•n.e nature of form in the dlgtt1I age is trapped in the invisible realm of code. Form+Code makes that world visible to the community that stands to gain the most from it: artists and ." -John Maeda

•At tong last. here is a publication that looks comprehensively at the contemporary digital medium with clarity, at its recent past and into the future." -Greg Lynn

"Elegant as an algorithm, clear as a program, and as enthralling as a video game, Form+Code is a powerful tool, both as a tutorial and as an in-depth analysis of the aesthetics of the information age." -Domenico Quaranta

"This incredibly rich study of the history and possibilities of creating media through code is a must-have reference collection." -Karsten Schmidt

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- - '. ·_ ~· - •. Once the exclusive domain of programmers, Form+Code in , Art, and fields of , , data code is now being used by a new generation of offers an in-depth look at the use of software mapping, art, digital fabrication, interactive designers, artists, and architects eager to in all creative disciplines. This stunning visual media, gaming, artificial intelligence, artificial explore how software can enable innovative survey introduces readers to more than 300 life, and all forms of new media and expression. ways of generating form and translating ideas. significant works of the past 60 years in the DESIGN BRIEFS --- RM . gN, ,. , -E Di -- ...\ ·• I

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fl -93 In this capacity, the designer is no longer making choices about a single, final object but creating ajnatrix encompassing an entire population of possible . This is a move from thinking about an object to thinking about a field of infinite options. This involves searching for and exploring a population of designs that meet certain requirements, behave in particular ways, or fit the desires of the designer.

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Defined broadly, a parameter is a value that effect on form, repetition offers a way to has an effect on the output of a process. This explore a field oLpossibfe designs for could be something as straightforward as the favoxahle-varjations. Both and amount of sugar in a recipe, or as complex sjmuiatiocLreguire the use of parameters as the activation threshold of a neuron in to define the system, and they describe the brain. In the context of architecture and how data or other inputs will influence the design, parameters describe, encode, and behaviors of that system. quantify the options and constraints at play in a system. A common constraint might be the budget available for a project, while a configuration option might control color, size, density, or material. Identifying and describing the variable elements in a process—be it a section of tocJeTM^heTulisToT aTfadaist poem—is called parameterization. This multistep process requires that the designer decide botjywhat canj:hange and the range of possible values for each parameter. For example, a designer can explore the effects LLI of different color palettes on a logo design. N In this case, the colors of the elements within the logo are the parameters, and the list of possible palettes defines the value range. Parameterization creates_connections jytween the inlentiomotdhe designer and the system he or she is describing. < CC As a greater number of parameters are < identified and incorporated into a process, Q_ the number of possible outcomes also increases. Imagine each parameter as defin­ ing an axis on a graph, and a parameterized system as defining a populated by potential design states (resulting from a com­ bination of specific values being assigned to each parameter). As a simple example, consider a rack of T-shirts. Each shirt on the rack is a different size and color, and we can say that the "large, green shirt" is the design state when the size parameter is large, and the color parameter is green. But it is just as easy to imagine a "large, red shirt," as being exactly the same as a "large, green shirt," just in a different color. Thinking about parameters provides_a bridge between repetitien-afrd-tfansfofma- tion. as well as visualization and-simulation. While transformation describes a parameter's

BSjJamet.ers different forms. This Geno Pheno Sculpture declared, "An algo­ of a die determined • Parameters— is a minimal system, "fractal Dice No. 1" , rithm written by the the parameters of the B^-dius and. number of but it shows the power by Keith Tyson, 2005 artist determines what sculpture, including *e8ments—are varied to A statement released will be on view in the color, depth, of parameters for rea for the exhibition this new exhibition." and position of each •f te a wide range of exploring form. of this sculpture The subsequent rolls element. Parameterize 9€

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Flatware, "blending, and evolving as a mustard spoon and "by Greg Lynn, a "base form: a bundle bon bon server, belong 2005-present of tines and a webbed to a larger family of This fifty-two-piece handle. These special­ forms, with each being flatware set was ized utensils , includ­ a variation of the designed "by mutating, ing obscure pieces such others. Parameterize

