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Social HALF The Nature Strategy for Sustainability

BY VANCE G. MARTIN and JULIE ANTON RANDALL

ocial HALF is a concept that bridges the often dispa- rate fields of nature conservation and human development. It is the human dimension complement NatureS Needs Half of (NNH) – an aspirational and practical vision of sustainability (Martin 2011; Sylven 2011) based on the scientific information that keeping at least half of wild nature intact and interconnected is vital to ensuring continued life-supporting services to all species. The “half” in nature can be composed of interconnected large land- and seascapes or a connected mosaic of wild nature found in Vance G. Martin Julie Anton Randall parks, forests, refuges, working lands, and waters managed with conservation as a primary value. NNH is also a cost- efficient and effective means of mitigating climate change by concept at the 10th WWC (WILD10), many collaborators keeping atmosphere-altering chemicals such as carbon, have begun to organize and activate the NSS Coalition, a methane, and others safely locked up (WILD 2009). global network committed to Social HALF principles. Social HALF is the application of NNH to conceptualize a holistic, inclusive, and rational approach to sustainable A Vision of Half the World in Nature development whereby the social and economic needs of The loss and degradation of nature’s ecological services is human communities are addressed by protecting a specific increasingly becoming headline news. The Convention on quantity (at least half) and quality (high-functioning ecosys- Biological Diversity (2010) reports there are “multiple indi- tems and intact biodiversity) of nature. This WILD Foundation cations of continuing decline in biodiversity in all three of working paper, entitled the “Nature Strategy for Sustainability” its main components – genes, species and ecosystems.” (NSS), is formulated by a network of nature conservationists Essentially all species assessed by the International Union for and human development practitioners that prioritizes the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List for extinction risk protection of nature for its fundamental role in alleviating are more threatened than ever. Extinction is most imminent human suffering, enhancing human security, and promoting among amphibian and coral species, mammals in South and economic prosperity. When NSS is fully established it will Southeast Asia, species of birds and mammals used for food support international guidelines, replicable models, and prac- and medicine, and nearly a quarter of all plant species. tical tools for application in policy, management, and Climate change exacerbates other human impacts, but the communications worldwide. current international policy focus on climate change often At WILD9, the 9th World Wilderness Congress (WWC) obscures the more direct and immediate threats of land-use in Mexico in 2009, The WILD Foundation and 25 early conversion, marine resource exploitation, and increasing organizational endorsers presented NNH as a global vision consumption of resource materials. and a new “social movement for nature conservation” to pro- Protected areas (PAs) are an important part of sustaining tect and interconnect at least half of Earth’s lands and seas in critical ecosystem services, but proposed PA areas are often order to support all life. In preparing for a full launch of this selected based on anthropocentric reasons rather than on an

4 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 ecological basis. Although the global commitment to protecting nature and implementing sustainable development has deepened over recent decades, many nonprofit and governmental institu- tions adhere to that which is socially or politically acceptable, and corporations continue to follow quarterly profitability guidelines. We need to change this dynamic and shift our approach to human development. NNH proposes that, to a great degree, true sustainability of human well-being rests on the answer to a simple question: What does nature need to be sustainable? An ecosystem provides the foundation for a healthy, stable, and prosperous human society and is defined as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit, of which humans are an integral part” (MEA 2005). As ecosystem size is reduced by human development and exploitation activi- Figure 1 – The Kayapo of the Southern Amazon have a goal of protecting (and using sustainably) virtu- ties, there is a critical threshold after ally 100% if their 10 million hectare reserve, with biodiversity that supports all their villages. Photo by Vance G. Martin. which they rapidly lose their ability to provide life-supporting services. Many scientists (Noss et al. 2011) point out viable and diverse populations of native nomic development, but these benefits that this is when ecosystems drop to species and ecosystem function. cannot be sustained as human popula- somewhere between 35%–80% of Critically, in today’s world, the NNH tions increase, land-use conversions their original (pre-Anthropocene) size, approach can enhance resiliency to the and development continue, environ- depending on the system. Thus, many inevitable and dramatic environmental mental pollution continues, invasive scientists consider a minimum size of change caused by ill considered human species spread, and climate change 50% of ecosystems – intact and inter- development. Further, applying NNH persists. In fact, society risks irrevers- connected – to be a rational, ecologically would mitigate the scientifically and ible declines in productivity as resource necessary, general target. This is the historically documented effects of eco- exploitation and degradation increases basis for NNH and is a precautionary system destruction on human health and fragmentation continues. Unmiti approach to buffer the many uncertain- and livelihoods, particularly on those gated nature loss will continue to lead ties in our dynamic, rapidly changing people most directly dependent on to ecosystem decline, which is far cost- world. The NNH strategy for each geo- nature or disproportionately impacted lier to reverse than if we implement graphical area will vary depending on by its loss – often the poorest in steps now to protect nature’s life-sup- its degree of physical heterogeneity, human society. port services. endemism, conversion to development, Ecosystem change through human and other factors of human impact and Loss of Nature and Its development often yields initial development. Impact on Humans benefits for some stakeholders (typi- NNH is thus a biocentric approach Ecosystem transformation has contrib- cally the affluent) while exacting costs to safeguarding nature essential to uted substantial net benefits to human on marginalized groups (those without human well-being, while also assuring society in terms of well-being and eco- the political and economic power over

AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 International Journal of Wilderness 5 Figure 2a and b – Landscape fragmentation (loss of ecological connectivity) thru fencing that destroys the ability of wild nature to support local human populations, and usually increases dependency on less-diverse and often lower-value land use. Photos by (a) Karen Ross and (b) Joe Riis

resource management decisions). jected to grow by 70%–85% (MEA variability of agricultural production, Marginalized groups are most often 2005), and to double in developing and with it the magnitude and fre- the local poor who have very low adap- countries (FAO 2002). Demand for quency of droughts and floods. The tive capacity (disempowered women water will increase 30%–85% (MEA United Nations (UN) projects an and children in particular) and indig- 2005). Food crop production must also exponential increase in environmental enous groups stripped of traditional compete with rapidly expanding refugees – 50 million by 2020. More rights and hereditary access to assets demand for land and water for biofuels social and political conflicts will ensue provided more directly by nature. production. as ecological services decline, natural These groups are like an early warning Nourishing the world’s rapidly resources grow more scarce, and human detection of problems for a wider multiplying human population will suffering intensifies. society. Ultimately, though, everyone require growing more food with less Health, security, and prosperity of pays the price for externalities associ- water, and improving agroecosystem nations are affected by the loss of sus- ated with ecosystem change. sustainability and resilience. Otherwise, tainable ecosystems: Change within an ecosystem often with more mouths to feed with less • Health – The negative health effects negatively impacts food production. food, and food prices increasing in of degraded air and water quality can Cultivated areas where at least 30% of response, the poorest people – who affect all societies, especially the poor the landscape is in cropland, shifting spend the largest share of their income who are least able to replace health cultivation, confined livestock produc- on food – will suffer most. benefits provided freely by nature tion, or freshwater aquaculture cover a The juggernaut of human devel- with those purchased from health- quarter of Earth’s surface (MEA 2005). opment continues – seemingly without care systems. Many diseases erupt Agriculture expansion has plowed under understanding the need for, and acting from malnutrition (especially child- forests and grasslands and converted fully enough to protect, the ecosystem hood and maternal) and contaminated wetlands, destroying wildlife habitats size and intactness that nature needs in water (e.g., infectious diarrhea and and often polluting land and ground- order to produce the ecological ser- vector-borne diseases such as typhoid water with nitrates and pesticides. vices that helps to provide basic human and malaria, worsened by flooding). Although altering ecosystems has helped needs such as clean water and clean air. • Security – Land degradation, over- feed the world’s 7 billion people to date, Some 1.4 billion people already live in harvesting, and invasive species from ecosystem productivity cannot keep extreme poverty. One in five inhabit- unsustainable resource management pace with the current rate of overexploi- ants of the planet lack easy access to are significant threats to human secu- tation – climate change will challenge clean water; one in six are undernour- rity, particularly in arid or semiarid productivity even further. With a pro- ished (MEA 2005). Disease epidemics regions – regions that often have jected 9.1 billion people by 2050, the are omnipresent. Climate change is more fragile governance. The world is world demand for food crops is pro- increasing the spatial and temporal less secure from impacts of climate

