Second-Life Stadiums

Home , Stadium at Olympia, The Oval

A thesis submitted to the

Graduate School

Of the University of Cincinnati

In partial Fulﬁ llment of the

Requirements for the degree

Master of Architecture

In the School of Architecture and Interior Design

Of the College of Design, Art, Architecture and Planning

Corey William Mai

B.S. Architecture Kent State University

May 2014

Committee Chair: Udo Greinacher ABSTRACT

The modern Olympic host procedure has been fl awed for several decades. The system favors a monetary approach as opposed to a cultural approach for picking the host of the Olympics. The cost of each Olympic Games has seen a rapid increase in the past decade, and if left untouched, will create a barrier to almost every nation’s ability to share in this global event. The Olympics began as a series of friendly competition, expanded into a global cultural event and is now a unifying element for a world in confl ict. This thesis will present evidence to support the stance that the current system is fl awed, and while fl awed, has the potential to be injected with new life and new ideas through architectural innovation. This architectural innovation has been developed through extensive research into what is culturally signifi cant about the Olympics, as well as heavily infl uenced by the history of the athletic stadium, from Greece to the present day. This thesis will examine the signifi cance of a designed second purpose for the stadium.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE II PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is my pleasure to thank the many people that have made this thesis possible.

First, I’d thank my advisor and committee chair Udo Greinacher, for his guidance patience and persistence in seeing me through this process.

I’d also like to thank my mentor Brett Kratzer for giving me a chance three years ago by helping me begin my career in the architecture fi eld. You have worked around my school schedule, allowed me to use offi ce equipment for school, and most of all off ered me guidance as I start my career in Architecture.

Next I’d like to thank Professor Pravin Bhiwapurkur, as my professor for my undergraduate senior capstone project, you pushed me to think on a systems level, to design using environmental data

I’d like to thank my brothers, Bryan, Dustin and my sister Courtney, thank you for always grounding me and being an escape for all the stress of school, you’ve all gotten me through a lot of diﬃ cult times and never fail to pick me up and remind me how great it is to enjoy a Saturday.

I’d like to thank my parents for being there for me at 5am stressed out about not making a deadline, giving me so much support through all of school, providing a comfortable retreat away from the stress of school, and always knowing the perfect way to pick me up and to keep me going. Without you both, I would have never been able to be in this position.

Finally, I’d like to thank Erin; without you, none of this would be possible. This dream we keep shooting for could never be possible without your unwavering faith in me.

Cover Sheet I SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE IV TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract II Acknowledgments IV Table of Contents V Part 01 Introduction 01 Part 02 The Olympics Section 01 – Ancient Olympics 04 Section 02 – Modern Olympics 06 Section 03 - Rising Cost 08 Part 03 Stadiums Section 01 – Ancient Stadiums 13 Section 02 – Modern Stadiums 17 Part 04 Precedent Analysis 21 Part 05 CONCEPT 25 Part 06 Conclusion 36 Part 07 Bibliography 39

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE V PART 01

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 01 PART 01 INTRODUCTION The Olympic host system is ﬂ awed due to the fact that it favors wealthy cities and countries, while leaving the majority of the planet’s culture unnoticed and unseen. In order for the Olympics to truly fulﬁ ll its purpose, it requires a rethinking of the elements and structures that make up the Olympics as a whole.

Dating back to the earliest Olympics held in Greece, the construction of the Olympic stadium was built for one single purpose- hosting the Olympics. The problem with this concept lies within the idea that this multibillion dollar structure will only serve one purpose and one purpose only. Because of this issue, many countries are unable to aﬀ ord to host the Olympics and the countries that do host wind up in major debt. The positives to hosting the Olympics are many, which is why it is so unsettling that so many cultures are unexplored and go relatively unnoticed.

Throughout this thesis, the idea of changing the way the Olympics are structured is looked at and new concepts are introduced. Exploring through the history of the Olympics, we are able to see where the Olympic Stadium got its start and the reasons why the structure itself has gone relatively unchanged. We will also take a look at what has changed throughout history in terms of the stadium’s structure, as well as looking at new concepts to increase the usable space of the stadium post-Olympics.

When the Olympics began, the games were geared more towards pure competition between athletes. Nowadays, the Olympic Games are more of a large, ethnic event that allow the host country to share their unique culture with the rest of the world. In this thesis, we will be examining the ways in which we can break the cost-prohibitive barrier to hosting the Olympics by repurposing one of the largest costs of hosting, the Olympic Stadium.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 02 PART 02

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 03 PART 02 THE OLYMPIAD In order to determine the current concerns of the Olympic host procedure, it must be determined where the Olympics began and how they came to be what they are today. This information will lend itself to fully understanding the impact and importance of the games, as well as how they can be improved.

The Olympics began in Olympia, Greece in 776 BC. It began as a series of athletic competitions between the city-states of Greece in order to honor the god Zeus. These games were held every 4 years, known as “the Olympiad”, and were to continue until Roman occupation in 393 AD. The games were created to promote mutual friendship and cooperation among Greece’s City States. For most of early Greek history, the country of Greece as it is known today was a collection of autonomous city-states that were constantly at war with each other for land, resources etc. But the Greeks, the people that created the idea of democracy, also came up with a way to ensure the Olympics could be peaceful. Their hope was that through their mutual respect and lineage, they could come together to celebrate their common gods and common competition. This was by way of law, during the games, the ‘Olympic Truce’ would be enacted. No athlete traveling to the games could be harmed or held, no army from any city-state could march on or be stationed in Olympia, nor could an army march on any other city-state during the games. This was held as sacred by the Greeks and there were steep penalties and ﬁ nes that would be incurred should one city-state march on another.1

