Environmental Development Problems in the Most Disadvantageous

ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1001

ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS HUNGARIAN MICROREGIONS

Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács 1– Norbert Pap 2– Zsuzsanna M. Császár 3 – Péter Reményi 4

ABSTRACT e Hungarian government and the regional development institution system has worked out an own development programme for the improvement of so-called most disadvantageous or MD micro-regions. Micro-regional environmental development has a double role: on the one hand, it should plan activities which in their realisation actively contribute to the solution of environmental problems which are considered a priority on national and regional levels; on the other hand it must be an effi cient device for the treatment of local problems which are regarded as most important by the micro-region in question. e Government gives an emphasis to the micro-regions in the worst position for the sake of diff erentiated utilisation of regional development supports; and it contributes to the realisation of their development programmes to an increased degree JEL clasiffi cation: N5, O13, P28, R11 Key words: regional development, micro-regions, topological opportunities, environment

1 Dr. Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács assistant professor, UP NS Faculty, Department of General and Applied Environmental Geography 2 Dr. Habil Norbert Pap associate professor, Head of Department, University of Pécs, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Political Geography and Regional Development; professional leader of the LHH Development Programme of the Transdanubian Region in 2008-2009. 3 Dr. Zsuzsanna M. Császár associate professor , UP NS Faculty, Department of Political Geog- raphy and Regional Development 4 Dr. Péter Reményi assistant professor, UP NS Faculty, Department of Political Geography and Regional Development 1002 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi

I. INTRODUCTION Despite the oversized regional development institutions and multiplied development resources, regional diff erences in development have further been increased in the last two decades. Certain micro-regions have dropped behind the average in the highest degree concerning the indicators and liveability; in certain places the conditions suggest the level of ird World countries. ese are the so-called most disadvantageous or MD micro-regions. Facing this problem, the Hungarian government and the regional development institution system has worked out an own development programme for the improvement of these regions. It is questionable whether the regional policy shaped after the European patterns is suitable for the solution of these problems. Micro-regional environmental development has a double role: on the one hand, it should plan activities which in their realisation actively contribute to the solution of environmental problems which are considered a priority on national and regional levels; on the other hand it must be an effi cient device for the treatment of local problems which are regarded as most important by the micro-region in question. e programme itself is a means infl uencing and facilitating decisions, by which grant resources may be involved in order to realise the target conditions, and it is especially true in case of the realisation of environmental development plans of MD micro-regions, where the improvement of the circumstances and maintaining the values of the area are provided with favourable tendering conditions.

II. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RECENT REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN HUNGARY e legal foundations have been created by the Act of 1996/21. – and its modi- ﬁ cations, which have developed an EU-compatible institution and implementation system of the development policy. Its main characteristics are the following: - value-neutral - average-approach - bureaucratic - paternalist (partnership and co-operation is only accepted verbally) - wasteful and operates at high costs ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1003

- it deprives rural settlements of local resources, which cannot take advantage of the principles of concentration and additionality, therefore they come out of the developmental process in a disadvantageous position.