6 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 change (MEA 2005; CDC 2009), (Schmiegelow et al. 2006) to main- aged with goal of the protecting nature including higher temperatures; tain biodiversity and ecological and its services. increased drought; accelerated ero- processes in large, interconnected The Social HALF concept helps sion; variability in weather patterns land and marine areas: integrate conservation and develop- affecting crop and forest production • Representation – all the native eco- ment policy and fieldwork, and it has a and contributing to more frequent systems represented; clear and unequivocal role in meeting pest and disease outbreaks; condi- • Viability – viable populations of all the UN Millennium Development tions conducive to invasive species; native species maintained and allowed Goals: eradicate extreme poverty and higher coastal storm surges and deg- to fluctuate in a natural way; hunger, ensure environmental sustain- radation; salinity; flooding; ocean • Intact processes – ecological and ability (reverse forest loss, improve acidification and bleaching of coral evolutionary processes (e.g., free- drinking water in urban and rural areas, habitats impacting fisheries; and the flowing rivers, wind, fire, herbivory, improve lives of slum dwellers), improve adverse impacts on human health of and carnivory) ensured; and maternal health and reduce child mor- increasing vector-borne pathogens • Resiliency – resilience to both short- tality, promote gender equality and and infectious diseases thriving under term impacts and longer-term change empower women (especially in rural warmer conditions. Direct negative (such as climate change) rendered. society), and combat malaria and other and destabilizing impacts are felt by infectious diseases related to water and local people and some will even Achieving a NNH goal of “at least nutrition (UNDP 2013). become ecological refugees. Increasing half intact and interconnected nature” waves of “land-poor refugees” into requires human collaboration in order The Social HALF case for protecting cities and across borders strain eco- to scale up our thinking, policy, and nature rests on three factors: human nomic resources, political stability, action. NNH also requires a wide range health, security, and prosperity – the and national security. of land and sea conservation scenarios, factors of human well-being most • Prosperity – Almost half of all jobs including formally designated protected directly linked to what nature provides: worldwide depend on fisheries, for- areas (parks, refuges, forests, biospheres, • Health – clean air and water; nutri- ests, or agriculture (UNEP 2008). tribal and community protected areas, tious food; water for sanitation and Forest areas alone directly provide and marine protected areas), easements, disease prevention; fuel sources for livelihoods for 1 billion people, and zones of limited sustainable use, and energy to keep warm and cool; botan- the benefits from healthy ecosystems working lands, forests, and seas man- ical medicines and pharmaceutical are well documented; for example, the fishing benefits from healthy coral reefs are a potential US$5.7 billion annually (Convention on Biological Diversity 2008). As greater numbers of people abandon rural areas for supposedly better prospects in the cities, they shift from subsistence living to reliance on a money economy. Tragically, urban employ- ment for these people (untrained and often uneducated) is scarce and low paying, and poverty is exacerbated instead of alleviated.

NNH: The Ecological Foundation of a Social Solution Figure 3 – “Fair Trade”, community-grown, organic coffee (here in Sierra de Juarez, Oaxaca, Mexico) is one of the best, most recent examples of integrating biodiversity conservation and sustainable rural The NNH vision is based on ecolog- development. Photo by Jaime Rojo. ical conditions determined by scientists

AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 International Journal of Wilderness 7 Nature Strategy for typically lack measures of renewable Sustainability resource degradation and depletion. Social HALF addresses basic human A country chops down its forests rights and social equity through an and fishes out its waters, and this NNH strategy of protecting ecosystem shows up as a GDP gain despite loss services that provide for human health, of the natural capital. The non- security, and prosperity. Social HALF market benefits of ecosystems (e.g., objectives are soil formation, water purification, 1. Alleviated human suffering – flood regulation, and more) are Nutrition and sanitation, keys to often lost because there is insuffi- health, decline readily when water cient incentive to invest in ecosystem becomes scarcer and agriculture maintenance and little apparent less productive. Healthy natural penalty for misuse. One of the first ecosystems underlie agriculture results seen is insufficient renewable and provide clean water and fuel- fresh water per capita. wood. Basic necessities of food, drinking/cooking water, and energy Our current economic develop- provided by nature give especially ment pattern is reactive: it requires rural people (women in particular) increasing investment to restore and more time to work for income and repair ecosystem damage. This is despite to care for family. the clear evidence that, virtually always, Figure 4 – Clean, easily accessible water (here being fetched at long distance in KwaZulu 2. Enhanced human security – the cost of ecosystem restoration is Natal, South Africa) is one of the first things lost Natural resource scarcity spawns higher than the cost of preventing deg- when a high-value landscape is overgrazed or otherwise converted. Photo by Vance G. Martin. human conflict at a local level. The radation and fragmentation (and, once physical, economic, and social destroyed, not all services can be restored impacts of nature loss flow easily and reconnected). ingredients; and source of spirituality, across political jurisdictions and The NSS strategy for development, inspiration, aesthetics, and recreation. country borders. For example, pov- based on the NNH vision and Social • Security – personal security (basic erty and war in one country can HALF principles, is proactive and cost- needs met); access to natural resources; slow regional economic growth efficient through safeguarding protection from natural disasters and drive conflict and refugees into life-support systems at their source. (including those attributed to climate neighboring countries. Dust storms Livelihood strategies that benefit, pro- change); sustained social networks and fires diminish air quality in tect, and regenerate natural systems can (especially those indigenous commu- nearby countries. Greenhouse gas create jobs while preventing ecosystem nities inhabiting or directly reliant on emissions affecting the global cli- decline. Markets for ecosystem services nature); avoidance of human-human mate erupt from deforestation (van (water, carbon, and even biodiversity) conflict over scarce water, food, and der Werf et al. 2009). Wealthy may eventually evolve to pay for conser- raw materials; and avoidance of countries with efficient, stable gov- vation, while in the mean time, more human-wildlife conflict. ernments and strong civil societies immediate and essential measures are • Prosperity – secure livelihoods; might maintain freedom and taken to protect and interconnect the preservation of traditional ecological choice for a period of time while needed half of Earth’s land and waters. (ecosystem) knowledge; source of ecosystems decline, but because genetic resources for food crops forest, agriculture, fishing, and NNH Strategies for Human (improved quality and yields) and ecotourism industries are tied Activity and Ecosystem medicines (efficacy and quantity); directly to ecosystem health, sta- Impact contribution to national economy bility will deteriorate unless nature Achieving HALF will require measures via traded commodities and trickle- decline is reversed the world over. beyond formally designating protected down effects; and fish and bushmeat 3. Nature valuation in the economy – areas (parks, refuges, forests, biospheres, – wild-caught protein sources. National capital asset accounts and marine protected areas) and include