The ancient Olympics quickly became much more than an athletic competition. It became political in that every four years the leaders of city-states would make pacts and truces, and attempt to leverage their athletes in a show of dominance over the other city states. More importantly, the games also became a cultural hub. Artists, philosophers and academics fl ocked to Olympia to exchange ideas, sell their wares and discuss all matter of philosophical items. This tradition would continue for a thousand years under Greek patronage. Some of the greatest minds of the Hellenistic periods would fi nd their way to Olympia for these games. This provided a SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 04 unique opportunity for the citizens in the Mediterranean to experience such a cultural gathering. It must be remembered that the connectivity of the world at this time consisted of word of mouth, foot traffi c and small sailing vessels. An annual event hosted in the same location every four years provided the perfect opportunity for the world to meet and ideas to spread. Because of this huge infl ux of religion, culture and politics in one location, Olympia grew to become the central hub of all three of these. While the games were mostly a religious event for the fi rst two centuries, they quickly grew into an all-encompassing cultural event that would see the prominence of Olympia grow and its prestige increase. Great monuments would be built to the gods and the pantheon, and would all be built originally in Olympia. This would be referred to as the fi rst Olympic village when compared to what it is like today.1

On the athletics side of this entire aff air, the Olympics began with only a couple races, which would be comparable to a 100-meter dash today. Gradually through the years, the collection of events would increase to twenty before the Olympics themselves were discontinued by the Romans following their conversion to Christianity. The events of the Olympiad consisted of running, with various races and sprints resembling the modern day games. Then there was combat, consisting of boxing wrestling and other events of the period, which was considered the most dangerous portion of the events. While there were rules in place to eliminate most bloodshed, there was no safety equipment at the time. Then fi nally there was the Pentathlon, the combination of fi ve of the Olympic events. The victors of this would be known throughout Greece and be honored as a hero. As times changed, the religious affi liations of Rome began play a very crucial role in the games. As was stated earlier, the games were above all else a religious ceremony honoring the Greek god Zeus. Unfortunately, Zeus was a pagan god and was against all that Christianity stood for. In Rome, the wave of Christianity had taken hold and become the dominant religion. Through this process, the Christians began to take down and eliminate idols of the previous gods of the empire. These included the Olympiad in Olympus, being a symbol of paganism, and were quickly abolished and forgotten for centuries.1

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 05 PART 02 REBIRTH The Olympics were resurrected in 1859. Prior to that time, the country of Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire, newly independent after centuries of being ruled by one empire or another. In 1859, there was national interest in reviving all things Greek. With the Olympics being a major Greek aff air, it naturally came to the top of the list. A wealthy Greek man named Evangelos Zappos off ered to fully fund a new Olympiad. He funded the restoration of the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens, Greece to become a permanent home of the new Olympic Games. Zappos always envisioned the Olympic Games as being a Greek invention and that it should always be held in Greece to uphold the tradition of the origin of the games. But these“new”Olympic Games were a local aff air as they typically only had Greek athletes participating, making them very diff erent than the modern games today.1

Upon attending the games in Athens and other Olympic style games in Europe, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, was inspired to create the International Olympic Committee. Which had the aim of globalizing the Olympic games. After weeks of debate, the committee decided that the games would oﬃ cially begin as an IOC event in Athens in 1896.1

The concept developed by de Coubertin and the IOC was a relatively simple one-every four years, bring the countries of the world together to peacefully compete in athletic endeavors. Originally, the IOC envisioned that the games be held exactly as they were in Ancient times in Greece, and until the second Olympic games, this was the case. Greece built up lavish venues in anticipation of this, but as the years ticked down until the second Olympics, it was decided that the Olympics would change its host city for every new series of games. This decision was made in the guise of spreading the Olympics out to include other countries and other cultures. The wealthier countries fully embraced this model of the Olympics and a bidding process to host the Olympics was created where upon potential hosts would meet with the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The interested countries would present their plan to host, what venues were to be constructed or used and generally why they deserved to be the host. In the SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 06 earlier days of the Olympics, this was not too large of an undertaking. Simply put, there was only Track and Field events which required only one venue. As the games progressed, new sports were added to the games requiring more stadiums and infrastructure. As the world began to become more connected through easier communication and transportation, more and more countries were participating in the games. This also expanded the infrastructure necessary to host the games by requiring an Olympic Village for the athletes and coaches to board. However, the Olympics generally increased in size and scope relatively slowly until the Berlin games in 1936. The Olympics as we know it today, with all the showiness and pageantry, began in Berlim. To understand why the games are the way they are today, it must be understood as to why these particular games are the turning point.1

Hitler and his National Socialist movement quickly rose to power in a defeated and bankrupt Germany as a result of World War I. To Hitler, the Olympics were a way to show oﬀ the “new” Germany in an international light and granted him the possibility to show the supremacy of the German people over the rest of the world by way of athletic competition. It is generally known that this did not work. The most prominent example of Hitler’s failures to show supremacy was Jesse Owens, an African American who won gold in every event he competed in. Owens’ triumph directly challenged Hitler’s Aryan supremacy concept. The actual events that took place and the results are not of great importance to this thesis, rather the importance is in the facilities that were used and why. As it was stated earlier, Hitler wanted to use the Olympics as a way to show the prominence and supremacy of the German state. What better way to promote the ‘new’ Germany than to construct a lavish and truly grand Olympic complex. This comples included an aquatics venue, Olympic housing, and the Berlin Olympiastadion, a stadium still standing and in use to this day. All of this was designed to show oﬀ the know-how and technological supremacy of Germany. It worked, by most accounts, due to this showcase working to convince the world of their prominence. This opulence would create a standard, a model for all Olympics to follow.1

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 07 PART 02 RISING COST The primary reason behind the Olympics being ﬂ awed is the ‘cost of entry’. This ‘cost of entry’ refers to the exponentially increasing cost to host the Olympics. As shown below, the cost to host the Olympics has increased from somewhere around $300,000 U.S. dollars in the 1920s, to well over $10,000,000,000. That is ten billion, U.S. dollars. To put this in perspective, a typical car costs around $20,000, 10 billion dollars is equal to 500,000 cars. That 10 billion dollars is enough to bring hundreds of thousands of people out of poverty, to build adequate housing for those people. It’s a huge sum of money.23

Chart 01: Cost of the Olympics (in Billions)

