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Race in the Scientific Imagination at the Turn of the Twentieth Century in Brazil and Cuba

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Race in the Scientific Imagination at the Turn of the Twentieth Century in Brazil and Cuba Race in the Scientific Imagination at the Turn of the Twentieth Century in Brazil and Cuba Mario Valero Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2012 © 2012 Mario Valero All Rights Reserved Abstract: Race in the Scientific Imagination at the Turn of the Twentieth Century in Brazil and Cuba Mario Valero This dissertation examines the instrumental role played by race in the scientific conceptions of society at the turn of the Twentieth Century in Brazil and Cuba. The examination of scientific rhetoric in the work of Euclides da Cunha and Fernando Ortiz, as well as a large number of photographs, from this period of institutional modernization, identifies the racial variable as the conceptual locus of coexistence and struggle amongst multiple representational regimens produced by anthropology, sociology, literature and medicine. These diverse interdisciplinary matrices of meaning (set forth in texts and images) constructed the foundations of the concept of race through the equivalent notion of exoticism and anomaly as expressions of the axiom of difference. This ideological conceit was offered in countries marked by racial miscegenation as the means for cultural originality as well as the main threat to their political consolidation. This constituent relation of the racial difference, evident in Euclides da Cunha’s masterpiece Os sertões (1902) or in Fernando Ortiz’s early criminological work Los negros brujos (1906), prompted an alternative approach to the critical apparatus that has privileged the analysis of their aesthetic qualities. In addition, the design of ethnographic and medical portraits of the time evidenced a correlation between aesthetic value and biological description in disciplines such as criminal anthropology, tropical medicine or ethnology. This project sheds some light on the particular concern for governability and cultural legitimacy raised at the time by nationalistic ideology which influenced the racial hypothesis offered by Euclides da Cunha and Fernando Ortiz. Nonetheless this crucial aspect has been considered incidental to their intellectual careers. The work of these intellectuals has been canonized into Latin American contemporary history as models for cultural emancipation. Yet, the hypothesis of racial difference they helped to foster have explicitly or implicitly guided the implementation of state policies in culture, public health and police control in Brazil and Cuba. The analysis of the social and scientific uses of photography in the construction of the exotic and the anomalous as racial categories offers an alternative methodological approach indispensable for the reconsideration of photographic production in Latin America during the period of modernization. INDICE LISTA DE FOTOGRAFÍAS , iv AGRADECIMIENTOS , vi Introducción: la raza dentro del imaginario científico del proceso de modernización , 1 - Algunos paradigmas metodológicos de las ciencias sociales a finales del siglo XIX, 14 - La obra de Alejandro Humboldt y las ciencias sociales latinoamericanas, 19 CAPÍTULO 1. Etiología de una anomalía social: Os sertões y las políticas de la ciencia racial brasileña , 32 - La “culturología” brasileña: una ciencia de la cultura, 37 - La lección del Amazonas: hacia una ética de la objetividad científica, 42 - Antecedentes de la indagación científica de la población brasileña, 48 - El mestizo indispensable de Sílvio Romero, 53 - El mestizo improbable de Raimundo Nina Rodrigues, 62 - Limitaciones de un análisis formal de Os sertões y las políticas de la ciencia, 70 - La diátesis del mestizaje, 79 - La indeterminación conceptual, 85 - La regulación científica como necesidad histórica, 96 - Los apuntes del frente de guerra: ciencia, literatura e historia, 99 i CAPÍTULO 2. Los negros brujos : mestizaje y trasgresión social en la obra temprana de Fernando Ortiz , 108 - Las hipótesis del mestizaje: la excepcionalidad biológica y cultural, 110 - Los negros brujos dentro del contexto de la obra temprana de Fernando Ortiz, 118 - Los proyectos iniciales de control social, 123 - El corpus crítico de la obra temprana, 137 - La historia y el método de interpretación, 150 - La delimitación del objeto de investigación, 154 - El investigador y su objeto de investigación, 163 - El objeto de investigación: el cuerpo del delito, 172 CAPÍTULO 3. Iconografía y taxonomía racial en el uso social y científico del retrato fotográfico en Brasil y Cuba en el cambio del siglo XX , 181 - La producción del retrato fotográfico en el siglo XIX, 193 - Uso social y científico del retrato fotográfico en Brasil y Cuba, 200 - El retrato fotográfico de tipos humanos: la producción del cuerpo exótico, 214 - El retrato fotográfico del indiciado: la producción del cuerpo criminal, 232 - La producción fotográfica del cuerpo patológico: el retrato médico, 245 CONCLUSIÓN , 280 BIBLIOGRAFÍA , 288 ii APÉNDICE : INTRODUCCIÓN (traducción al inglés) , 323 CONCLUSIÓN (traducción al inglés) , 350 iii Lista de fotografías Fig. 1. Anónimo. “Bocú, negro brujo condenado a muerte / carta autógrafa del negro brujo Bocú.” ca.1904 (Ortiz 1995, figura 42 y 43). Fig. 2. Imagem BP (F-VPP) 3-13. 