NATIONALISM in MINNESOTA During the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

PETER MICKELSON

THE TERM nationalism has received a colonialism coincided wdth the rise of na­ number of definitions, but probably the tionalism among emerging peoples in Asia most useful is that supplied by Carlton J, and Africa, while in Europe nazism and H. Hayes: patriotism fused with a con­ fascism carried it to extreme forms. sciousness of nationality. In other words, Americans have been reluctant to speak nationalism is the love of land and fellow of American nationalism, despite the fact citizens — the ancient concept of patriot­ that the birth of their owm nation was asso­ ism— redirected toward the nation and ciated with the early spread of the idea. its government.^ Historians agree that this One of the few histories of the subject, for sort of devotion is a relatively recent phe­ example, speaks instead of "American loy­ nomenon. It appeared in embryonic form alty." ^ Among the frequently cited reasons in the eighteenth century wath the Ameri­ for this are the great size and geographical can and French revolutions and gained diversity of the country, the federal form force during the nineteenth century with of government with its emphasis upon the the spread in Europe and Latin America power of individual states, the sectional of nationalist movements associated with conflicts that culminated in the Civil War, the idea of democratic government. Not un­ til the twentieth century, however, did it ^Carlton J. H. Hayes, Nationalism: A Religion, 2 (New York, 1960). For a listing of the varying reach full development. Then the fall of beliefs and conditions which comprise nationalism, see Boyd C. Shafer, Nationalism: Myth and Reality, 3-11 (New York, 1955). Mr. Mickelson is a graduate student in history ^ Merle Curti, The Roots of American Loyalty at the University of Minnesota. (New York, 1946).

Spring 1968 and the tremendous influx of foreign im­ and with the sinking on February 15 of the migrants. Under these conditions, the con­ battleship "Maine" in Havana harbor. cept of "Americanism" was slow to gain a The debate over Cuba was enlivened for hold upon the public imagination, and in Minnesotans by the fact that two of the the years between the Civil War and the state's citizens were involved at the national turn of the century class, sectional, and level in the question of war or peace. Cush- ethnic loyalties frequently seemed to over­ man K. Davis, Minnesota's senior senator shadow national allegiance. and chairman of the Senate foreign rela­ In Minnesota this was, perhaps, even tions committee, was a powerful force more true than elsewhere. Although the behind the stern policy toward Spain. Al­ state population was highly Hterate, and though in pubHc he followed the hesitant newspapers and magazines covering na­ administration line through the early months tional affairs were widely distributed, it of 1898, counseling moderation until late is questionable whether a Minnesotan in February, he maintained that the United thought of himself primarily as an Ameri­ States must not try to evade its destiny. can, or whether he first identified himself as That destiny, as he saw it, clearly called for a farmer, a midwesterner, a Norwegian, a an increased role in world affairs. By the Lutheran, or perhaps a Republican. The po­ beginning of April Davis had abandoned litical and economic conflicts of the years hope of settlement with Spain and was call­ between 1865 and 1898 were strongly sec­ ing for armed intervention in Cuba.^ tional in nature, and Minnesota had wit­ Another influential Minnesotan was as­ nessed two major waves of agrarian protest sociated with a major peace effort in the against the financial and political power of month of April, 1898. As negotiations wdth the East. In addition, the state's population Spain neared collapse. Archbishop John Ire­ included an unusually high proportion of land of St. Paul journeyed to Washington foreign-born, and its ethnic groups tended at the request of Pope Leo XIII to intercede to be tightly knit and tradition-conscious. with President WiUiam McKinley. The In 1898 national affairs suddenly burst president was sympathetic but declared into prominence. Americans had watched himself powerless to change the course of sympathetically for nearly three years as events unless some dramatic concession Cuban rebels attempted to end Spanish were made by Spain. Attempts to secure an control of their island, and many people in armistice between Spain and the Cuban this country were demanding that the rebels through the Pope's influence with the United States government actively assist the Spanish government were too late. There is rebel cause. This demand was stimulated in good evidence that Spain was in fact willing part by the desire of American business in­ to accede to American demands and grant terests on the island for relief from the autonomy or even independence to Cuba. destruction of prolonged warfare; it can also McKinley received a report to this effect be attributed to the sensation-seeking of the from the American ambassador in Madrid "yellow press" — notably WilHam Randolph on April 9 and added it as a footnote to the Hearst's New York Journal—and to leaders war message he delivered the next day to like Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred T. a Congress determined upon war.^ Mahan who interpreted the old doctrine of ^ Minneapolis Tribune, February 23, 1898; Mar­ Manifest Destiny to include foreign de­ garet Leech, In the Days of McKinley, 175, 179, pendencies and world-wide influence. Ten­ 187 (New York, 1959); Congressional Record, 55 sions approached the breaking point in the Congress, 2 session, p. 3773. * James H. Moynihan, The Life of Archbishop early months of 1898 with the theft and John Ireland, 162-168 (New York, 1953); Walter publication of an inflammatory letter writ­ LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of ten by the Spanish envoy in Washington American Expansion, 1860-1898, 396 (Ithaca, New York, 1963).