But how did it get this way, how did it go from a pure athletic competition, to a nationalistic showcase. As discussed earlier, It began with Nazi Germany and the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. The world is still recovering from World War One and in the midst of a global depression. Germany is hit the hardest by this depression, on top of ﬁ nancial markets collapsing, Germany, the loser of the First World War, must pay the allied countries, France, England etc., SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 08 reparations.1

All of these factors brewed the perfect storm, and Adolf Hitler ﬁ lled this void for the German people. He played on their despair, on their desire to be a stronger Germany once again. Extreme nationalism began to spread across the country, and before anyone could blink, Hitler was in charge of Germany. The 1936 Olympics were coming up and he saw this as a way to showcase his new German nation. Nazi Germany applied to be the host and received the title. Immediately the Germans went to work designing and constructing an elaborate Olympic village and several stadiums. These were massive monolithic design, they instilled a sense of power on their occupants. But it was not just the stadium, the Olympics themselves were a show. From the way the Olympic torch made its entrance to the stadium, the way the German Athletes were chosen, it was all theater and pageantry. It worked, as most individuals leaving the 1936 Olympics left impressed and fond of the German way. This would be short-lived however as World War Two broke out only a few years later. 14

But the German version of the Olympics would live on. It became a showcase of the hosts countries technical and fi nancial know how. Every Olympic games began to overshadow the last in terms of both scale and pageantry. There are several examples that will work to inform this fact. The fi rst is the 1976 Summer Olympic Games in Montreal, Canada. The city spared no expense when it came to its groundbreaking, domed stadium design, and its radical design for the Olympic village. The Olympics were a great success, they boosted the prominence of Montreal and as a result Canada. But what was not celebrated was the cost incurred upon the city to pay for these lavish features. The main issue is the stadium, as housing is always in need in any city, and improved infrastructure is also vital to a modern city, but what is not vital is the Olympic Stadium. The stadium could seat 66,000 people, but after the Olympics were over, there was little use for this stadium. Montreal’s professional teams had stadiums. Thus the Montreal Olympic stadium went in to large dis-use for years after the Olympics was over. To add insult to injury, the fi nancial burden on the city from the games would not be paid off for more than thirty years,

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 09 requiring several new taxes on its citizens in order to pay oﬀ its debts. 135

It is clear to see that the ﬁ nancial burden is steep for countries, but it would seem not insurmountable. This is until we look at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. Planned as a major spectacle, sparing no expense, the Olympics were to return home to where the idea started. The Greeks had big plans for the Olympics, spending billions on new stadiums and a new Olympic village, it was a spectacle the world enjoyed. The stadiums were artfully designed, each part of the Olympics were thought out down to smallest part. But this opulence and showcase came at a steep cost, the country was in debt, it spent well above its means. The spending on this one endeavor became one of the main factors leading to the country as a whole going bankrupt. It is an example of careless overspending that gets placed upon the taxpayers to pick up the weight. In the Athenian’s case, this burden would come in the form of 10 billion U.S. dollars in debt once the Olympics had concluded, 136

This process is not sustainable, as the fi nancial burden to host the games increases more and more, even the more well to do cities such as Boston, USA have decided that enough is enough. They have just recently pulled out their bid for the 2024 Summer Olympic Games stating fi nancial reasons and expected overruns as the primary drivers in coming to this decision. The people of Boston had seen the cost of the Brazil Olympics, had seen the cost of the Sochi winter Olympics and had decided they did not want to be the ones left holding the bill once the spectacle was over. They had no faith that any assurance of private funding would result in them not having to carry the burden, there was too much infrastructure to be developed, and construction of an Olympic stadium to pay for. The citizens were concerned that public funding that would go to schools, and desperately needed infrastructure improvements would take a back seat to funding the Olympics. Sending the city down a fi nancial path they were unsure of. 7

So then if one of the largest cities in the U.S. was unwilling to carry the fi nancial burden, who else is this to fall on? There is obvious interest from China and Russia to host this opulent spectacle, they are will to fl oat the fi nancial cost. But are these regimes the world wants to

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 10 support, are these countries the world wants to put on a pedestal? What about the other 100 or so countries that have never hosted the Olympics. The Olympics in its current state are doing a disservice to the world by not allowing these cultures to be represented on a global stage. Only a fraction of the world’s diversity has been showcased in the Olympics. There has only been one South American country to ever host the Olympics, no single country from the African continent has held the Olympics. Finally only a handful Asian or middle-eastern countries have hosted the Olympics. There are so many places and cultures the Olympics has not touched, so many places that could never aﬀ ord the cost of the Olympics in its current state.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 11 PART 03

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 12 PART 03 ANCIENT STADIUMS The Stadium at Olympia was constructed somewhere around 776 BCE where it was an extension of the city of Olympia. Consisting of a single length of track surrounded by an earthen embankment, it was the ﬁ rst stadium in the modern sense of the word. As stated earlier, the Olympics consisted of only one event, a sprint, and this track was the exact length required to hold that event. The track was made of dirt and clay, and the starting and ﬁ nish lines were both a line of marble blocks spread across this track. On either side was the spectator seating, which was a rudimentary idea but also clever for its time. The Greeks understood the importance of a sloped seating or spectator area, as it would allow even those people at the back of the area to witness the event without trouble. As is with modern day tracks, the track was laid between two ridge lines in order to have stands on both sides of the track. 8

Figure 01: Entry to the Stadium Figure 02: The Stadium at Olympia

The stadium at Delphi is the next evolution of this original stadium design. Again, this stadium was located near a religious site known as the temple of Apollo. This venue shared many similarities to that of the stadium at Olympia. The stadium was a single length of compacted dirt track, a stone starting and fi nish line, and had stands that surrounded it. The largest diff erence between the two stadiums was in that of the seating construction. As with the stadium at Olympia prior, geography was utilized to its fullest extent for the stadium at Delphi. The stadium was built into the side of a mountain in what was a fl at area. On the mountain side, the stands utilized the slope of the mountain in order to form seating tiers. But on the side opposite the mountain, the SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 12 Greeks built a wall parallel to the running surface. Over time, they developed tiered stands built from the ground level up to the top of this wall. This is the fi rst evidence of engineered seating which begins to identify the stadium typology. 8