Phare Tower, Software developed by- parameters essential left: optimization for byMorphosis, 2008 Sat oru Sugihara was to the design. These solar performance, The Phare Tower used to iteratively images show how the panel-dimension optimi­ is a design for a develop, test, and software was used to zation, and panel-angle sixty-eight-story refine the structure design the following analysis. skyscraper in Paris. to address multiple systems; shown from .mete COMPOSITION SYSTEMS -id

The desire to construct a system for compos­ others resulted from events outside of their BEDEin ing images, rather than making a single control. They invented systems from which image, has a long history in modern art. an infinite number of unique works could R B C10 Marcel Duchamp's 3 Standard Stoppages (and did) emerge. This way of working is from 1913-14 is an early and fascinating summarized well by Sol LeWitt's statement: example. To create this series of objects, he "The idea becomes a machine that makes dropped a string, measuring 1 meter, from a the art."2 •••• height of 1 meter to define a curve. Defined More carefully determined systems by gravity, this ephemeral curve and the include grids for composing pages in twisting of the string as it fell was then cut books, magazines, websites, and for post­ out of wood and used as a template for other ers. They allow each page to be unique, images. For example, the curves were used while still relating to every other page. For within his Large Glass to define the shapes example, the Unigrid System, designed of the bachelor figures. A contemporary for the U.S. National Parks Service (NPS) of Duchamp, Jean Arp, produced collage in 1968 allows each park (Yellowstone, works, such as Untitled (Collage with Yosemite, etc.) to have a unique brochure Squares Arranged According to the Laws suited to its needs while also allowing the of Chance), by scattering the elements onto NPS to maintain a strong organizational a page. Perhaps the clearest, most iconic identity. The Unigrid System is a flexible, presoftware examples are the mobiles of open framework that allows individual Alexander Calder. In these sculptures, shapes designers to make their own decisions N relate to one another through fixed connec­ about layout while working within a M tions, under the weight of gravity, but they larger system. Subtraction.com, which is DC are so well balanced that the wind can move the website and blog of Khoi Vinh (the the elements to shift their positions. Umberto art director of NYTimes.com) is a more Eco wrote of these objects: contemporary example. A grid system < applied to a website allows for hundreds, cc Each of his works is a 'work in movement' even thousands of pages to be generated < whose movement combines wfth that of based on a single structure. Vinh cites Q_ the vieweiTTFieorettcally, work and viewer Josef Miiller-Brockmann and Massimo should never be able to confront each Vignelli as influences, and he makes direct other twice in precisely the same way. links between the history of the grid within Here there is no suggestion of movement: and how it transfers to the the movement is real, and the work of art web. Speaking about grids in an interview, P"" "—- is a field of open possibilities.' he said:

Experimental writers Tristan Tzara and Ajyjd-system-fs-neLjust-a^et-afxu les Umberto Eco, The Open William S. Burroughs introduced innovative, toJoNow...but it's also a set of rules Work (Cambridge, MA: Harvard unpredictable operations as methods of University Press, 1989), 86. to play off of—lo_break, even.-Given writing, and Jqhn Cage used randomness the right grid—the right system of Alexander Alberro and Blake as a fundamental technique for musical constraints—very good designers can Stimson, eds., Conceptual compositions. Critical Anthology create solutions that are both orderly (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, While it's clear that these early compo- and unexpected.3 2000), 14. sitional systems relied heavily on chance, these artworks are important within the 3 Interview with Khoi Vinh: •s!jP|//www.theqridsystem. context of parameters in that each of their ?lS/2009/articles/interview- creators defined a set rules where some ^5Qih^khoi-v|nh/. elements were selected by themselves and

Arc of Petals, between shapes. Some r-H^traction. com, same structure to each Variation Example, used to generate a wide a point to write that by Alexander Calder, of these relationship: y Khoi Vinh, 2000-09 variation. by Emil Ruder, 1967 range of compositions. his variations are er 1941 are constant; others e are many different Emil Ruder's book Using only one line and "only a fraction of UtS n This mobile is composed change in response to but° ° ^is website, Typographic shows how one dot, he diagrams the almost unlimited of a well-balanced air currents. J Vinh uses an eight- a highly constrained thirty-six unique possibilities." set of relationships oiumn grid to give the set of elements can be compositions. He makes parameterize VARIABLES