1912. s/t (*). s/f (**). s/d (***) Acervo da Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Departamento de Arquivo e Documentação. Fig. 3. Fotografía. f-185 00L-0146 / CBD 1501. Anónimo. “Interior de una cigarrera en La Habana.” ca.1880. 9,1 x 14,2 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 4. Fotografía f-354. 00L-0187 / CBQ /3714. Brown & Dawson. “Penitenciaría.” ca.1880. 9,3 x 11,7 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 5. Fotografía f-188, 00L-0149 / CBN /1323. Anónimo. s/t. ca.1880. 18 x 44,5 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 6. Fotografía f-189 00L-0149 / CBN /1323. Anónimo. s/t. ca.1880. 17,8 x 23,5 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 7. Fotografía f-182 00L-0147 / CBN 1328. Anónimo. “Cortando caña de azúcar, Matanzas.” ca.1880. 16,9 x 21,4 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 8. Fotografía 00L-0140 / CRC 8281. Anónimo. “Plantación de caña de azúcar.” ca.1880. 10,95 x 17, 48 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 9. Fotografía f-262. Anónimo. “Balata Bleeding, Interior, Surinam.” s/f. s/d. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 10. Fotografía f-190. 00L-0150 / CBC 0148. Murray Jordan, J. s/t. ca.1880. 20,7 x 15,2 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 11. Fotografía f-176. 00L-0146 / CBN 1326. Anónimo. s/t. ca. 1880. 10,2 x 14, 2 cm. iv Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 12. Fotografía f-241. 00L-0123 / CBC 7229. Anónimo. “Trabajadores en Creya.” ca.1880. 19,5 x 25, 7 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 13. Imagem IOC-V-II-1722. ca. 1912. s/t. s/f. Acervo da Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Departamento de Arquivo e Documentação. Fig. 14. Fotografía f-242. 00L-0123 / CBC 7229. Anónimo. “Inmigrantes Coolies en Puerto España.” ca.1880. 14,5 x 9,9 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 15. Fotografía f-481. 00L-0133 / CBC 8130. Anónimo. s/t. ca.1880. 13,7 x 10,2 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 16. Fotografía f-04. 00L-0122 / CBP 2197. Anónimo. “Coolie Woman.” ca.1885. 14, 5 x 10,7 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 17. Fotografía f-250. 00L-0128 / CBC 7287. Anónimo. s/t. ca. 1880. 15,7 x 10,1 cm. Archivo Audiovisual de la Biblioteca nacional de Venezuela. Fig. 18. Imagem IOC-V-II-l445 1912. s/t (*). s/f (**). s/d (***) Acervo da Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Departamento de Arquivo e Documentação. Fig. 19. Imagem IOC-V-II-l898. s/t (*). s/f (**). s/d (***) Acervo da Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Departamento de Arquivo e Documentação. Fig. 20. Imagem IOC-V-II-183. s/t (*). s/f (**). s/d (***) Acervo da Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Departamento de Arquivo e Documentação. Notas: (*) s/t: sin título, (**) s/f: sin fecha, (***) s/d: sin dimensiones v AGRADECIMIENTOS Quiero agradecer a todas las personas que con su apoyo y ayuda hicieron posible la realización de este proyecto. Ante todo ofrezco mi más sincero agradecimiento a mi tutora de tesis Graciela Montaldo por su estímulo y sugerencias que me permitieron encausar y concretar las ideas iniciales de la propuesta de tesis. Debo agradecer además a los bibliotecarios del archivo de la Fundación Casa Oswaldo Cruz en Río de Janeiro, la Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela en Caracas y del Instituto Iberoamericano en Berlín por su invalorable colaboración, así como también a todas las personas que facilitaron mi investigación en dichas ciudades. Doy las gracias a los profesores Carlos Alonso, Marc Herztman, Maja Horn y Oscar Montero por haber aceptado participar en el comité de defensa de mi tesis. Mi particular agradecimiento de hermano y discípulo a Norma Valero por sus valiosos comentarios críticos y su constante apoyo, sin ella y su ejemplo esta tesis no hubiera sido posible. Gracias a mis lectores y amigos Félix Portela, Ken y Bárbara Bonfrenbrenner por su ingotable generosidad y paciencia. Finalmente, mi agradecimiento a la Universidad de Columbia que desde 1997 permitió completar mi formación como instructor adjunto de español y desde 2002 disfrutar del inigualable privilegio de vivir nuevamente la vida estudiantil y a todos los compañeros de estudios de postgrado por su inagotable entusiasmo. vi A Norma Valero A la memoris de Victoria Niño de Valero A la memoria de Alberto Fustinoni, a su inolvidable sonrisa vii 1 Introducción: la raza dentro del imaginario científico del proceso de modernización Liberalism had not logical defense against equality and democracy, so the illogical barrier of race was erected: science itself, liberalism’s trump card, could prove that men were not equal.
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