Figure 03: Stadium at Delphi

The next evolution in stadium design would come from the Romans in the form of the amphitheater. Instead of a single length or straight track with seating running parallel, this structure took the Greek idea of building into a hillside or mountain to the next level. The Romans identiﬁ ed a hillside, then partially excavated the hillside in the shape of a half circle. This shape would become the performance surface, and the resulting arc of the hillside would become the stands. The stands would be composed of several terraced seating sections that would all face a central point. There would be tunnels that lead to pedestrian walkways along the arc, locker rooms and baths. All the modern amenities of the stadiums we know today began to develop during the Roman era. 8

Figure 04: Roman amphitheatre in Amman, Jordan. Figure 05: Roman amphitheatre section

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 13 These amphitheaters were considered minor stadiums in the Roman era, in comparison to others. The crowning achievement of the Romans in regards to stadium design and construction was ‘The Coliseum’. While there are many other coliseums in the Roman Empire, ‘The Coliseum’, refers to the stadium at the heart of Rome. This was an engineering marvel then and still boggles the mind in the modern era as to how it was built. The fi eld itself was a dirt oval, but it is not just the oval that is so monumental in the history of stadium construction. Underneath that oval, there was an entire subterranean network of cages, locker rooms, trap doors and passages that enabled a plethora of events to occur within the stadium. It is stated that the arena even had the ability to be fl ooded so as to reenact full naval battles for the audience. The seating was one of The Coliseum’s modern marvels because at that time, building any higher than three fl oors was unheard of. The Coliseum towered over the surrounding city, incorporating several tiers of rowed seating. At the time, these tiers were broken up by classes within society, allowing the higher-class spectators to be closer to the action. Beneath the seating tiers, there would be walkways encircling the stadium, concessions and even bathrooms. The Coliseum had all the modern amenities of a stadium you would typically see today. It was also entirely free standing, unlike all of its predecessors. It did not rely on natural hills or mountains, making it an engineering marvel as well as an architectural one. 8

Figure 06: The Roman Coliseum

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 14 The next stadium of note was also constructed during the Roman Empire. Unlike its predecessor, The Coliseum, it would not stand the test of time. Its shape and form inﬂ uencing Modern Rome today, The Circus Maximus was an ambitious project for the Romans, being designed to hold chariot races. Much like todays NASCAR stadiums, it was a central oval track encircled by tiered seating. Unlike the Coliseum, the Circus Maximus would look back towards the stadiums of Olympia and Delphi. The Circus was built into a valley using the earthen embankments to create levels of seating. But not all of the seating was able to be constructed on the slope of a hill. Towards one end, the stadium is entirely free standing, developing a hybrid of Roman and Greek engineering knowledge. The construction of this stadium would not allow it to last long after the fall of the Roman Empire. It was quickly abandoned and fell into disrepair. The citizens removed anything valuable and over time, what was once a feat of engineering, slowly regressed back to its natural element. During the middle ages, the resulting open space became a market capitalizing on the availability of open space in a dense Rome. 8

Figure 07: Circus Maximus

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 15 PART 03 STADIUM REBIRTH After the fall of the Roman Empire, the building of stadiums fell out of favor. There were minor venues built for jousting and other smaller medieval aff airs. It wasn’t until the advent of modern athletics and the return of the Olympics that grand stadiums would begin being constructed again. The fi rst of these of note, is the Stamford Bridge Stadium in London, England. It was opened after several years of construction in 1877 as a track and fi eld club for the residents of London. It was bought in 1905 and converted into a soccer stadium. This soccer stadium would begin hosting the Chelsea Football Club. It remains their home stadium today following renovations throughout the years. At its inception, most of the oval surrounding the fi eld was a built-up grass embankment that spectators would stand or sit on to view the events. By 1905, a steel, two tiered grand stand was erected, one of the fi rst of its time. Prior to this, any grandstand structure had been constructed of earth, stone or concrete. This was the fi rst time the structure would be much lighter and less cumbersome, allowing for more useful and programmable space beneath the stands. 8

Figure 08: Stamford Bridge Stadium

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 16 The next stadium to develop from this era is Wrigley Field in Chicago, USA. Being built in an urban area, it utilized whatever space it could for stands after the ﬁ eld was situated. Today this has left Wrigley ﬁ eld looking very peculiar compared to other baseball stadiums in the world as it has been a more A-la-carte approach towards renovating and updating its facilities. Wrigley Field is truly an urban stadium, its tucked into and a part of the urban fabric of Chicago. It isn’t just a stadium, it’s a piece of the city. It has expanded out and has its own neighborhood, Wrigley Ville. This area contains bars, shopping, housing, schools, everything. On a game day, this area is entirely focused on the game. It really is a unique experience that was not designed, but it has developed naturally over the course of a century. 89

Figure 09:Wrigley Field Figure 10: Residential houses constructed seating on the roof next to Wrigley Field

Olympiastadion in Berlin, Germany marks a huge shift in both stadium design as well as the Olympic pagentry. Olympiastadion was constructed for the Berlin Olympic Games of 1936. This was during the Nazi’s and Hitler’s rise to power. The games became much more

than an athletic competition. They became about nationalism, about power and the Nazi’s used the design of their major stadium to exemplify this power. The Olympiastadion was built not as a necessity in order to view an athletic event as so many were constructed in the past, it was constructed as a showpiece. It was designed to exemplify strength and power, to awe all of those who entered it. Built of reinforced concrete, it drew design elements from the Coliseum in Rome and made them modern. Everything about the stadium was larger than life. It was designed to instill a sense of power, to show the world how far Germany had come since World War One. This would mark a fundamental shift in the way that the Olympics would be hosted from then SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 17 on. The Olympics became about show, about nationalism and about showing oﬀ to the world the technical and cultural know-how of the host-state.