In any system or set of rules, there exists the computer, randomness is a useful tool potential for variation. Though the primary for finding interesting variations in a variation of form present in a Calder mobile parameterized system. Random values can comes from the unpredictable interaction be used to emulate unpredictable qualities of natural forces, it is still possible to get an of our physical reality and to generate even wider field of possibilities by chang­ unexpected compositions. Though not as ing other parameters in the system. These random as a toss of the dice, code provides include the lengths of the rods, weights of a more flexible way to create random the objects, and positions of the connections. values. Sequences of random numbers A compositional system built out of 1-foot can be generated in such a way that each (0.3-meter) rods will look and behave very number in the sequence differs only slightly differently than a system made of 1-meter from the last; this technique aids in the 4 Ken Perlin greatly impacted (3.3-feet) rods. simulation of natural effects like wind, the computer graphics world When the value of a parameter can waves, and rock formations.4 Although with his invention of Perlin change, we call this a variable. Variables Noise in 1985. This method for using random numbers to find interesting generating textures is widely dan be distinguished from constants, whose variations is not an efficient way to discover used in computer graphics values cannot change, such as the force every possible form, it does provide a way to create visual effects like smoke, fire, clouds, and organic of gravity; or constraints, whiciLare fixed in to explore an exhaustively large parameter motion. response to the requirements of theproject, space in order to get an idea of possible such as cost or available materials, and outcomes. Even in a small system that provide boundaries that define the edges of uses only three parameters, each of which N a design space. The creation of a mobile, for has a value from zero to 100, there are a I—I example, may be constrained by the size of million possibilities—far more than one can CC the room it will hang in and the need for it to explore methodically. be light and strong enough to hang from the ceiling. Though all three of these parameter types will effect the range of possible forms, the variables can be considered as the < primary axes of variation. The artist changes o_ • ( C ( C ' C ' (' the variables, either by hand or with code, in search of interesting outcomes. f / /YrYf •'.j . ..>. j ,> j .) Sometimes the variable's value will only makes sense within a certain range. Consider the tuning knob on a radio; only frequencies within the range shown on the dial are valid. It is conceivable that a radio could use values outside of this range, but the results will be unexpected, and certainly won't sound like radio. Defining the range of valuesjs one way that designers can assert their aesthetic sensibilities in a parameterized system. Perhaps not all values will look good or create interesting results. Much like the dial on the radio, the range can be refined to produce a narrower, but more pleasing field of variations. As with the compositional systems in use prior to the invention of the personal

l&iEace, proximityOfNeeds, of her software and Mortals Electric, manually controlled. visual events that move to create a mesmerizing effects. The parametric by Lia, 2008 therefore change how the by Telcosystems, 2008 It balances direct "beyond the expectat i ons Tarry Cuba, 1979 animation. The white- organization of the Lia provides controls forms grow. She controls This sophisticated, control with an auto­ of its creators. combined a set on-black scheme creates software allows for any at the bottom of the these parameters live live audiovisual mated context-aware ta, Uine ITles with optical illusions, of the tiles to be com­ lve screen, so viewers can in her audiovisual performance has more system to produce a ® symmetrical figure-ground rever­ bined with any of the ter change the parameters performances. parameters than can be stream of sonic and » arrangements sals, and after-image patterning schemes. Par •105

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allows him~toBtuiiii Bp^HTed landscape, generated entirely from drawing is impossible have an essence that by Erik Natzke/ 2008 parameters on and ean-Pierre Hubert, code, and drawn onto to reproduce in a book. cannot be duplicated Natzke creates his off while he draws paper by a mechanical The rich lines of the using modern printing images with custom on-screen. ^^e, PlaPe of the lines plotter. The physical pen' s marks and the processes. drawing software that t«i3 image were quality of this dense high-quality paper CONTROL 107