Basic geographical questions of regional development in Hungary Today it is mainly Europe that off ers itself as a macro-regional developmental framework. It is essential to observe the processes within the former; one of our main tasks is adaptation, while there is only a minimal opportunity for infl uencing. Planning and developing can be considered ideal within our real areal community, that is, in the Carpathian Basin. Upper Hungary, Transdanubia, the Great Plain, Transylvania and the Partium, Slavonia, Vajdaság (Vojvodina), Tengermellék (a historic region called Austrian Lit- toral), etc. span the Basin as historical regions possessing their own identities, but the course of these adjacent areas have been drawn away from each other in the last 90 years. In the deepest structures, such as agricultural civilisations, the characteristic of the settlement-network, the (areal) community still exists, because these can change slowly, and it is the hardest to infl uence these ones. In many places already existing diff erences have been increased signifi cantly concerning the organisation of society, economic features, institutional and legal systems, customs, the ethnic constitution of the population, and especially the social-cultural issues. Concern- ing these, Euro-regional co-operations off er a solution for the problem within the framework of sub-national organisation units. e pitfall to be avoided is that co-operation is dumped into hopeless tactical limitariness in many cases, which is unable to produce results concerning realities. Co-operation must explore its real geographical dimensions. Due to the characteristics of the basin, hydrological engineering, collective fl ood-protection, soil de- struction, organisation of tourism, common town-network development, mutual contribution to the cultural activities of ethnic minorities, migration processes to infl uence the region signifi cantly in the future, the common cause of environmental protection are all off ering several junction points. To some degree the great change had even preceded the political and economic changes. e emergence of demographic decrease in Hungary (in the 1980s), especially the increasing depopulation of certain rural regions, then the rapid change of concentration-urbanisation processes triggered by the conditions of market econo- 1004 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi my, suggestions and requirements of the European Union have demanded and still demand changes in areal organisation. e development of the NUTS system of the European Union has oriented the development of a new areal organisation system. e sub-national system of the regions of NUTS II. and the macro-regional system of NUTS IV. have constituted the basis of the areal organisation structure since 1994. e Hungarian Central Statistical Offi ce conducted researches on vicinity between 1991 and 1993. e resulting micro-regional data-collection and process- ing system was introduced on 01. January, 1994. 138 micro-regions were defi ned, which covered the area of the whole country altogether. Due to local endeavours and compromises, this system was modifi ed in 1997, and 150 micro-regions were defi ned. Although other opportunities were also mentioned in the original con- ception, the micro-regions did not cross county borders in the end. During their defi nition these original administrative boundaries were taken into account. e micro-regional system was modifi ed again in 2003, so that the number of micro-regions increased to 168. Today they amount to 174, and it can be presumed that the system will be subdivided again; the number of its units will increase. is can be partly related to the fact that several settlements have gained the title of towns. e establishment of autonomous micro-regions was urged by minor municipalities – in order to gain the title of towns, and by small towns – in order to confi rm their regional position. Concerning NUTS I. level, the recent seven-region model has been established after long debates. e basic principle was the ‘numerologic’ three; so that three counties make up a region, except for one case. However, none of these consti- tutes an unquestionable regional unit. Harmonious relationship and co-operation between the counties (i.e. the general assemblies of the counties) and cities have developed in none of these cases. Neither an identity related to the newly established region nor a co-ordinated transport system has been emerged. e newly established regions as an obligate spatial framework for receiving European Union monetary sources are rather voluntaristic formations. e county system having been developed during a long period provided suffi - cient framework for administrative, regional development, etc. problems by an increasing population. Natural depopulation and migrational decrement, especially present in rural areas, and especially the loss of active, productive population is ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1005 steadily increasing the costs of maintaining the establishment system per capita. Transport exposition can only be maintained by increasing costs as well. Establish- ing greater regional units, modifying the frameworks by a complex aspect system have become urgent by today. Central administration and government shall play a greater role in this. Reconsidering the areal organisation of the state is cogent both at settlement and at medium levels. e establishment of larger and stronger counties would satisfy the needs of administration. Considering the characteristics of the already existing settlement structures and transport system, it would be worth to develop a more effi cient medium level by merging and correcting the existing counties. By decreasing the number of counties to ten, a more effi cient but organically developed system could be established, preserving the historical heritage as well.

III. MICROREGIONS AND TOPOLOGICAL OPPORTUNITIES e space for local co-operation is the level of the former “prefectures”, today that of micro-regions. Micro-region as a geographical unit has been defi ned by Bálint Csatári in the most appropriate way. He defi nes it as an areal unit with a con- stant attribute, as a micro, that is, small region (small in measures). Furthermore: “a micro-region is an areal unit defi ned by the spatial relationships between village and village or village and town; primarily by those which satisfy the everyday needs of the population.” e signifi cance of homogeneity, functionality and identity is empha- sised as its characteristic features (C ). We can only agree with these observations even after fi fteen years. e benefi ciary regions of the national regional development system in Hun- gary are defi ned at the NUTS IV. regional statistical level, in contrast with the general European Union practice, where this happens at the NUTS II. or NUTS III. levels.