Figure 11: Olympiastadion Olympic Pillars

This style of stadium would fi nd its way across the ocean and become standard for most stadiums to follow for fi fty years. An example of this is Riverfront Stadiums on the banks of the Ohio River in Cincinnati, USA. This stadium was built in the style of both the Olympiastadion and the Roman Coliseum. It was a perfect circle that hosted both American football and baseball, a truely multi-purpose stadium. It was monolithic in design, again using reinforced concrete as its primary design element. Being a circular stadium with two diff erent uses, it had an interesting ability to shift an entire section of stands from football fi eld confi guration, to baseball confi guration and then back again. The largest issue with this stadium and many like it built during this era is that it the stadium was not part of the urban fabric. The stadium

designs preferred a large amount of open space with a sea of parking lots surrounding it. There

are signiﬁ cant disconnect between the stadium and the city which happened as a result of the 10 automobile becoming so prominent. 9

The next evolution of stadiums came in the form of single purpose stadiums. In Cincinnati, this was the construction of both Paul Brown Stadium and Great American Ballpark to replace Riverfront Stadium. Both of these came at enormous cost to the cities, the teams and the tax payers of Cincinnati, Ohio. Two single purpose stadiums, only used for a small portion of the year. This is where the system begins to be fl awed, as citizens are pushing back against SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 18 this trend. Taxpayers do not want to be left footing a bill for a stadium that some may not have even supported. They would like to see their tax dollars go towards something of more value. That aside, the stadiums themselves are next evolution of engineering and architectural stadium design. They have taken the user experience to the next level, the more modern of the two, Great American Ballpark, has consistently sought out ways to reinvigorate the fan experience. From off ering a craft beer selection rivaling that of some restaurants, to create virtual reality fan zones, the stadium was designed to be fl exible. It was designed to stand the test of time, to provide a shell that could be rearranged, added to over time. This11 is a sustainable design, not in terms of energy, not in terms of materials, but in terms of usefulness.

Figure 12: Riverfront Stadium (Cinergy Field)

Figure 14: Great American Ballpark

Figure 13: Great American Ballpark Figure 15: Paul Brown Stadium

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 19 PART 04

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 20 PART 04 PRECEDENT ANALYSIS As this will be a combination of very diﬀ erent building typologies, it is critical that we draw on completed works to help inform this concept. The ﬁ rst of these projects that we will examine and take ques from will be B.I.G.’s Mountain Dwellings multi-family housing project in Copenhagen, Denmark. This is one of the best examples of terraced apartments that will inform and help develop the resultant housing in this project. As the diagrams and sections below show, the Mountain dwellings consist of a parking deck covered by apartments. These apartments step vertically and horizontally eleven levels. There is a unique sloped elevator that follows the terracing from the bottom level to the top level, intersecting the various parking decks on its12 way up.

Figure 16: Mountain Dwellings SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 21 Figure 17: Mountain Dwellings Figure 18: Mountain Dwellings

Next is the repurposing of the original Highbury Square Soccer stadium in England. This was formally the home of the Arsenal Football club, before they moved into their new stadium. It was then repurposed into 650 fl ats surrounding what was the soccer fi eld, which is now a park. This project proves that something like this can be done, but on the other side, it also shows the diffi culty of working with an existing structure such as this one. The other element that will be diff erent about this project is that it did not utilize the slope of the stadium seating to its fullest advantage. They maintained the shell with its exterior ornamentation, but gutted the interior to form new apartment levels. It is however a successful example of extending the life of a structured designed for one purpose by giving it new life as an entirely diff erent programmatic composition. 13

Figure 19: Highbury Square Stadium Figure 20: Highbury Square Stadium

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 22 Finally, a stadium that has yet to be built, the future Washington Redskins home designed by B.I.G. This design is radical in its approach to redeﬁ ning the American Football stadium. The current method as stated with Paul Brown Stadium is a single purpose, single use mega structure surrounded by a sea of parking lots. B.I.G. has taken the stadium and went through a process of determining alternate oﬀ season uses for the stadium, including a park, a lazy river, nothing is outside the realm of possibility for B.I.G. Their main concern is addressing the uselessness of stadiums outside of the ten games a year that are played within them. This will be an interesting test to see if all of its aspects stay with the design all the way through construction, and to see what aspects will be nixed. 14

Figure 21: Redskins New Stadium

Figure 22: Redskins New Stadium Figure 23: Redskins New Stadium

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 23 PART 05

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 24 PART 05 CONCEPT There are a multitude of issues with the current method of stadium design, including the chief among these issues- the idea of usefulness. In today’s society, the single most expensive feats in the built environment are stadiums. On average the current stadium costs somewhere between 500 million and 1 billion U.S. dollars. But the majority of these stadiums only see occupancy a dozen or so times a year. Let’s take a look at a modern National Football League stadium, for example. The NFL season is 4 preseason games, 16 regular season games and a maximum of 4 post-season games, for a total of 24 games. Half of all those games will always be away games, leaving the stadium with a maximum 12 days of full use during any season. That is 12 days out of 365 that any given stadium is being used to the extent of its purpose, equaling to a total usage of 3% of the year’s available usage. When not being used for its purpose, occasionally these stadiums will serve as concert venues or hold college football games. However, even with this factor the percentage will still remain below 5% total usage for the year.

While there are other buildings with such a low usage percentage, the primary diﬀ erence is in a stadiums’ cost. It can be seen that the cost of a single Olympic venue has increased exponentially in the last 30 years. As an example of this hefty bill, the Olympic Stadium in Montreal, Canada was very recently paid in full due to the cost of the venue being so high that the city could not pay for it. Montreal had to institute a new tax on tobacco products over the past 30 years to pay for the stadium, which largely goes un-used today. Another example of this is Athens Summer Olympics of 2004. Several large arenas and venues were constructed at hefty expenditure for the ﬁ rst Olympics to return to Greece in over a century, no expense was spared in its development and construction. Four years after the Olympics, the country of Greece went bankrupt in large part due to the expenditure on the Olympics. To add insult to injury, most of the Athenian stadiums are in disrepair and abandoned to this day.