Parameters are often used to create a system old television set to tune the picture, in this that generates optimal variation within a model, the designer first creates the system given set of constraints. These constraints and defines the parameters, then inputs can be semifixed, meaning that they provide and adjusts specific settings to control a boundary for the field of variations, but and optimize the final output. Taking this the constraints themselves can be changed one step further, it is possible to quantify when necessary. The most common example and encode the designer's preferences of this type of constraint is the cost of or certain outcomes into the system. Less producing a variation. For example, a CNC- strict than a constraint, this allows flexibility milling machine is a cost-effective digital in the range of possible variations, while fabrication technique, but most machines encouraging the system to generate solu­ are not capable of producing shapes with tions that the designer likes. undercut areas. The CNC bit sits on a Though parametric control is often computer-controlled arm that descends onto understood in terms of numbers and vari­ the material, so it can only remove the mate­ ables, complex and unpredictable forms rial on top. A parametric design system might can be achieved by linking the parameters take this into consideration by eliminating of multiple elements together. For example, any design model that requires this type of an architect designing a staircase might cut. The constraint is semifixed, because it want to connect the height of the staircase is always possible to use a different, more to the height of the ceiling, so that if the m costly fabrication technology if necessary, or ceiling height changes, the staircase will |sj if the budget allows. adapt to the new values. The space of pos- I—I When the architecture firm SHoP sible staircases is coupled to the properties ^ Architects was commissioned by the Federal of a single variation of the ceiling. This type Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to of controlled coupling allows the designer yj design a bridge in Lower Manhattan to to experiment and explore a field of pos- S restore a vital pedestrian connection that was sibilities, while simultaneously controlling ^ lost after September 11, they used a combina­ related forms. In this way, parameters can ^ tion of readymade structures and parametric be used to control things like proportion q_ design techniques to quickly create an inter­ and scale without giving up the freedom esting, cost-effective form. The architects to try different permutations. wanted the exterior cladding of the bridge to let light in during the day and allow it to shine through at night, but also to discourage sightseers from stopping on the walkway. These programmatic constraints were com­ bined with time and budgetary concerns, as well as the fixed geometry of the readymade bridge structure. Taking all of these elements into consideration, they were able to create a pattern using only a small number of unique pieces that gave the feel of a much more complex system. In contrast to using random numbers to explore a field of possible designs, paramet­ ric systems can be controlled to determine the final form and to meet specific needs. In something akin to turning the knobs of an

Rector Street Bridge in the shortest pos­ augmenting a prefabri­ #1, by SHoP Architects, sible time. They used cated structure. 2002 parametric techniques SHoP Architects was to meet these require­ asked to design and ments and to create an construct a bridge interesting system for •iranif te ICS -409 PARAMETER TECHNIQUE 0NE-0F-0NE

Using parameterized subtle or extreme. When used algorithms to generate form in conjunction with repetition, involves an exploratory these techniques allow artists process of searching through and designers to straddle the a field of designs to find inter­ boundary between creating esting variations. As a result serial editions and one-of- of this process, each variation a-kind pieces. By presenting is likely to appear related to multiple versions, one-of-one but different from other pos­ works operate as singular sible versions. Depending on pieces, but at the same time the number of parameters and provide a window into the the range of possible values, complexity of the system used these resemblances can be in their creation.

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SCUMAK no. 2, blobs of polyethylene, subvert the idea of mass repertoire of 42,240 structure rotates in by Roxy Paine, 2001 rather than mass-market production and produce cubes inherent to the eleven dimensions. ? Manfred Mohr, S004 Paine's machine resem- consumables. A software a series of unique, 11-d hyper-cube." Each ex bles industrial produc- program controls the appealing objects, SOf.| Plains that his image offers a view of tion equipment, but it process: folding lay- sut "selects a the geometry through produces idiosyncratic ers of material to Ub3et of cubes from a a window, as the & u , f A? L% »>.' & vv k» -«jr•' s^'V

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Since their invention, Programming legend Donald systems of writing have E. Knuth's Metafont language always been implicitly from 1979 is a logical exten­ parameterized; the intro­ sion of Frutiger's plan. As duction of software has the first fully parameterized OPiTHO increased these possibilities. software typeface, Metafont In ancient cuneiform writing, was capable of generating each symbol was made letters of every width and from a pattern of wedges weight, because each was impressed in clay. Changing defined by a geometric li •§ HH the parameters, such as the equation. This idea was quantity or size of the spaces further commercialized by between wedges, defined Adobe, with their Multiple which character was writ­ Master (MM) technology. Like ten. This parameterization Metafont, an MM font such persisted to some degree as Myriad or Minion could in contemporary typefaces, generate any width or weight but the Univers type family according to the parameters designed by Adrian Frutiger set up by their designers. It in 1954 was a landmark in remains an open question this respect. Univers is a as to whether this kind of system of twenty-one related typographic flexibility is N fonts, designed around the needed or even feasible, parameters of width, weight, given that Adobe stopped and slant. The fonts range producing MM faces in favor from Univers 39 Thin Ultra of the OpenType format. Condensed to Univers 83 Nevertheless, this typo­ Heavy Extended, with Univers graphic quest was continued 55 Roman as the base font. by LettError's Superpolator.