Position and characteristics in the regional structure e operational condition system of micro-regional associations varies signifi - cantly depending on their position in the regional system. Diff erent principles and strategies are required depending on what functions the place functioning as a regional centre can fulfi l, how effi ciently it is able to fulfi l structuring and medium- level functions in organising micro-regional associations. Four basic situations are 1006 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi presumed in the following, on the basis of which four basic micro-regional categories can be defi ned. Micro-regions are located in the vicinity of cities (e.g. Pécs, Győr, Miskolc). In this case the determinant relation system of the co-operating settlements of the micro- regions is not the village-town or the village-village relationship. Suburbanisational progress surrounding the city makes the relations of the village to the city the determinant force of the areal structure. In this case no co-operation is evolved between cities and villages due to the huge dimensional, and in several cases intellectual gap. A town functioning in the shadow of a major city is unable to become a real regional organising factor. A particular asymmetric position develops between the city and its suburban zone. Villages and towns in the suburban zone are exposed to the processes of the city. e effi ciency of the micro-regional development means the observance of sub-urban processes, and relying on the resources off ered by the city. Micro-regions are located on the limitary periphery. In this case the relations of the micro-region are mainly determined by the asymmetries and trends rooted in its limitary position. e evolution of outer periphery-type micro regions is based on the conscious discrimination of the last decades. is process has actually been in eff ect since 1920, and it was strengthened during the Cold War. Deprival of resources from the settlements located on the “enemy” borderlines (i.e. on the southern and western border zone) and isolation (due to the low number of border checkpoints) have created the type of declining limitary regions. Cut-off regions have deformed and hindered the development of both central locations and vicinal settlements. At these places the existence of border checkpoints and the strengthening of CBC relations are determinant. e key element in the development of these micro-regions is enhancing communications in a broader sense. Micro-regions located on the inner periphery represent areas in need of towns that have been formed on the peripheries of countries or regions. e developments of the last decades preferred the major towns of the counties. Micro-regions having been formed around municipalities with weak and insuffi cient central functions, lying in a distance from the major town, on the borders of two or three counties, are struggling with the lack of regional structuring forces. e lack of a clear hier- archy of the municipalities can lead to rivalry. e region is lacking all those enterprises, institutions and human resources which an effi cient developmental strategy could be based on. e main task is to improve human resources. ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1007

! e real suburban-type micro-region is actually the ideal type of micro-region. A close and symbiotic relationship evolves between a town and the neighbouring villages. e town assumes the problems of the vicinity. Town establishments also function for the benefi t of the region. Its central role is unquestionable, local governments communicate with each other. Town developments, such as industrial parks, economic or human resource development projects serve the whole region. Salient regions typed by sectors or demographic capabilities: Touristic or recreation area type micro-regions build their developmental activity on remarkable tourist attractions, or emerge as recreational zones near urbane areas. Industrial areas are regions of industry, heavy industry, mining or energy supply. ey are partly identical to the regions of industrial structural change. Rural developmental target areas are strongly rural, characterised by small villages, an aging population and lack of services. Arable lands and agriculture provide the most important, or even the only resource in these areas. Micro-regions within the agglomerations of cities – especially of Budapest – structure their lives in connection with the suburbanising processes of the cities. Micro-region types also can be defi ned characteristic ethnic properties (or identities) . Areas characterised by a large proportion of Roma population, or partly of German or Székely ethnicity can possess peculiar features among micro-regions. Micro-regions can be typed by the structure of the settlement as well. e following can be defi ned: 1. small-village, 2. „plain-type” with homesteads and large confi nes, 3. proportionally structured, 4. and urbane micro-regions. Structural diff erences have diff erent consequences regarding infrastructural development and organisation of (public) services. e question of minimum size Micro-regional associations can be typed on the basis whether the fi nancial power and human resources of the local governments involved in the association 1008 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi are able to grant functionality. Concerning the minimum size, the number, qualifi cations and age proportions of the population of the local government is crucial as well. Enterprises functioning in the area of the association may mean the third factor. eir number, capital force and social embedding are an essential part of the critical mass of the association. How the problem of “critical mass” emerges in case of these three factors? e budget of the associations is crucially determined by the membership fee paid by the local governments, which is based on the number of the local population. e endurance of local governments is limited. Providing a suffi cient management and an own resource for applications and tendering imposes an unbearable burden on the government below a certain capitation. e qualifi cation and work capacity, and thereby the amount of local taxes and income taxes determine the fi nancial opportunities of local governments. Local economical development, enterprise development activity, the attracting force of the functioning capital is in a close relation with the availability of a suffi cient, qualifi ed and hard-working work-force. e requirement of communication and partnership with the local society presumes a certain level of organisation of this society. e presence of NGOs and the social groups embraced by them all make up a part of the critical mass. e role of enterprises is signifi cant in providing employment, local tax pay- ment, reformation and innovation. ey are regarded as the most important part- ner group for micro-regional management. Due to their capital force, they can play a remarkable role in tendering activity. ose micro-regional associations which cannot reach the minimum size/ critical mass will be eliminated after a period of stagnating, due to unrealised hopes.