MINNESOTA Hisfory The warmongering of the "yellow press" as caricatured in the Minneapolis Journal

REFLECTING these two prominent ex­ Proctor of Vermont, who angrily described tremes, public opinion in Minnesota formed Spanish cruelty in Cuba. The paper went a wide spectrum, ranging from the demand on to insist that the plan for Cuban auton­ for immediate intervention in Cuba to an omy adopted by the Spanish government absolute refusal to go to war. Those who the previous October was a farce and that favored overt help were numerous and war would continue mercilessly until the vocal, including both Republicans and United States moved directly or indirectly Democrats. They invariably expressed hu­ "by moral aid and sympathy" to stop it.^ An manitarian concern over the great sufferings editorialist in the St. Cloud Daily Journal- of the Cuban people. Very little of the out­ Press (Republican) of March 22 saw no right jingoism that was stimulated in the moral justification for a policy of watching East by the activities of the Cuban junta passively while patriots were butchered in and the sensationaHsm of the Hearst press Cuba. "This government should not only was present in Minnesota. But many in the stand for the liberty of Cuba," the writer state felt that the McKinley administration argued, "but should fight for it if neces­ was lagging far behind popular opinion. sary." Senator Knute Nelson argued vehe­ As early as February 21,1898, the Duluth mently that Spanish rule had been inhuman, Evening Herald (a Democratic paper) urged that the Republic of Cuba was trustworthy the government to intervene at once to com­ and competent, with a better organized pel Spain to grant complete independence administration and a bigger army than the to the Cuban rebels. A month later the St. American colonies possessed during the Rev­ Paul Daily Pioneer Press (Repubhcan) re­ olution. Therefore it should be recognized ported on a Senate speech by Redfield at whatever cost: "To ignore [Maximo] Gomez and the Cuban Republic seems to 'Daily Pioneer Press (St. Paul), March 19, 1898. me to be cold, icy heartlessness, unworthy

Spring 1968 a great nation and a great people."*' The tated to support any move that meant war majority of the citizens of Minneapolis and generally endorsed the actions of Presi­ thought war was inevitable and were anx­ dent McKinley. The Mankato Daily Free ious to have it, according to one news story Press, a soHdly conservative Republican late in March. War was, the paper pre­ paper, suspected that some of those who sumed, the chief subject of conversation, yelled loudest for war would be less anxious and everything pertaining to it was eagerly to fight should hostilities actually begin.^ It read and discussed.''^ spoke for a group who thought going to war Another large segment of the population with a foreign power a radical step, alien was more cautious, less eager for war, yet to American tradition, and one to be taken concerned about helping the struggling only with the utmost caution. Cubans. The Minneapolis Tribune, perhaps the state's most influential paper, warned THE MINNESOTA business community repeatedly against excessive enthusiasm, re­ included many people who were even less called the horrors of past wars, and noted disposed to war than McKinley and were that the development of new weapons somewhat disappointed when the president promised to make future wars even more seemed to be swayed by the prevailing war ghastly. It continually criticized the chau­ fever. Early in April the board of trade in vinism of the St. Paul Pioneer Press. Rather Minneapolis passed a resolution requesting than intervention or recognition of belliger­ ency, the Tribune, like Senator Nelson, " Nelson, Affairs in Cuba, 8 (Washington, 1898). Copy in the Knute Nelson Papers. This and all man­ favored recognition of Cuban independ­ uscript collections cited hereafter are in the Minne­ ence, although its editor admitted that such sota Historical Society. a policy would probably bring war.^ ^ Minneapolis Tribune, March 27, 1898. ^Minneapolis Tribune, March 11, 27, 1898. People of more conservative opinion hesi­ " Mankato Daily Free Press, February 18, 1898.