8 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 working lands managed with nature as a primary value. Protecting nature in such a mosaic is the only way to provide ecological and cultural services essential to meeting human needs. Thus, the proposed NSS will require landscape-scale, complementary approaches to sustainable development that account for the impact of human activity on ecosystem function connected to these areas: agriculture, forestry, water management, marine policy, biodiversity conservation, valuing indigenous people, gender equity, ecotourism and recreation., and areas with special vulnerabilities: Figure 5 – Oyster culture in Marismas Nacionales Biosphere Reserve, Nayarit, Mexico. Photo by Jaime Rojo. Agriculture – Agriculture compatible with sustaining ecosystem functions and services is needed to create multi- tional loss of forest), salinization, soil Marine policy – About half of all functional ecosystems that can loss, and waterlogging. Forest clearings humans reside in coastal communities produce more food with less water create vegetation edges, where reliant on marine resources. Across and artificial inputs. Tenure-system pathogen, vector, and host interaction much of the world, about 90% of the constraints on the participation of amplifies with deadly consequences for biomass of fish targeted in fisheries women, smallholders, youth, and humans, livestock, and wildlife alike. (including bycatch) has been lost to indigenous farmers cannot be ignored. NSS strategies will need to incorporate industrial fishing; the fish harvested NSS strategies will need to incorpo- protection of existing and ecologically are increasingly from less valuable, rate the benefits of sustainable healthy forests (which is the most cost- lower trophic levels, as higher trophic intensification and methods of water- efficient strategy) as well as multispecies level species are depleted (MEA 2005). use efficiency, crop rotation, tillage, reforestation. NSS strategies will need to protect integrated systems (crops, nitrogen- coral reefs, sea-grass beds, and man- fixing trees, livestock, and Water management – Modern agricul- groves to provide coastal residents with aquaculture), resources reuse for feed/ ture uses 70% of all managed freshwater food protein and also buffer them fodder and soil fertility (crop residue, sources. However, subsistence agricul- from climate change impacts. NSS manure), integrated pest manage- ture (95% of agriculture in sub-Saharan strategies will need to include marine ment. and use of local and adapted Africa) is rain fed, with low produc- wilderness management areas (Randall drought-tolerant cultivars that tivity because of limited or no 2012) designed to regrow fish stocks increase reliable yields and nutritional precipitation at critical growing periods, and other marine species devastated by quality while decreasing monoculture making soil nutrients less available and fishing practices on the high seas. (Conniff 2012). increasing the occurrence of pests and diseases. NSS strategies will need to Biodiversity conservation –Critical Forestry – Forest covers about a third protect natural areas at river headwaters habitat and stopover areas for wildlife of the Earth’s land surface (TEEB for quality and quantity water flow, important to human communities as 2012). Experts predict that 20% of while also regenerating fish habitat and well as pollinators (insects and birds) grassland and forestland may be con- stocks. NSS water management strate- essential to natural and cultivated plant verted primarily to agriculture by 2050 gies in food production will need to propagation need to be protected. (MEA 2005). Negative hydrological employ low tillage methods, rotating Plant genetic resources banked in consequences of deforestation include pasturage, restoring shelter, selecting NNH areas can provide fresh genetic decreased rainfall (accelerating addi- appropriate species, and more. material that is resilient or has wider

AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 International Journal of Wilderness 9 tolerance as changing conditions intrinsic value of wild nature that brings time and physical separation of costs increase (drought, extreme tempera- happiness and satisfaction to all people and benefits of ecosystem changes tures, salinity), particularly those wild and provides unique experiential oppor- mean people experiencing harm are relatives of globally important food tunities for the human body, mind, and not the same as those gaining the ben- crops such as barley, maize, oats, pota- spirit. With these values and practices efits. Increasingly, the poor will feel toes, rice, and wheat. NSS strategies in mind, NSS strategies will need to the impacts most profoundly. will need to engage local stakeholders create these opportunities for personal The NNH movement needs in directly addressing the escalation of value and local community revenue. momentum, and the Social HALF con- illegal harvests of wildlife, trees, plants, cept makes the case for integrating and marine products. Areas with special vulnerabilities – international development and conser- Drylands comprise more than 40% of vation objectives. Implementing an NSS Valuing indigenous people – Currently Earth’s land surface, and across almost can take advantage of three international inhabiting or holding traditional land 100 countries, many dryland inhabit- trends: (1) digital technology makes it claims for almost a quarter of the ants depend directly on this highly easier for governments to share informa- Earth’s surface –roughly 36 million variable natural resource base land for tion with the public, and for the public square kilometers or 14 million square subsistence (UNEP 2013). About half to hold decision makers accountable; (2) miles – indigenous peoples currently of dryland inhabitants account for half business and industry have a demon- steward approximately the same of the world’s poor. Pressures on dry- strated self-interest in advancing a green amount of wild nature as all govern- land ecosystems already exceed economy (UNEP 2013) for a market- able, triple bottom line of profitability The Social HALF concept makes the case for for profit, people, and planet (Anonymous 2009); and (3) an expanding interna- integrating international development and tional policy arena provides more conservation objectives. opportunities to apply NNH. The NNH vision and the Social ments and private conservationists sustainable levels of soil formation and HALF concept, implemented through combined. NSS strategies will need to water supply (MEA 2005). Also, Small the NSS, uses science – and is the best support, assist, and involve indigenous Island Developing States particularly business model – for achieving a more communities whose cultural identities susceptible to climate change effects healthy, secure, and prosperous life for are tied closely to particular habitats or need targeted support. NSS strategies all people. It both banks and generates wildlife (e.g., artisanal coastal fishing will need to recognize that certain natural capital to meet human needs communities, Arctic populations, tra- communities have less capacity (e.g., and sustains the ability to respond to ditional forest societies, and pastoral political, economic) for designating economic opportunities. It is the right nomadic societies) and whose tradi- protected areas but are closest to the social contract with nature. tional knowledge and management edge of survival or sustainability. can be instrumental in protecting the References Conclusion Anonymous. 2009. Triple bottom line: It resources and services. consists of three Ps: Profit, people, Because of an inherent lag in the and planet. The Economist, November Gender equity – NSS strategies will response of ecosystems to disturbance, 17. Retrieved April 2013 from www. economist.com/node/14301663. need to empower women to participate the result of nature’s degradation will Conniff, Richard. 2012. In fast-track equally in policy development, organi- mostly impact future generations. technology, hope for a second green revolution. Yale Environment 360, zational development and financial Moreover, impacts of ecosystem degra- Retrieved February 2013 from http:// assistance, and the education, training, dation are often felt some distance e360.yale.edu/feature/fast_track_ and information and technology away from where they originated (e.g., breeding_agriculture_technology_ provides_hope_for_green_revolu- transfer opportunities afforded by it. changes to the headwaters affect water tion/2491/. flow and quality downstream, and Conservation Development Centre (CDC), Ecotourism and recreation the International Institute for – Beyond a destruction of a fish nursery results in Sustainable Development (IISD) and utilitarian approach, Social HALF trea- reduced harvests out at sea). Both the sures the existence, inheritance, and inertia in ecological systems and the Continued on page 16