Classiﬁ cation according to the number of centres In a signiﬁ cant proportion of micro-regions there is not only one natural centre, but two, three or even more. According to the experience of the past years, a cause of the establishment of new micro-regions and micro-regional associations was rivalry between the centres. In this case the two basic types are the micro-region with an obvious and accepted centre, and the other type with two or more competing centres. ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1009

IV. BENEFICIARY MICROREGIONS Regarding the fact that GDP is not calculated at the micro-region level, the social-economic underdevelopment of micro-regions had to be shown by other indicators. A complex indicator serves this purpose, which involves demographic, employment, economic and infrastructural and other factors as well. In eff ect, this indicator refl ects on the degree of social-economical underdevelopment under Hungarian circumstances better than any GDP-index (F A. , ). e Government gives an emphasis to the micro-regions in the worst position for the sake of diff erentiated utilisation of regional development supports; and it contributes to the realisation of their development programmes to an increased degree. CSO (Central Statistical Offi ce) districts function not only as statistical units, but they also have signifi cance in regional development; they are the basic units of benefi ciary regions regarding the distribution of decentralised development resources. In Hungary, micro-regions can be either benefi ciaries, that is, receivers of extra subsidies, or they can have better economic conditions than the average – these do not belong to benefi ciary micro-regions. Hungarian regulations defi ned four, then later three types of benefi ciary regions in 1997: socially-economically underdeveloped regions, regions of industrial structure change, regions of agricultural and regional development. Regions affl icted with permanent unemployment constituted an own group until 2000; this category was omitted later, since the problem of unemployment cannot be involved fully in the framework of grantee regions. ese benefi ting region types are considered during the utilisation of two fi nancing funds: 1. regional development targets 2. developmental fi nancing support for regional equalisation In 1997 the number of grantee micro-regions amounted to 72. e indicator system for classifying has changed four times since then. First the change in the number of micro-regions accounted for supervision in 1998; nearly 800 settlements got into another statistical micro-region (however, the number of micro- regions remained the same), so that the number of benefi ting areas increased to 88. e next classifi cation was announced by the Government in the Act of 91/2001 (15.06.), this aff ected 82 micro-regions. e 1997 classifi cation was carried out by 32 indicators, in 1998 by 26, in 2001 by 19 indicators (B 2009). In 2007, the Parliament passed the parliamentary decree concerning regional development subsidies and decentralisation principles and the condition system of classifying 1010 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi benefi ciary regions, which simultaneously abrogated the parliamentary decree of 24/2001. Categories are classifi ed by the defi nition of a so-called complex indicator (32 markers) developed from fi ve indicator groups (economy, infrastructure, social, societal and employment). According to the 2007 regulations, 94 out of 174 micro-regions (54%) is qualifi ed as underdeveloped, that is, benefi ciary regarding the distribution of resources. According to the 2007 regulations, disadvantaged micro-regions, including the most disadvantaged micro-regions are regarded as benefi ciary micro-regions 5. e new parliamentary decree 6 provides an opportunity for a more appropriate defi nition of the development level of micro-regions because 5 indicator groups are to be observed instead of the previous 4, since the complex societal-social indicator group has been replaced with two distinct indicator groups. us, the social conditions of micro-regions have become a more dominant aspect. Disadvantaged micro-regions, including the most disadvantaged micro-regions are qualifi ed as benefi ciary micro-regions. ose micro-regions qualify as disadvantaged that have a lower complex indicator than the average of the complex indicators of all micro-regions in the country. Within disadvantaged micro-regions, those are the most disadvantaged that possess the lowest complex indicator value, and their population does not exceed 15% of the average population of the state. Chart 1. Classifi cation of benefi ciary micro-regions – the number of disadvantaged and the most disadvantaged micro-regions, including the most disadvantaged micro-regions with the lowest complex indicator values to be supported by complex programmes (Source: 2. Annex for the 311/2007. (17.11) Act of Government) Most Most disadvantaged to be supported by Disadvantaged disadvantaged complex programmes Subtotal of the most 14 33 disadvantaged: Total of the most disadvantaged: 47 Total of the disadvantaged: 47 TOTAL: 94

5 311/2007. (17.11.) Government decree about the classifi cation of benefi ciary regions 6 67/2007. (28.06.) Parliamentary decree concerning regional development subsidies and decentralisation principles and the condition system of classifying benefi ciary regions ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1011

For the development of the most disadvantaged micro-regions that have the lowest complex indicator values and the population of which does not exceed 10% of the population of the state, a complex programme shall be processed, essentially based on EU resources. In those regions where the population of the most disadvantaged micro-regions does not reach 30% of the population of the region, further regionally disadvantaged micro-regions can be selected from the development ranking based on the complex indicator by regional development boards, for the sake of development of the micro-regions within the regions. No change occurred concerning benefi ciary settlements. e settlements included in the list of Government Act 240/2006. (30.11.) as socially-economically and infrastructurally underdeveloped, or affl icted with a level of unemployment exceed- ing the average to an extreme degree, are in the same legal disposition as benefi ciary regions. Socially-economically and infrastructurally underdeveloped settlements or those affl icted with serious unemployment are treated as disadvantaged, while those which are socially-economically and infrastructurally underdeveloped and affl icted with serious unemployment are treated as the most disadvantaged micro-regions. For the classifi cation of micro-regions based on regional development – except for micro-regions with a county authority city – a complex indicator developed from indicators of economy, infrastructure, society, sociality and employment (fi ve indicator groups) shall be observed.