The cartoons here and elsewhere in this article are from the pen of Charles E. Bartholomew, the famous "Bart" of the Minneapolis Journal.

THEY KEEP STEP.

MINNESOTA JJistory the administration to use every honorable business opinion as a whole, there is some means to prevent armed conflict with Spain. evidence that a majority of Minnesota's A prominent Minneapolis milling executive, businessmen agreed with James J. Hill, who William H. Dunwoody, informed a friend felt that the Cuban venture was unattrac­ after the commencement of hostilities that tive and unprofitable and that the country "all of our business people were very much would save itself a good deal of trouble opposed to war" and that they had hoped by minding its own business.^** McKinley would settle the matter through Radical agrarian groups hke the Populists diplomacy. Some months later the North­ were much more outspoken and, for the western Miller, an influential milling indus­ most part, equally unenthusiastic at the try magazine published in Minnesota by prospect of war. Farm, Stock and Home, William C. Edgar, recalled that the war was the bimonthly journal of Sidney M. Owen, brought on by "a mischevous [sic] league one of Minnesota's leading Populists, of ignorant politicians and sensational news­ blasted the press (without specific refer­ papers of the baser sort." The writer then ence to Minnesota newspapers) for conduct quoted an antiwar article which cited as the described as idiotic, sensationalistic, and work of "ignorant politicians" the exuberant criminal. Owen felt that avenues of peace claims made by Knute Nelson for the Cuban were not being adequately explored and Republic. Although it is difficult to assess that the whole affair was being mishan- dled.ii ^"Dunwoody to Thomas C. Jenkins, May 27, Populist thought on the Cuban situation 1898, Wilham H. Dunwoody Papers; Minneapolis Tribune, April 6, 1898; Northwestern Miller, was, however, ambiguous, and it often 46:384 (September 2, 1898); Joseph G. Pyle, The seemed to depend on which side the writer Life of James J. Hill, 2:77 (New York, 1917). thought the hated "money power" stood. "^Farm, Stock and Home, 14:130 (March 15, 1898); 14:162 (April 15, 1898). Conflicting views found their way into The

IF THIS IS INTERVENTION LET U. S. INTERVENE.

Spring 1968 Representative, the Twin City publication country — may she always be right; YET of the famous Populist, Ignatius Donnelly. RIGHT OR WRONG, OUR COUNTRY." Donnelly himself was confident that the Americans should be sure that the war did majority of American people favored active not enrich the moneyed interests, Donnelly help to Cuba — war if necessary — but advised, but, "when foreign cannon are were thwarted by moneyed interests which thundering against our ships there is no made profits in Spanish bonds. "It is a time for criticism of our leaders." Owen crying shame," he said in the issue of agreed that the time for discussion of the April 20, "that we can only lessen the grip situation's causes and possible blunders had of the money-power ... by the murder of passed: "Every man, every influence, all ef­ tens of thousands of innocent producers." fort and sympathy should be united in the Scarcely a month earlier Donnelly's as­ determination to prosecute the war to a sociate editor, E. A. Twitchell, had written successful and speedy end."^^ a classic denunciation of war for business Business leaders, too, felt compelled to class interests: "The air is full of war and support the nation. The Northwestern Mill­ rumors of war and the daily press at the er, whose editorial writer believed the war instigation of the money power rubs the due to jingoism, also agreed to set aside ears of the hungry populace to prepare prewar differences, and, "as loyal sons of a them for the coming fray. ... If Populists most excellent and indulgent mother, . . . are ever called up to use bullets in defense hope and believe that the arms of our coun­ of human liberty they will spare their am­ try will triumph and . . . add lustre to the munition and their bullets will be placed history of the United States." James J. Hill in the right hearts. It will be a slaughter, now blamed the Spanish for destroying the not of the innocents, but of way up and high "Maine," and declared that Americans handed criminals."^- should without hesitation support the gov­ ernment in whatever course its officials WAR WAS formally declared on April 25, might decide to follow. The Minneapolis and such rumblings ceased abruptly. It was Tribune had hoped for peace, though not time to uphold the flag. In an editorial un­ contradicted by his associate editor, Don­ ^" The Representative, March 2, April 13, 20, nelly admitted that "war is a cruel abomina­ 1898. '••' The Representative, May 11, 1898; Farm, Stock tion," but paid tribute to the slogan: "Our and Home, 14:178 (May 1, 1898).