10 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2013 • Volume 19, Number 2 United States: A Technical Document PMC2268130/pdf/zpq2295.pdf. grams.fws.gov/Subpages/ Supporting the Forest Service 2010 Poudyal, N. C., S. H Cho, and J. M. Bowker. NationalSurvey/2011_Survey.htm. RPA Assessment. General Technical 2008. Demand for resident hunting in Walls, M., S. Darley, and J. Siikamaki. 2009. Report SRS-169. Asheville, NC: U.S. the southeastern United States. Human The state of the great outdoors: Department of Agriculture, Forest Dimensions of Wildlife 13: 154–178. America’s parks, public lands, and rec- Service, Southern Research Station. Poudyal, N. C., J. M. Bowker, G. T. Green, reation resources. Washington, DC: Harris, Anna. 2012. Participation, regional dis- and D. G. Hodges. 2012. Modeling the Resources for the Future. tribution, and trends in wildlife-related impact of changes in land use and Wear, D. N. 2011. Forecasts of County- recreation. In Outdoor Recreation Trends socio-cultural patterns from urbaniza- Level Land Uses under Three Future and Futures: A Technical Document tion on recreational fishing. In Scenarios: A Technical Document sup- Supporting the Forest Service 2010 RPA Urbanization and the Global porting the Forest Service 2010 RPA Assessment, ed. H. Ken Cordell (pp. Environment, ed. E. Turunen, and A. Assessment. General Technical Report 17–24). General Technical Report Koskinen (pp. 163–180). Hauppauge, SRS-141. Asheville, NC: U.S. SRS-150. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department NY: Nova Science Publishers. Department of Agriculture Forest of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Research Station. Service. 2008. Land Areas Report as of Wilderness Institute. 2009. Wilderness Joyce, L.A., D. T. Price, D. P. Coulson, D. W. September 30, 2008. Retrieved on database. Missoula, MT: University of McKenney, R. M. Siltanen, P. Papadopol, March 11, 2009, from www.fs.fed.us/ Montana, College of Forestry and and K. Lawrence. In press. Projecting land/staff/lar/2008/lar08index.html. Conservation. Climate Change in the United States: A ———. Future of America’s Forests and Technical Document Supporting the Rangelands: Forest Service 2010 KEN CORDELL is a pioneering research Forest Service 2010 RPA Assessment. Resources Planning Act Assessment. General Technical Report RMRS. Fort General Technical Report WO-87. scientist with the USDA Forest Service, Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Southern Research Station, 320 Green Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Agriculture, Forest Service. Street, Athens, GA 30602-2044, USA; email: Mountain Research Station. U.S. Department of the Interior, National [email protected]. Pergams, O. R. W., and P. A. Zaradic. 2008. Park Service. 2008. Listing of Acreage Evidence for a fundamental and perva- by State and County as of 12/31/2008. J. M. BOWKER is a research social scien- sive shift away from nature-based Retrieved on February 26, 2009, from tist with the USDA Forest Service, Southern recreation. Proceedings of the National www.nature.nps.gov/stats/acreage- Academy of Sciences of the United menu.cfm. Research Station, 320 Green Street, Athens, States 105(7): 2295–2300. Retrieved U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. 2011 GA 30602-2044, USA; email: mbowker@ on December 12, 2012, from www. National Overview Facts. Retrieved on fs.fed.us. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ December 12, 2012, from wsfrpro-