The issue with these stadiums is that they do not lend themselves to a variety of uses. By design, they are incredibly infl exible. The tiered seating that is a fundamental element of every SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 25 stadium cannot serve more than its one single purpose. The playing surface itself can also be considered infl exible. In most national athletic organizations, there is a team of workers whose sole purpose is to maintain the grass. It is their full time job, 365 days a year to make sure that the fi eld is immaculate. Therefore, if the stands and fi eld are infl exible, it can be said that the stadium is infl exible.

This inﬂ exibility is of paramount concern when it comes to Olympic venues, mainly due to their size and cost. During the Olympics, there are a host of stadiums used or constructed for just for the Olympic events. These range from sand volleyball courts and badminton all the way up to the Olympic stadium. Each of these stadiums have designated seating capacities as laid out by the International Olympic Committee. The Primary stadium, the Olympic Stadium, requires a capacity of at least 90,000 for the Olympics. In comparison, Paul Brown Stadium in Cincinnati, Ohio has a capacity of around 60,000 and seldom reaches that max capacity. If Cincinnati were to host the Olympics as a mid-market city, a 90,000 seat stadium would appear empty during an NFL game.

The Olympics is a sold out event every four years when it comes around. Hotels are at max capacity, events are sold out and there is often no open seat in sight. While some athletic events such as NFL and MLB have seen attendance numbers fall with the increasing level of television sports coverage, the Olympics has not. The Olympics has 24-hour sports coverage using the latest technology for the couch fan. Even with this coverage, due to the Olympics’ uniqueness as a cultural and global event, there will always be a draw to the peoples of the world to be in attendance and the seats at the stadium will always be full of fans cheering for their home country’s athlete. There will be ﬂ ocks of tourists and spectator’s eager to see the new location of the Olympics, to experience its cultural movement and to mingle with its people. But as the cost to host the Olympics has risen exponentially, the number of countries willing and/or able to foot the bill for this event has decreased exponentially as well. For the smaller countries of the world, this exuberant cost means a permanent barrier between it and hosting the

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 26 Olympics. As the pool of potential candidates to host decreases, the level of cultural inﬂ uence also decreases to the point that countries such as China, Russia or the United States would be the only capable hosts.

Due to the high cost of hosting the Olympics, the majority of the global world will have no capability to host the Olympics, to share their unique culture with the rest of the world. The solution to this would be to create a ﬂ exible solution to help make the Olympics less cost- prohibitive. This solution begins with the primary Olympic stadium; most cities of the world have no use after the Olympics for a 90,000 seat stadium. Even if they do have an athletic club, the crowd they draw would average around 30,000 leaving a full two-thirds of the stadium unusable post Olympics. The 2012 London Olympics had this precise issue due to the fact that they needed to construct a new 90,000-person stadium for the Olympics. Once the Olympics concluded, there was no need for a stadium that large in London. Thus, they came up with a solution. They would in essence design two stadiums, one for the Olympics and one for the post- Olympic football club. They accomplished this by way of temporary seating for the Olympics and lowering the roof after the Olympics. The cost analysis of both are questionable, but none the less, the stadium is much more manageable for the city than a larger stadium would be.

Although the way London decided to design their Olympic Stadium seems like the best possible solution to the problem, it begs the question of whether or not it is truly the best decision. After all, it was stated earlier that the percentage of usage per the large cost is one of the lowest of any single building. Even with the lowering of the seat count for the London Olympic stadium, its usage per cost is very low. Again, a smaller country, does not need and cannot take on the ﬁ nancial burden of hosting the Olympics. This was seen in Brazil for the 2016 Olympics when the people of Brazil were in adamant opposition of hosting the Olympics. To the people of Brazil, the Olympics meant all the money that the government would be spending on the Olympics should have been going to solving the poverty and homelessness crisis inside the country instead of going to large and highly useless stadiums post Olympics.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 27 The solution for these smaller economic countries lies in multi-role or adaptable venues. Thus the proposal for this is to design and develop a stadium with its “Second- Life” in mind. In this case, the second Life can be defi ned as a building’s second purpose. The buildings fi rst purpose would be as a stadium for the Olympics. The buildings second purpose would be mixed-use housing. These two building typologies are intrinsically opposites. The way they are constructed, the manner in which they’re occupied, the sectional aspects of both are opposites. With multi-family housing, typically the idea is to maximize the number of apartment units one can fi t on a small footprint to maximize effi ciency. These units tend to be vertically stacked in such a way to both maximize as well as centrally locate services. Whereas a stadium is all about the view of the fi eld, the stadium is designed in such a way so that every seat faces the fi eld of play. As well, the stadium is vertically terraced to maximize the number of occupants and maximize the views for each occupant.

With that being stated, terraced living units are not a new concept in housing, from terracing a hillside to more modern examples such as the Mountain Dwellings in Copenhagen, Denmark. Terraced housing has a wealth of advantages to its residents, but before that, it must be understood why a terraced building is such an uncommon sight despite its inherent advantages. The primary among these has to do with cost, when a multi-family housing complex is conceived, the fi rst priority for most developers will be maximizing profi t and minimizing expenditure. This is achieved by uniformly stacking identical apartments on top of each other. This allows the circulation, the structure, plumbing and other services to be centrally located so as to save capital on unneeded building materials. The next issue that plagues a terraced building, is the problem of egress. Egress is a very complicated design problem for every building constructed today, there are a few basics, such as ability to egress two diff erent way, fi re rated wall assemblies, etc… The largest issue here is fi re stairs. Fire stairs are expensive, the materials that make up a fi re rated wall assembly. These materials must withstand a fi re for 2 hours before capitulating. Finally, the next issue will be the void left by the terracing of residential units, what becomes of the space beneath and behind these units. These will be the main points of contention SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 28 during the design process that must be addressed in order to develop a building that is both an effi cient and logical replacement for the standard multi-family housing block.

