change were [ 18consistently,19]. lower on the eastern side of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in ColoradoThis paper where follows precipitation a prior regional is today study enhanced in which Refsniderby southeasterly-derived et al. [3] concluded thatmoisture paleo-ELAs were consistently lower on the eastern side of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains during late winter/early spring. The narrower focus here is to estimate LGM temperature in Colorado where precipitation is today enhanced by southeasterly-derived moisture depressionduring late based winter/early on temperature-index spring. The narrower modeling focus hereof steady-state is to estimate mass LGM balances temperature of paleo- glaciersdepression on the based Blanca on Massif temperature-index (in the Sangre modeling de Cristo of steady-state Mountains mass of Colorado, balances of Figure pale- 1) in orderoglaciers to further on the assess Blanca possible Massif (inchanges the Sangre in precipitation de Cristo Mountains and the ofrespective Colorado, rolesFigure of1 )differ- entin moisture order to furthersources assess and aspects possible in changes driving in glaciation precipitation on and the the massif. respective In particular, roles of we showdifferent that (1) moisture an east–west sources precipitation and aspects in asymmetry driving glaciation exists today on the across massif. the In massif particular, that can be wecharacterized show that (1) using an east–west precipitation precipitation anomalies asymmetry (i.e., residuals exists today after across the theelevation massif thatdepend- encecan of be precipitation characterized is using removed). precipitation (2) These anomalies anomalies (i.e., residualsshow a statistically after the elevation significant de- di- rectionalpendence dependence, of precipitation as do is removed).the ELAs (2)of Thesepaleoglaciers. anomalies (3) show LGM a statistically temperatures significant were ~8.6 directional dependence, as do the ELAs of paleoglaciers. (3) LGM temperatures were +0.7/−0.9 °C lower, assuming no significant changes in precipitation. (4) Under the as- ~8.6 +0.7/−0.9 ◦C lower, assuming no significant changes in precipitation. (4) Under the sumptionassumption of uniform of uniform temperature temperature depression depression overover the the massif, massif, the the existing existing precipitation precipitation asymmetryasymmetry must must have have beenbeen strengthened strengthened in orderin order to maintain to maintain glaciers glaciers at their LGMat their extents. LGM ex- tents.The The latter latter suggests suggests increased increased moisture moisture transport transport to the northeastern to the northeastern and eastern sidesand ofeastern sidesthe of massif the massif during theduring accumulation the accumulation season, and season, possible and concomitant possible decreasedconcomitant moisture decreased moisturedelivery delivery to the western to the side.western side. FigureFigure 1. Location 1. Location map mapof the of Blanca the Blanca Massif Massif within within the the Sangre Sangre de de Cristo Cristo Mountains Mountains in Colorado.Colorado. MPSMPS andand UCS UCS are are the locationsthe locationsof the Medano of the Medano Pass and Pass Ute and Creek Ute CreekSNOTEL SNOTEL sites, sites, respectively. respectively. Outlines Outlines of the of the glaciers glaciers studied studied are are shown shown sche- matically—seeschematically—see Figure 4 Figure for details. 4 for details. The red The and red white and white dashed dashed line line delineates delineates the the range range crest crest in in the north andand defines defines the easternthe and eastern western and western sides of sides the ofmassif the massif as defined as defined in this in thisstudy. study. 2. Regional2. Regional Setting Setting 2.1. Geologic and Geomorphic Setting 2.1. Geologic and Geomorphic Setting The Sangre de Cristo Mountains form a prominent narrow, fault-bounded range that extendsThe Sangre from southern de Cristo Colorado Mountains to northern form a Newprominent Mexico narrow, trending fault-bounded NNW–SSE (Figure range1) . that extendsThe structural from southern evolution Colorado of the range to northern itself is largely New due Mexico folding trending and thrust NNW–SSE faulting during
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