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^ Help A console is a set of controls program to change without Puppets: EqwM EqwiPUM E*mst» BoschCriff* SpidtrPUnt P«oquin Lueinu* Mosquito Animations: jFtoMirql C*U E*t2 Crispy Closod Flylnq D«y BooRoo Sorotch S«r.toh2 for electronic or mechanical rewriting the code. Users can

Pjppc! Settiags: Undo Redo equipment, such as cars, manipulate the program, even Puppet: Spidorcrsb £_ Interactive X? Animation airplanes, radios, and milling if they don't know how to pro­ Zoom: 0.750 < 1 O * machines. The structure of the gram; and programmers can Animation Sen Save Save As Delete Animation: Float inq console has migrated to soft­ view changes immediately Amplitude: 0400 Speed: 1 000 ware interfaces. For example, without stopping the program, Stiffness: O.JOO many computer games have changing variables in the Thickness: I 000 a dense set of controls at the code, and restarting. Consoles Member Settings- Member: bottom of the screen, allowing are used as interfaces for a Angle: players to monitor and control wide range of tasks, includ­ Angle Amplitude: Angle Speed: the status of the game. The ing for designing buildings, Angle Offset: values controlled through a flying a simulated airplane, Angle Stiffness: Scale: software console are linked to or building avatars for online Scaling Amplitude: 0.000 4 variables within the program; communities. Scaling Speed: 1.000 * Scaling Offset: r^OOOO they allow the state of the Layer

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PuppetTool, It offers the abiity parameters that can be procedural animation Cycle. tool for controlling resulting geometry can by LeCielEstBleu, 2002 to reconfigure and by Yunsil Heo and tuned to change their while it runs. hy Nervous System, a mesh structure and be 3-D printed as a The console on the left distort the motion and Hyunwoo Bang, 2008 behaviors. As part of 2009 subdividing cells ring or bracelet. of this software tool connections between The behaviors of the the design process, This console interface without editing the controls a menagerie of the limbs. aquatic creatures in this console allows is a jewelry design code directly. The screen-based puppets. Oasis have over thirty users to modify the CODE EXAMPLES CHAIR W#VE^ CODE i The first step in creating a >00000 onmrnwoDW/ Once the parameters have^l parameterized design is to been identified, they can decompose the form into used to draw the chair, ancr Parameters are powerful tools parameterization lends itself H variables. A simple, parameter- after a value has been set |D to the creation of complex cno,com ized chair has variables for the for each variable, the codq*. patterns. ^ mmmimmmoM ~ ^ * 1. dimensions of the seat, the I responsible for translating™ The pattern begins with height of the back, and the those values into lines andU a row of rectangles, each J thickness of the frame. One imomoooomommm "zzizzzz,, n| shapes will display the ch " ...w -..ynnyslightly irotated utaicu luto a randomfciUUUI!l v unique chair exists for each on-screen. Choosing valuilo can think about more than just angle. The rotation of each ^n set of variable values. The each parameter at randontj£ moooomoooammsm design space is the range of one way to explore unexp^ed the individual objects—in this row is determined by the rota- all possible chairs that can be chairs within the design spSftes. ec wooa>ooomw$$$$m\ case a rectangle and instead srxrrrtion of the rectangle above it. a\\^ generated within the system. consider how a population of At first, the rotations proceed _ Vl wooooooommssmm those objects could combine clockwise, but to prevent nj I to create a larger form. Here, overlap, the direction reverses ,I maoooozooooamomso rzzzzzz,the rotation of each rectangle ztxsZsz\if the new rotation value is too ^ is linked to the rotations of large or small, I maoooooooammssm\ its neighbors. This type of a,~\ I : OOOOOOOOO0 D o U TOmw 14) 0 OOO

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