Now the advantages of terracing are numerous, but there are several main points to address that prove the typology is advantageous to the user. The Primary reason is the ability of each unit, to have a large personal outdoor space. To understand this however, it must be understood why private outdoor space is important, for that one must simply look at the ﬂ ight of families from the urban cores in the 70s and 80s to the suburban sprawls. Families desire space, it is a fundamental aspect of the American dream to own a plot of land, to own a house, it is engrained in the fabric of the United States. A space to grow, a space to allow children to play right outside the family home and a space to cultivate, to grow food, raise animals. Private space is a unique aspect of American culture, developed on the backs of immigrants that wanted to carve out a space for themselves and their families, to build their own destiny, and most of all to be independent. The independent spirit is what drives the desire for Americans to have private space.

On the ﬂ ip side of this, is the desire for community, the desire to be close to a wealth of restaurants, shopping, and culture. This was the original draw of suburbia, it was far enough away from the city that families could own land, but close enough that if they wanted to, they could be downtown in a short drive. They could experience the big city yet still have the suburban comforts. Lately however, there has been a shift from suburbia back towards urban neighborhoods, but with this shift, people have not lost their desire to own property, to have some private outdoor space. This is where the terracing will have its largest impact, it aﬀ ords the opportunity to mix the better parts of urban, the density, the amenities and the culture with the draws of suburbia, space and privacy.

Newport, Kentucky has been chosen as the location for this Olympic stadium for several reasons. Firstly the northern Kentucky area is an extension of the Cincinnati metropolitan area, it is right across the river via several pedestrian bridges and on located within mass transit lines

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 29 that fl ow through Cincinnati. But the bigger question, is why Cincinnati at all? This goes back towards the reality that no small market city has the fi nancial capability to host the Olympics. Cincinnati with its population, is similar in size to capitals of other nations that have not hosted the Olympics. This makes it ideal as a test bed for the coming 2024 Olympic Games. Cincinnati is no stranger to the idea of hosting the Olympics, there have been several attempts, and one master plan that got heavy consideration. The advantage that Cincinnati has, is that it has a plethora of sporting facilities already constructed. There are three major league stadiums along the riverfront, there is both the University of Cincinnati and Xavier University right outside downtown off ering a multitude of sporting venues. There is the Western and Southern tennis complex in Mason, and countless high schools that could be used as practice facilities. The major missing piece is that of an Olympic track and fi eld stadium. As it was stated previously, Cincinnati has two newly constructed stadiums, however neither of these would be suitable for an Olympic stadium. But if it is Cincinnati 2024, why would one of the venues be in Kentucky? Again this is an economic move, if Cincinnati can share the cost of the Olympics with Kentucky, it lowers the fi nancial burden on one particular areas tax payers. This two state system would be advantageous in many respects for both parties.

The site we have chosen in Newport is bordered by the Taylor-Southgate Bridge to the north east, the Ohio River to the north and the Licking River to the west. The stadium will be built into the levy, just as stadiums have done for centuries, utilizing a quasi-natural embankment as one side of the stadium. This stadium will replace an existing apartment block complex and other undeveloped blocks surrounding it into a new stadium and future terraced apartment complex overlooking the Queen City to the north.

In order to create a seamless transition, with very little in the way of construction post- Olympics, both the stadium and the housing must be designed concurrently. Each must respond to the others programmatic requirements and build upon each other’s strengths and weaknesses. For this, the process begins with the identifying the overall shape of the stadium. The ﬁ eld

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 30 selected as the base for these dimensions is that of an Olympic track and Field arena. Below is a diagram of the stadium as well, the initial investigation into the proper angle of the seating surrounding the ﬁ eld. This arc was then split into 8 equal segments. These 8 segments would become identical slices of the stadium. Thus one slice is identical to the next. This would be the base constraints of the housing and stadium units

Figure 24: Form Investigation

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 31 SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 32 Two concurrent steps followed this initial investigation, identifying the proper slope of the stadium, and identifying the size of a residential unit. It is important to note that for effi ciency, the residential units are designed to have as little variation as possible. All of the main areas and service spaces will be identical as the units stack, however, the higher up the unit, the more space some rooms will obtain. The stadium slope was identifi ed through research into typical stadium and arena slopes. To identify this slope, it must be developed based upon its smallest module, that of the individual stadium seat. This was identifi ed as 3’ horizontal, and 2 feet vertical with the vertical as an adaptable unit. As this was being identifi ed, the residential units were also being developed based upon a 3’-0” horizontal grids and 2’-0” vertical grid lines. The combination of these resulted in the section below.

This section is the driving force behind the design, 3’-0”H x2’-0”V became the overarching rule that drove the project, every major geometric decision had to be tested to fi t within these parameters. Every apartment unit, every circulation element, structure, etc. all fi t within this rule. With this rule, the terracing was developed, as well as the mezzanine and upper deck of the stadium. The mezzanine is designed to be the primary circulation element for the stadium as well as for the apartments. During the Olympic event, the mezzanine would act as a highway for the fl ow of people, it will include concessions, restrooms, media offi ces and healthcare facilities. Following the games, this mezzanine will become a retail farmer’s market similar to that of Findlay market in Cincinnati, Ohio. There are spaces for permanent tenants as well as temporary or weekend tenants. This mezzanine is the cultural and social hub of both the Olympics and the following housing, it is where spectators will go to eat and mingle, exchange ideas, much like it was during the original Olympiad.