Beneﬁ ciary micro-regions in Dél-Dunántúl (Southern Transdanubia) According to the 2007 regulations there are 9 disadvantaged micro-regions here: 4 in Baranya and Somogy counties each, and 1 micro-region in Tolna county falls into this category. 9 micro-regions are among the most disadvantaged, including 8 to be supported by a complex programme. According to the indicators 3 micro- regions in Baranya, 1 in Tolna and 4 in Somogy belong to this category.

The governmental fl agship programme “No one will be left behind” In the summer of 2007 the government selected 33 micro-regions which are the most underdeveloped and in which 10% of the population live, based on the clas- 1012 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi sifi cation according to the survey of the CSO and the complex indicator7 created by the latter. 12 such micro-regions are located in Northern Hungary, 8 in Észak- Alföld (the North of the Great Plain), 5 in Dél-Alföld (the South of the Great Plain), and 8 in Dél-Dunántúl (Southern Transdanubia). Regarding the chosen micro-regions the “New Hungary Equalising Developmental Programme” was announced with the motto of “No one will be left behind”. Due to planning and project generating work, the micro-regions have developed the project package within the centrally prescribed frameworks for the entire sum retained for the 33 micro-regions – respecting the population and the number of settlements. e chosen areas are characterised by a peculiar settlement structure (disintegrated, lacking towns), a generally high rate of unemployment, a low capability for the absorption of resources, defi cient lineal and human infrastructure, and a high proportion of the Roma population. e choice for fi nancing may have been infl uenced by political aspects as well. e aim of the programming is on the one hand the initiation of sustainable development processes that, according to the expectations, may slow down or stop dropping off and may enhance standards of living, environment and services, thus the general welfare of the population, and therefore it may strengthen the capability of settlements to retain their population. us the programme is aimed at targeted human resource improvement, regional economic development, environmental and infrastructure development in the micro-regions.

7 Statistical data used: income tax, rate of permanent employment-seekers, activity rate, number of functioning enterprises, number of school classrooms, number of completed school grades, number of persons with a secondary school leaving exam, number of recipients of social beneﬁ ts, number of GP visits, rate of population per the number of General Practitioners, mortality rate, basic access, drinking water supply rate, sewage rate, waste collection rate. ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1013

Fig.1.: The most disadvantaged micro-regions in Hungary (MD)(Source: www.nfu.hu ) e basic principles of the ﬂ agship programme for subsidy were the following: • resource-based development (advantage in accessing resources) • only plans developed together with local participants can be successful • it is not enough to develop infrastructure, it must be “ﬁ lled up” with meaning • no investments only for the sake of prestige! • social integration of the Roma • planning in accordance with local needs

ese principles were realised in a rather contradictory way: • resource-based development – resources were collected on the basis of the residual principle, 1014 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi

• only plans developed together with local participants can be successful – partnership is exclusively formal, marketing-viewed, actual local co-operation was not needed, indicators were only quantitative, • it is not enough to develop infrastructure, it must be “fi lled up” with meaning – locals were not able to cope with this otherwise advised principle, they did not need it, they attempted to satisfy it to a minimal degree, without any enthusiasm, • no investments only for the sake of prestige! – the meaning of these “prestige- investments” was not defi ned, • social integration of the Roma – the leaders of the Roma community partici- pated in the programme only to a very small degree, • planning in accordance with local needs – but there was not enough time nor any way to survey local needs, and the NFU (National Development Agency) has specifi ed the directions of development.

Criticism of the programme ose who dreamed up and realised the programme ignored several questions that could have an essential infl uence on the realisation and success of the programmes. e fi rst of these questions is the geographical character of the area, that is, the fact that typically limitary regions are in question, the problems of which are strongly connected to the questions of an isolated vicinity. e other one is that the leaders of the programme at the national level did not comprehend the peculiar cul- ture of the developmental target areas. is situation cannot be interpreted merely by quantitative, extrinsic indicators. e development method adapted from West- ern Europe (resource-based planning) had been developed for social conditions with a high level of qualifi cation, a well-developed, characteristically middle-class society. However, the society of MD regions is not characterised by this. So even the most essential problems cannot be faced with the help of this method.