Members of the Thirteenth Minnesota Regiment drilling at Camp Ramsey

MINNESOTA History Converted stables at the fairground which housed the state's volunteers with the obstinacy of some other dissidents. even further, calling the Cuban crusade a It also assured its readers that now was the just and holy one, and comparing it to the time to come unequivocally to the aid of wars waged by Christians against Moham­ the country: "We must win victory over the medans.**^ enemy first, and settle with those who are The following October, after hostilities responsible for the war afterwards."^"* Even had ceased, Ireland further explained his the hesitant Mankato Free Press fell into views about war to a peace jubilee audience step on April 22, crying: "Now let the eagle in Chicago. "War is dreadful, but war is scream!" necessary," he declared. "Even though the Religious loyalty also yielded before the heavens fall, justice and righteousness must sentiment that was sweeping the country. prevail. War is no longer a repudiation of The sympathy for Catholic Spain which had peace; it is the sole assurance of peace — in part prompted Ireland's peace mission of the only peace that a self-respecting interfered not at all with the archbishop's people may covet, peace with honor. A just flaming Americanism once the die had been and necessary war is holy." Through the cast. "Of course," he wrote to a fellow tinted glasses of Americanism, Ireland saw churchman, "now I am for war — for the his nation in a perfect Christian role: "No Stars and Stripes."^" In a sermon in St. Paul gain for themselves did the people of on May 1 he told his listeners: "Citizens are America covet; theirs was the highborn am­ to presume — this is the clear rule of Catho­ bition to save and aid a suffering people — lic theology — that the country is right un­ that and nothing more."*'^ less it were as clear as noonday that it Public response to the "holy crusade" were wrong. . . . America has spoken: all was not confined to editorials and speeches. must accept the mandate, and all must feel War fervor abounded throughout the state. obliged in obedience to God who has con­ Newspapers were extremely sensitive to stituted civil society, to aid the country in patriotic incidents, in part because these the prosecution of this war." Ireland went interested readers, and also, quite probably, because news writers shared in the inten­ '*Northwestern Miller, 45:667 (April 29, 1898); sified patriotic feeling. On the day hostil­ Pyle, James J. Hill, 2:77; Minneapolis Tribune, April 6, 1898. ities began, April 22, the St. Paul Pioneer '"^ Quoted in Moynihan, Life of Ireland, 169. Press told of a little girl with a yellow^ braid " Pioneer Press, May 2, 1898. who played "Red, White, and Blue" on a '" Quoted in John Ireland, The Church and Mod­ piano in the city armory. The child played ern Society, 2:72, 76 (St. Paul, 1904).

Spring 1968 The Thirteenth Regiment marching down Minneapolis' Washington Avenue on its departure for the Philippines

unostentatiously in a corner while a large demonstrations throughout the state. In audience of men silently gathered around Duluth a fervid crowd of five thousand her, attracted by the song. The girl's fingers jammed the city armory when news was seemed to speak the words of the grand received of the war declaration. There, old anthem, the story said, and when she under the prodding of fiery speeches from had finished there was a moment of silence. the mayor and civic leaders, the citizens Then the hundreds of bystanders could con­ made such a display of patriotism that no tain themselves no longer and broke loose stretch of the imagination was required, ac­ with a roar of applause "that almost lifted cording to the Duluth Evening Herald, to the roof" from the armory. "And Spain," hear "the flapping of the wings of the the writer continued, "talks of teaching the glorious old bird of freedom as it roused Tig' Yankees a lesson!" itself from its sleep to vindicate the prin­ ciples of justice and humanity it repre­ GOVERNOR DAVID M. CLOUGH, who sents." One participant insisted that enough had been hounded by anxious volunteers patriotic men could be found in St. Louis even before the war, was now besieged. County alone to take Cuba in birch-bark When a New York newspaper wondered canoes.*^ Other people were less jubilant how many men Minnesota could furnish, but equally dedicated. The departure of Clough replied that he would estimate troops from St. Cloud was the occasion for about 341,762 soldiers, or the entire state the following verse printed in the Journal- vote in the 1896 election — a boast which Press on May 5: the Pioneer Press repeated under the head­ The day was dark and dismal. line "One Gun for Every Ballot." The secre­ tary of war called for troops on April 23, The sky wore a leaden hue. with a request for three regiments of in­ fantry from Minnesota. The state's three ^^ Franklin F. Holbrook, Minnesota in the Span­ National Guard regiments were mustered ish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection, in within two weeks.^^ 14, 16, 22 (St. Paul, 1923); Pioneer Press, April 23, 1898. The mobilization occasioned patriotic " Duluth Evening Herald, April 22, 1898.