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Safer World. 2009. Climate change and org/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf www.undp.org. conflict lessons from community con- [#2]. Noss, R. F., A. P. Dobson, R. Baldwin, United Nations Environment Programme servancies in northern Kenya. Retrieved P. Beier, C. R. Davis, D. A. Dellasala, J. (UNEP). 2013. What is a Green April 2013 from http://www.iisd.org/ Francis, H. Locke, K. Nowak, R. Lopez, C. Economy? Retrieved April 2013 from pdf/2009/climate_change_ Reining, S. C. Trombulak, and G. Tabor. www.unep.org/greeneconomy/ conflict_kenya.pdf 2011. Bolder thinking for conservation. AboutGEI/WhatisGEI/tabid/29784/ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Conservation Biology, 26(1): 1-4. Default.aspx. 2008. Ecological, economic, cultural, Schmiegelow, F. K. A. et al. 2006. Conser- ———. 2011. Ecosystems for water and and social benefits of protected areas. vation beyond crisis management: A food security. Nairobi: UNEP, Colombo: Retrieved April 2013 from http://www. conservation-matrix model. BEACONs International Water Management cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-value- Discussion Papers, ed. E. Boelee. Institute. nature-en.pdf Sylven, M. 2011. Nature Needs Half: A new ———. 2008. Expert forum on ecosystem ———. 2010. Global Biodiversity Outlook 3. spatial perspective for a healthy planet. services and human well-being: The Montreal. Retrieved April 2013 from International Journal of Wilderness role of law and governance. Geneva, http://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/ 17(3): 9–11, 16. report of the meeting, September gbo/gbo3-final-en.pdf TEEB. 2010. The economics of ecosystems 19–20, 2008. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). and biodiversity: Mainstreaming the van der Werf, G. R., D. C. Morton, R. S. DeFries, 2002. World Agriculture: Towards economics of nature: A synthesis of the J. G. J. Olivier, P. S. Kasibhatla, R. B. 2015/2030, Summary Report. approach, conclusions, and recommen- Jackson, G. J. Collatz, and J. T. Randerson. Retrieved April 2013 from http:// dations of TEEB. Retrieved April 2013 2009. CO2 emissions from forest loss. www.fao.org/docrep/004/y3557e/ from http://www.teebweb.org/publica- Nature Geoscience 2(11): 737–738. y3557e00.htm tions/teeb-study-reports/synthesis/ Martin, V. G. 2011. WILD10 and Nature The WILD Foundation. 2009. Mensaje de VANCE G. MARTIN is president of The Needs Half. International Journal of Merida (Message from Merida). Wilderness 17(3): 3. Retrieved April 2013 from www.wild. WILD Foundation; email: [email protected]. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). org/video/wild9-message-from-merida 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: United Nations Development Programme JULIE ANTON RANDALL is vice president Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. (UNDP). 2013. Millennium Development of government relations for The WILD Retrieved April 2013 from www.maweb. Goals. Retrieved April 2013 from Foundation; email: [email protected].

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