Spatial structural aspect 15 out of 33 MD micro-regions are directly on the border of the state, and only 6 are located in a distance more than 50 kms away from the borders. us, more ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1015 than 80% of the area involved in the programme is in a limitary position. erefore it would be a mistake to plan development ignoring international dimensions that span over the borders at the arrangement. Consequently, the main aspects to be assessed are the following: • assessment of former and recent vicinity relations • the question of depopulation • conditions of traﬃ c and transport • relying on a strong relationship system extending over the borders

Based on the above typology, the following can be stated about MD regions: small-village, plain-type, • typically rural, • ocated on the inner and outer peripheries, • characterised by centres with a low capacity of attraction, • do not possess even the minimum resources for getting through, • regional development target areas, • which have a distinct ethnical character in several cases.

V. THE OUTCOME OF OUR RESEARCH We have conducted research regarding the improvement of the developmental work of the 8 Transdanubian MD micro-region in order to summarise the experience of the development programme. ese were characteristically empirical observations. • Summarising the experience of planners (based on the opinions of cca.20 planners) • Conducting a survey by questioning local partners (250-300 persons/50 respondents) • Evaluation of the nature of the projects that had been accepted 1016 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi

We examined in the following sections: • Method of planning • Communication • Principle of equal opportunities • Has co-operation been achieved? • Relationship with micro-regional centres – the question of village-town relationship • Innovations • Chances for recovery • Evaluation of emerging programmes

Chart 2. sums up the most important results of the survey. Chart 2.: Classifi cation of problems in the order of the need of modifi cation concerning the region Problem Value 1. Unemployment 363 Lack of employers, new employment, enterprises with a strong balance sheet, indus- 2. 252 trial fi rms and industrial areas 3. Underdeveloped, defi cient infrastructure 194 Unfavourable traffi c options (defi cient access, high rate of dead-end settlements, low 4. 169 level of public transport) 5. Low level of qualifi cation, high rate of unqualifi ed work force 165 Low, decreasing number of enterprises/will to venture, lack of capital, lack of investors, 6. 131 entrepreneurs lacking capital, weak enterprises 7. Deep poverty, low income level, dropped-off classes and settlements 121 8. Unfavourable demographic conditions (ageing, migration) 117 Unfavourable educational conditions – lack of infrastructure and vocational training, 9. 96 decreasing standards of training 10. Deepening moral crisis, social disintegration 71 11. Social and ethnic problems, segregatums 60 12. Low standards of healthcare and social services 44 ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1017

Settlement-geographical characteristics (locality, peripheral location, small-village 13. 43 structure) 14. Lack of fi nancial subsiding, defi cient fi nancial condition of local governments 40 15. Lack of touristic developments, weak tourism 33 Diffi culties in sales, low engross price for agricultural products, extremely low profi t- 16. 32 ability of economic activities Problems in management and decision making (lack of information for local manage- 17. ment, weak capability for enforcement of interests, self-interest of lobbying forces, lack 28 of will of government) Lack of quality public services, cultural , educational and sports facilities and public 18. 28 scenes 19. Low level of co-operation 27 20. Lacking conceptions for enhancing economy 22 21. Lack of equal opportunities 12 Lack of a young, creative intelligentsia, and experts able to manage programmes; lack 22. 11 of forcefulness in the civic sphere, low participation rate in public aff airs 23. Politics (political disintegration, lack of diff erentiated policies) 10 24. Draining eff ect of cities with a municipal/county authority strongly felt 6 Ed.: B. Gálosi-Kovács. – N. Pap In our opinion, local persons have an appropriate impression of their own conditions and problems. It is interesting that in spite of the fact that they perceive the phenomena of the social and moral crisis, and that its predominance is unquestionable, these phenomena can be found in a cluster in answers 7-12., following the economic diffi culties. is fact indicates that the weight of local problems has not been recognised at its whole extent. Finally we evaluated the projects which had been accepted for support. Despite the fact that limitariness is a general feature of MD regions; their problems were in a decisive relation with the cutting-off of the relationship system across the borders, there is only one out of the hundreds of accepted projects which deals with this problem utterly (K. – O – P, 2009). Human programmes potentially contributing to social integration had come out rather weak. Almost none of the innovative programmes able to compensate for social disintegration had been accepted (e.g. the Micro-regional Universitas programme developed exclusively for this purpose). 1018 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi

VI. EXPECTATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT Programming involved 8 micro-regions of Dél-Dunántúl: the micro-regions of Barcs, Csurgó, Kadarkút, Tamási, Lengyeltóti, Sásd, Sellye, Szigetvár. e following areas related to environmental development can be subsidized in the framework of the regional operational programme from the presumable resources of the micro- regions: economic development (business infrastructure), settlement development (function-expanding settlement development), environmental development (sewage, water management). Each micro-region had to observe the rates of investment (ROP) resources. In- dicative rates had been calculated on the basis of the above mentioned statistical data, by the calculation of the Department of Strategy and Evaluation of the Na- tional Development Agency (NDA). According to the indicative allocation, micro- regions had to concentrate resources into the development of the assigned areas; these areas needed more investment than proportionate. Micro-regional MD Planning Documents are based on the analyses presenting the social-economic-environmental conditions of the respective micro-region in every case. A condition for success in case of subsidy programmes is that the micro- region in question should regard it as its own and consider it applicable, therefore it is very important for any intervention to be built on the micro-regions’ own evalua- tions and programmes. During programming local decision makers acknowledged the frameworks given by directed planning, but in most cases they disagreed with them; the concepts of the local management was diff erent from the focus given by the NDA. Since indicators mark the results of development processes not in the whole range and in temporal delay, it may be reasonable to deviate from the indicative allocations defi ned above; actually micro-regions have taken advantage of this opportunity. Micro-regions defi ned their directions of development this way (Chart 3. ). ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1019

Chart 3. Development concepts of environmental development included in MD Action Plan Documents in Dél-Dunántúl. Settlement development • Settlement development (Sásd) Environment and development Micro-region of • Sewage management (Felsőegyerszeg) Sásd • Development of interior meteoric water oﬀ -take system (Szágy, Alsómocsolád) Economic development • Establishing a waste processor in the industrial area of Sásd Environment and settlement development Micro-region of • Town rehabilitation (Sellye) Sellye • Interior and exterior zone water management, rainwater discharge (Sellye, Hegyszent- márton, Baranyahídvég, Vajszló) Environment and settlement development • Interior and exterior zone water management (Szigetvár, Nagydobsza, Csertő, Vásáros- béc, Várad) S Micro-region • Initiating conditions for commuter bicycle transport (Hobol-Szigetvár) of Szigetvár • Function-expanding town rehabilitation (Szigetvár) • Sewage improvement, establishing sewer system and sewage woks (Dencsháza, Hobol, Somogyhárságy, Vásárosbéc, Magyarlukafa) Development of economy and employment Expanding the bio-briquette ﬁ rm (Industrial Park, Barcs) Settlement development Micro-region of Town centre rehabilitation (Barcs) Barcs Environment and development Interior zone water management (Barcs, Kastélyosdombó, Darány, Bolhó, Heresznye, Szulok, Babócsa) Environment and settlement development Micro-region of Town centre rehabilitation Csurgó) Csurgó Rainwater discharge and utilisation of water-base (Csurgói micro-region) 1020 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi

Environment and settlement development • Town centre rehabilitation (Nagybajom) • Interior zone water management (Csököly, Rinyakovácsi, Szenna, Bárdudvarnok, Kapos- Micro-region of szerdahely, Szilvásszentmárton) Kadarkút • Establishing reservoir for decreasing ﬂ ood summits, exterior zone water management (Kaposszerdahely, Szenna), • Drainage management along the river Kapos, establishing embankments and a rainfall reservoir (Kaposmérő) Environmental infrastructure development Interior zone water management (Lengyeltóti) Micro-region of Establishing sewage system, water management (Somogyvámos, Gyugy, Pamuk) Lengyeltóti Town development Function-expanding town development (Lengyeltóti) Environment development Interior zone water management (Regőly, Diósberény, Tamási, Pári, Nagykónyi) Micro-region of Sewer system and sewage disposal (Varsád, Szakadát, Ozora, Magyarkeszi) Tamási Settlement development Town centre rehabilitation (Simontornya, Tamási)

Dél-Dunántúl (South Transdanubia) Operational Programme Action Plan 2009-2010. – deﬁ ning resources in the framework of application procedure Developments in each region involved are realised within the framework of action plans for the 2. year of regional operational programmes. e Dél-Dunántúl Operational Programme Action Plan 2009-2010. presents the above conceptions in the form of the following priorities and constructions. Favourable tendering conditions are provided in order to allocate resources to the micro-regions involved.

1. priority: establishment of a competitive economy based on the development of urbane regions is priority provides assistance for developing business environment, improvement and establishment of industrial parks and areas, incubation houses and de- pots. e development of a methodology and the realisation of a sample project will be subsided in the most disadvantaged region. ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1021

- DDOP-2009-1.1. /F Business infrastructure development in most disadvantaged micro-regions to be assisted by complex programmes e aim of the component is the improvement of infrastructure and services of existing industrial parks and areas in the region, in order to promote the ﬂ ow of additional functioning capital, increasing additional value and therefore to improve competitiveness of local enterprises. Amount of subsidy: 70%. In total, 19 applicants have received subsidy.