MINNESOTA Histofy And the heavens wept in sympathy human history.-* Much of the same enthu­ O'er the boys who donned the blue; siasm prevailed on July 4 after the naval As a gallant band of laddies victory at Santiago and to a lesser degree Assembled in the rain; at various times throughout the war months. A gallant band of patriots. Minnesotans who did a minimal amount of Avengers of the Maine. reading must have become familiar with American battleships, with important Amer­ Before leaving the state, the troops drilled ican naval heroes of the past, and with the at the fairground in St. Paul and were ac­ names of George Dewey and Winfield S. corded what has been described as a "con­ Schley. The exploits of these two, they tinuous ovation." Citizens flocked to the were informed, ranked with anything Lord camp — dubbed "Camp Ramsey" — as to a Nelson had ever attempted. circus, and newspapers described every The activities of the state's fighting men movement of the troops. The regiments were closely followed at home, and corre­ departed on May 16. Two — the Twelfth spondence, camp reports, and company pic­ and Fourteenth Minnesota Volunteers — tures were everyday features of many left for Georgia and stayed there through­ newspapers. People in Minnesota seemed out the war. The Thirteenth Regiment went tremendously concerned that their soldiers to San Francisco and eventually saw action make a good showing, that they act in in the Philippine uprising of the next year. "brave," "manly," and "honorable" fashion. Another regiment was formed in July and There was reflected here, perhaps, a doubt sent to Georgia, making a total of 5,350 about the ability of the American soldier state men in the infantry, somewhat below in combat, and possibly a suspicion that the governor's prediction.^° Americans were not, like Europeans, a The immediate military successes of the "fighting race." Cushman Davis sought to war served to reinforce the popular excite­ relieve this fear by assuring state citizens ment aroused at the outbreak and inten­ that Europeans could no longer look down sified as the mobilization of state troops upon Americans, since Manila and Santiago progressed. The victory at Manila, which had proved to the world "with what majesty came while the soldiers were still in St. the American soldier fights." The Minneapo­ Paul, received the wildest acclaim. The lis Tribune agreed that the war had shown sudden and complete destruction of the Americans to be formidable fighters and Spanish fleet in the Philippines meant that further affirmed that although Minnesotans the country had administered almost a saw very little action they deserved great knockout blow. Newspapers used their praise because they were standing by ready largest type sizes for headlines. Citizens in to risk their lives. The Tribune confidently practically every city and towni celebrated labeled pictures of Minnesota companies spontaneously, as in Montevideo, which with such adjectives as "gallant," "brave," was "wild with enthusiasm all day," and and "stalwart," despite the fact that most Brainerd, where a spontaneous rally "beat of them never left the country.-^ anything ever seen." Even Donnelly, the old Populist, was moved to call the victory If there were no state heroes — no "one of the most striking events" in all of Deweys or Schleys — they could be cre­ ated, although sometimes it required im­ ™ Holbrook, Minnesota in the Spanish-American agination. One such hero was Emil G. H. War, 19-31. Hoppe, a small, underage boy from Morgan, '^ Minneapolis Tribune, May 3, 1898; The Repre­ who heard strains of martial music which sentative, May 11, 1898. stirred the flames of patriotism within him. ^ Davis, An Address by Cushman K. Davis at St. Paul, Minnesota, July 27, 1898, 19 (copy in the Unfortunately, before he had a chance to hbrary of the Minnesota Historical Society); Minne­ volunteer for duty, he missed a tree he was apolis Tribune, June 26, July 17, 1898. Spring 1968 9 attempting to chop and sent the ax into his of adoption and their wilfingness to fight instep. When he had recovered somewhat for it. In an annual nationality celebration he limped to the recruiting agent who told in Minneapohs, Norwegian Americans sang him to forget the army, but latet, miracu­ the Norwegian national anthem, "The Star- lously recovered, he got himself accepted Spangled Banner," and "America." ^"^ and was last heard of serving in Jackson­ People in Minnesota refused to see the ville, Florida.^^ war as the effort of one state or section of the country alone. Henry A. Castle, a St. PATRIOTIC SENTIMENT seems to have Paul newspaperman and prominent Repub­ met with little resistance from foreign na­ lican, told an audience in Chattanooga, tionality groups in Minnesota. Foreign-born Tennessee, that the gray had returned to men were numerous among those who vol­ the blue, that the unswerving loyalty of unteered for duty in the army. Many were every class and section of the country had Scandinavians, and many Germans. Adju­ welded Americans together into an eter­ tant General Hermann E. Muehlberg often nally united people. Another Minnesotan, received requests for commissions ad­ Leonard A. Rosing — unlike Castle, a Dem­ dressed to "Freund Muehlberg." ^^ ocrat and an immigrant — had much the The American navy included substantial same message for a Fourth of July audience numbers of immigrants, and when foreign in Minnesota: "this war has had a great nations suggested that these "mercenaries" national benefit in teaching the people that would be an ineffective fighting force, im- we are now one great and united people, migi-ants in Minnesota were greatly of­ that sectionalism is forever dead — for in fended. The editor of Northland Magazine, answer to the call To Arms' the response a Minnesota monthly aimed at English- came equally from Alabama and Minnesota, speaking Scandinavians, responded wdth from Virginia and California, and today the typical force. "This is a slur upon the Amer­ old flag waves in every hamlet in all the ican navy," he wrote, "which will be quickly broad Union, carrying the same message resented when the time comes by men of and teaching the same lesson." "The grey the same blood as the hundred odd Irish disappeared into the blue," Cushman Davis and Scandinavian-born sailors who went to recalled a year later, "like the last lingering death unshrived when the Main [sic] was cloud of a departed storm into the azure of destroyed by Spanish treachery. ... It is a sunlit sky." The Minneapolis Tribune the glory and distinction of America that thought that the war had done more to its foster sons love her as well as the native bring all sections of the nation together and born." The next month this writer could create the new feeling of brotherhood than offer the victory at Manila as proof of the had been accomplished in thirty years of falsity of the "mercenary" charge.^^ 27 peace Farm, Stock and Home, which had nu­ merous Scandinavian readers, was equally pleased that men of different nationahties '^ Minneapolis Tribune, July 17, 1898. -* Holbrook, Minnesota in the Spanish-American had fought and won at Manila as Ameri­ War, 11. cans. "We have no nationalities," it boasted, "^ Northland Magazine, 1:108 (May, 1898); 1:146 "even though memories of the fatherland (June, 1898). ""Farm, Stock and Home, 14:194 (May 15, 1898); are still cherished tenderly, but we are one Minneapolis Tribune, May 18, 23, 1898. people, and single hearted in devotion to "" Castle, "Synopsis of Address at Chattanooga, the country and its flag." Franco-American Tennessee," May 30, 1898, Henry A. Castle Papers; Rosing, "Fourth of July Oration," 1898, Leonard A. citizens met in May to endorse the Ameri­ Rosing Papers; Davis, "Notes of a Speech at Ly­ can government's humanitarian war effort ceum Theater, Minneapolis," September 7, 1898, and to assert their loyalty to their country Cushman K. Davis Papers; Minneapolis Tribune, June 18, 1898.