Moving vertically, there begins another level of terraced apartments, but unlike the levels below, these apartments would be double loaded. There would be a terraced apartment facing the ﬁ eld, and another apartment facing the exterior. These apartments will be smaller, and will not have the advantage of a terrace. In place of this terrace, these residents have access to a private

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 33 plot on what was formerly the track and fi eld. Above these units, is the community recreation area. This is an open area with ball courts, tennis courts, playgrounds, swimming pools and open picnic area accessible to the community. Finally there is a canopy above this, this canopy is designed to off er a variety of services to both the games and to the mixed use resultant. Firstly, this canopy provides shade for the seats during the games as well as to the recreation area after the games. Next, the top of the canopy is fi tted with Photovoltaic panels generating ******** electricity during the games and after. This canopy is hinged on support elements at the exterior of the stadium that are constantly changing slope in an eff ort to capture as much sunlight during the day as possible. This sloping maximizes the energy generation potential of the canopy throughout the day. Finally, during wet weather, the canopy will level out in an eff ort to capture every drop of water available to be collected in a cistern and used for irrigation and gray water needs throughout the facility.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 34 PART 06

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 35 PART 06 CONCLUSION As we have seen, the glaring evidence of the rising cost of hosting the Olympics has made it nearly impossible for 70% of the world’s countries to be an Olympic host. Although there may be many ways that the Olympics could be more aﬀ ordable, the overarching idea within this thesis is the repurposing of the Olympic Stadium after the Olympics are over. Utilizing the Olympic Stadium as mixed-use housing post-Olympics allows for the repurposing of such a vast and typically one-use structure.

The idea of using terraced housing is to utilize what is the stadium slope to its fullest advantage to off er both privacy and space, as well as all of the desired modern amenities. People crave this two dimensional lifestyle- living in an urban city while also having the privacy of a suburban home. The idea of creating both of these wants out of the Olympic Stadium by utilizing the slope of stadium seating aff ords the opportunity to create a unique was of living that will ultimately help off set the high cost.

When you think of an urban vs. suburban neighborhood, you would typically think of two very diﬀ erent concepts. Throughout this thesis, we have explored the idea of having the best of both worlds. On one had we have looked at how this mixed-use stadium concept will appeal to those who are looking for a more urban and fast-paced lifestyle, while also appealing to those we are wanting a slower and more intimate lifestyle. With this concept, the city-dweller will still have the convenience of close proximity to all the urban necessities, while the suburbanite will have the privacy and space that they desire.

In conclusion, the focus of this thesis has been to examine the Olympic Stadium structure and provide concept for its reuse post-Olympics. With this concept, the hope is to provide a method to lower the ﬁ nancial burden of hosting the Olympics by making the stadium a multi-use structure.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 36 SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 37 PART 07

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 38 PART 07 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1Goldblatt, D. (2016). The Games: A Global History of the Olympics. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

2Newman, C. (2014, February 22). Olympic Games: Legacy or Money Pit? Retrieved October 12, 2016, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/02/140221-olympics-sochi-rio- de-janeiro-london-boris-johnson-montreal-athens-world/

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7Seelye, K. Q. (2015, July 27). Boston’s Bid for Summer Olympics Is Terminated. Retrieved October 1, 2016, from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/sports/olympics/boston-2024- summer-olympics-bid-terminated.html?_r=1

8John, G., Sheard, R., & Vickery, B. (2007). Stadia: a Design and Development Guide. Burlington: Elsevier.

SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 39 9Crisafulli, A. (2015, March 22). Remembering the Cookie-Cutter, Part 2: Riverfront Stadium. Retrieved October 20, 2016, from http://www.banishedtothepen.com/remembering-the-cookie- cutter-part-2-riverfront-stadium/

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SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 40 C. (2016, August 10). Is hosting the Olympics ever worth the cost? Retrieved September 3, 2016, from https://qz.com/753250/rio-2016-is-hosting-the-olympics-ever-worth-it/

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SECOND-LIFE STADIUMS PAGE 41 PART 07 IMAGE SOURCES Chart 01: http://www.businessinsider.com/summer-winter-olympics-sports-cost-2016-8 Figure 01: http://www.picturesque-peloponnese.com/images/olyst.jpg Figure 02: http://www.picturesque-peloponnese.com/images/stadium.jpg Figure 03: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Ancient_athletics_stadium_at_Delphi.JPG Figure 04: https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/75/110275-004-FB6DF79F.jpg Figure 05: Corey Mai Figure 06: http://www.guidesforitaly.com/public/coliseum-rome-378-1505-2-rome.jpg Figure 07: http://leonardrutgers.nl/wp-content/uploads/circus_maximus.jpg Figure 08: http://www.chelseafc.com/content/cfc/en/homepage/the-club/history/style/stadium-history.img.png Figure 09: http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2014/03/24/Wrigley-Field-at-100/~/media/ BF951FAE38E94CAC884AF19B5E978D21.ashx Figure 10: http://i2.cdn.turner.com/money/dam/assets/161026092730-wrigley-ﬁ eld-rooftops-cubs-780x439.jpg Figure 11: http://www.berlinstadtservice.de/images/Parkplatz_Olympiastadion_Berlin_bss.png Figure 12: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/f0/c5/20/f0c520feea9ﬀ 7191b499cc271fdae19.jpg Figure 13: http://www.resourceinternational.com/Portals/0/galleries/Const%20Admin%20Inspection%20Testing/ Cincinnati%20Reds%20Great%20American%20Ballpark/GAPB.jpg Figure 14: https://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/08/c6/a5/0c/great-american-ball-park.jpg Figure 15: https://www.tickpick.com/DesktopModules/SearchResults/img/performers/paul-brown-stadium.jpg Figure 16: http://www.archdaily.com/15022/mountain-dwellings-big/500f37f928ba0d0cc7002176-mountain- dwellings-big-image Figure 17: http://www.archdaily.com/15022/mountain-dwellings-big/500f383d28ba0d0cc7002183-mountain- dwellings-big-image Figure 18: http://www.archdaily.com/15022/mountain-dwellings-big/500f384928ba0d0cc7002185-mountain- dwellings-big-image Figure 19: https://www.theguardian.com/sport/gallery/2009/sep/19/architecture-arsenal Figure 20: https://www.theguardian.com/sport/gallery/2009/sep/19/architecture-arsenal Figure 21: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/03/15/big-reveals-more-images-washington-redskins-stadium-design/ Figure 22: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/03/15/big-reveals-more-images-washington-redskins-stadium-design/ Figure 23: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/03/15/big-reveals-more-images-washington-redskins-stadium-design/

Figure 24: Corey Mai

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