4. priority: Contributing to integrated town development actions is priority is to strengthen the town network of the region by strengthening business and service functions of the towns, contribution to the social-environmental renovation of deteriorated urbane areas and settlements populated by Roma communities, supporting initiations of community and social functions. - DDOP-2009-4.1.1.B Supporting integrated urbane development actions in MD- 33 micro-regions e aim of the construction is enhancing the attraction of the settlement by sustainable function-extending development of the urbane and urbane district areas, strengthening functions extending over the surroundings of towns, developing central areas compatible with the needs and expectations of the age. Amount of subsidy: 85%. In total, 8 applicants have received positive evaluation.

5. priority: Improving access and environment development e aim of this priority is to improve access to environmental protection infrastructure and environmental safety in favour of sustainable environment utilisation. - DDOP-2009-5.1.4/B Development of sewage in small settlements in MD-33 micro-regions e main target is to improve access to sewage system and disposal system for the population and institutions of small settlements with a population of less than 2000 in the region. Subsidy amount: 95%. 2 applicants have gained subsidy. - DDOP-2009-5.1.5.C – Interior and exterior zone water management in MD-33 micro-regions 1022 Bernadett Gálosi-Kovács • Norbert Pap •Zsuzsanna M. Császár • Péter Reményi

e aim is to improve environmental safety, to decrease exposition to fl ooding and drainage and to reduce contamination in regionally signifi cant water-catch- ment areas, to prevent hazardous landslides and breaks of banks by Lake Balaton and River Danube. Subsidy amount: 95%. Only 1 application has been accepted. It is essential for the programmes to have an appropriate eff ect on the region. e amount of money for the micro-regions is a remarkable one, but regarding micro-regions, it is only suitable for generating processes. Subsidy is favourable in comparison with other DPOP-constructions; 70-95%. Tendering has been closed down, the time-limit was December 2009. – 01.03.2010. At the moment evaluation is in progress, the details of accepted subsidies can be seen on the website of NDA.

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. e utilisation of targeted resources is a simple and welcome method. 2. e perspective of an economic rise is illusory; nearly all conditions are lacking – in case of MD micro-regions the aim can be ensuring liveability. 3. Each micro-region should thread an own path at its peculiar rate. “You can’t ﬁ x in 1-4 years what have gone wrong in 200 years” 4. Local societies recognised only partly that their integrity has been damaged seri- ously; they are disintegrated, so-called “wrecked societies”. 5. e philosophy of development should be placed on a moral basis, on com- pletely diﬀ erent social and individual motivation.

VIII. REFERENCES 1. Csatári, B. (1995): A kistérség fogalma. In.: Csefkó, F. (ed.): Kistérségeknek kistérségekről. Dunaholding City Menedzser Kft., Budapest pp. 11-15. 2. Faluvégi, A. (2001): A statisztikai kistérségek szerepe a magyar közigazgatásban, a területfejlesztésben és a statisztikai információrendszerben. In: Szigeti, E. (ed.): Régió, közigazgatás, önkormányzat. Magyar Közigazgatási Intézet, Budapest, pp. 301-326. 3. Faluvégi, A.. (2002): A területi statisztikai adatbázisok kialakulása, helyzete, fe- jlesztési lehetőségei Területi Statisztika, Vol. 5.(42.) /4., pp. 321-341. ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN THE MOST DISADVANTAGEOUS... 1023

4. G. Fekete, É. – Bodolai, É. (1995): Kistérségi szerveződések megjelenése a terül- etfejlesztésben. MTA RKK Észak-magyarországi Osztálya, Miskolc. 5. Hajdú, Z. (2001): Magyarország közigazgatási földrajza. Dialóg Campus, Pécs- Budapest, 334 p. 6. Gálosi-Kovács. B – Pap, N – Reményi, P. (2009): Kistérségi tervezési tapasztala- tok – Dél-Dunántúl. 7. Kurilla, A – Orosz, É – Pap, N, (2009): Háttal a határnak. Nemzetközi konfer- encia, Debrecen 8. Nemes Nagy, J. (1997): Régió, regionalizmus. – Educatio, Vol. VI./3., p. 409. 9. Pap, N. (2003): Geographic Aspects of Regional Development Policy. – Devel- opment and Finance, 3.issue, pp. 81-87. 10. Pap, N. (2004): A kistérségek helye, szerepe Magyarországon a 21. század első évtizedében. – Tér és Társadalom Vol. XVIII./2., pp. 23-36.