10 MINNESOTA Histoty AS PEOPLE in Minnesota attempted to crusade against the profanation and indig­ define the wave of public emotion evoked nities heaped upon the sepulchre of Christ, by the war, many looked toward heavenly has there been a war so utterly without authority. "There seems to be an inexorable selfishness. It is waged solely for liberty decree of Divine Providence," noted Castle, and humanity." While these men spoke, vic­ "that each advance step in freedom, in na­ tory was already in sight, and Americans tional development, in Christian civiliza­ found the Philippine Islands within their tion, shall be won by the sword and paid reach. As the scriptures had promised, the for in the blood of heroes." Was it God who liberal soul was made fat; the generosity of had decreed the war and unified the nation the United States toward Cuba was being to accomplish his prupose? Probably with­ rewarded. Certainly this was proof that out fully realizing it. Castle presented an­ God favored the cause.^^ other alternative: "We have so permeated If the country claimed the authority of [the country] with our spirit of patriotism God in a holy war, who was to argue? that it has become imbued and dominated Usually not the clergymen. As preachers of by an aggressive, progressive, defiant, one religion, they felt competent to speak triumphant Americanism. Wherever we for the other, especially since both faiths look we see it. In the halls of legislation, claimed the same God. Ireland had already in the cabinets of our rulers and in the promulgated as Catholic doctrine obedi­ camps of the new soldiers that are going ence to national authority and support of forward on a holy crusade to stand by that the holy war. The Independence Day ser­ flag we fought to preserve and which we mons of Protestant ministers in St. Paul love so well."-^ This aggressive American­ exuded a nationalism no less positive. Next ism was a sentiment shared to some degree to God comes country, said an Episcopal by virtually all Minnesota people. It had minister, and a colleague at the First Chris­ united such diverse personalities as Don­ tian Church told his congregation that God nelly, Hill, Davis, and Ireland behind the delights in American greatness, that war same war; it had inspired enthusiasm is terrible but God overrules it for good. A among citizens and fighting men alike and Presbyterian minister agreed that God held had stimulated unified state support for the the reins of the nation's effort against Spain war against Spain. It was, in a word, na­ and His goal, not the devil's, would be tionalism. reached. And a Congregational minister First God and then country, but some­ announced that American liberty is a gospel times the distinction blurred as people of appHed Christianity.'^*^ At least one accepted Ireland's vision of the holy crusade. Jewish rabbi subscribed to a non-Christian Castle firmly believed that the gathering but equally religious type of nationalism. American hosts were undertaking a holier Jacob Aronsohn of the Sons of Jacob Con­ crusade than any led by Richard the Lion- gregation in St. Paul compared the United Hearted — a crusade of "valiant service States and Spain to David and Goliath and to the rights of man." In Mankato Gen­ committed himself to David and the cause eral James H. Baker, addressing a Memo­ of God and humanity. Although the country rial Day audience, agreed fully: "Not since faced an old warrior, he said, "we will Peter, the hermit, preached his memorable prove now as we have before that right will conquer all. Tor the battle is the Lord's ^ Castle, "Address at National Cemetery at Chat­ and he will deliver them into our hands.' "•'^* tanooga, Tennessee," May 30, 1898, Castle Papers. ^Castle, "Synopsis of Chattanooga Address," In this context national holidays could, May 30, 1898, Castle Papers; Mankato Free Press, of course, be elevated to the level of reli­ May 31,' 1898; Pioneer Press, June 19, 1898. gious events. The Minneapolis Tribune tol­ ^"Pioneer Press, July 4, 1898. "^Pioneer Press, May 30, 1898. erated the exuberant excesses of Fourth of

Spring 1968 11 July celebrations, but the paper's editorial their nationalism they seldom doubted their writer preferred a grander and gentler type American allegiance. of observance, one more "earnest and rev­ In Minnesota farmers still felt oppressed, erential." The war had taught the great les­ state businessmen feared the spreading son that both "life and property must be laid power of the trusts, and political battles down upon the altar of patriotism when once more became heated. But the exist­ duty calls for the sacrifice." ^^ ence of a fiercely nationalistic spirit had Thus nationalism could be a religion with been demonstrated, and though the inten­ altar, duty, sacrifice, gospel, holy war, and sity of feeling assumed a lower peacetime national god. In 1898 it was a youthful, level, nationalism was to reach even greater aggressive nationalism, newly discovered heights in the twentieth century. Twenty after half a century of preoccupation wdth years after the war with Spain, hysteria internal development and internal prob­ aroused by another crusade swept the na­ lems. Its atmosphere was circuslike, but the tion and for a short time in 1918 virtually wartime exuberance was short-lived. Dis­ did away with civil liberties in Minnesota. sent appeared quickly when the nation's American nationalism had shown itself, for new role as a world power became appar­ good or bad, to be an enduring reality. ent, and searching questions were asked as the war ended and the problem of what to do with the Philippine Islands arose. But "' Minneapolis Tribune, July 4, 1898. THE CARTOONS appeared on February 23, though people questioned the nature of March 9 and 22, April 4, and December 3, 1898.

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