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Roger Bacon from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Jump To: Navigation, Search for the Nova Scotia Premier, See Roger Stuart Bacon Roger Bacon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For the Nova Scotia premier, see Roger Stuart Bacon. Roger Bacon Order of Friars Minor Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Born c. 1214 Ilchester, Somerset Died 1294 (aged c. 80) Oxford[1] Nationality English Other names Doctor Mirabilis Occupation Friar, scholar Organization Order of Friars Minor Religion Roman Catholic Roger Bacon, O.F.M. (c. 1214–1294) (scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, meaning "wonderful teacher"), was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods. He is sometimes credited, mainly starting in the 19th century, as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by Aristotle and later Arabic scholars, such as those of Muslim scientist Alhazen.[ 2] However, more recent reevaluations emphasize that he was essentially a medieval thinker, with much of his "experimental" knowledge obtained from books, in the scholastic tradition.[3] A survey of the reception of Bacon's work over centuries found it often reflects the concerns and controversies central to the receivers.[4] Roger Bacon was born in Ilchester in Somerset, England, possibly in 1213 or 1214 at the Ilchester Friary.[5] The only source for his birth date is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The 1214 birth date assumes he meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at age 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely around 1220 to 1222. In the same passage he said that for all but two of the forty years he had been engaged in study.[6] His family appears to have been well-off, but during the stormy reign of Henry III of England their property was seized and several family member driven into exile. Bacon studied at Oxford and may have been a disciple of Grosseteste. He became a master at Oxford, lecturing on Aristotle. There is no evidence he was ever awarded a doctorate — the title Doctor Mirabilis was posthumous and figurative. Sometime between 1237 and 1245, he began lecturing at the University of Paris, then the centre of European intellectual life. Where he was between 1247 and 1256 is unknown, but about 1256 he became a friar in the Franciscan Order. As such, he no longer held a teaching post, and after 1260 his activities were restricted by a Franciscan statute prohibiting friars from publishing books or pamphlets without prior approval.[7] Bacon circumvented this through his acquaintance with Cardinal Guy le Gros de Foulques, who became Pope Clement IV in 1265. Clement IV issued a mandate ordering Bacon to write to him concerning the place of philosophy within theology. Bacon sent the Pope his Opus Majus, which presented his views on how to incorporate the philosophy of Aristotle and science into a new Theology. Bacon also sent his Opus minus, De multiplicatione specierum, and possibly other works on alchemy and astrology.[8] Pope Clement died in 1268 and Bacon lost his protector. Sometime between 1277 and 1279, Bacon was apparently imprisoned or placed under house arrest for unknown reasons. Sometime after 1278 Bacon returned to the Franciscan House at Oxford, where he continued his studies.[9] He is believed to have died in 1294. Contents [hide] 1 Changing interpretations of Bacon 2 Works 2.1 View of the past 2.2 New approach 2.3 Optics 2.4 Calendar 2.5 Other attributed works 2.6 Gunpowder 3 In fiction 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Changing interpretations of Bacon[edit] "Friar Bacon's Study", in Oxford. By the late 18th century this study, on Folly Bridge, had become a place of pilgrimage for scientists. The building was pulled down in 1779 to allow for road widening.[10] In the 19th century it was a widely held interpretation that Bacon was a modern experimental scientist who emerged before his time. This reflected two prevalent views of the period: an emphasis upon experiment as the principal form of scientific activity and a general acceptance of the characterization of the Middle Ages as the "Dark Ages".[11][12] Some writers of the period carried this account further. For instance, according to Andrew Dickson White, Bacon was repeatedly persecuted and imprisoned because of the opposition of the medieval Church.[13][14] In this view, which is still reflected in some 21st-century popular science books,[15][16] Bacon would be an advocate of modern experimental science who somehow emerged as an isolated figure in an age supposed to be hostile toward scientific ideas.[17] He was also presented as a visionary; for instance, Frederick Mayer wrote that Bacon predicted the invention of the submarine, automobile, and airplane.[18] However, in the course of the 20th century, the philosophical understanding of the role of experiment in the sciences was substantially modified. Starting with works of Pierre Duhem, Raoul Carton, and Lynn Thorndike,[19] Bacon's advocacy of scientia experimentalis has been argued to differ from modern experimental science.[20] New historical research has also shown that medieval Christians were not generally opposed to scientific investigation[21][22] and revealed the extent and variety of medieval science. In fact, many medieval sources of and influences on Bacon's scientific activity have been identified.[23] For instance , Bacon's idea that inductively derived conclusions should be submitted for further experimental testing is very much like Robert Grosseteste's 'Method of Verification',[24] and Bacon's work on optics and the calendar also followed the lines of inquiry of Grosseteste.[25] As a result, the picture of Bacon has changed. One recent study summarized that: "Bacon was not a modern, out of step with his age, or a harbinger of things to come, but a brilliant, combative, and somewhat eccentric schoolman of the thirteenth century, endeavoring to take advantage of the new learning just becoming available while remaining true to traditional notions... of the importance to be attached to philosophical knowledge".[26] Bacon is thus seen as a leading, but not isolated, figure in the beginnings of medieval universities at Paris and Oxford, among other contemporary exponents of this shift in the philosophy of science (as we call it today), including Grosseteste (who preceded Bacon), William of Auvergne, Henry of Ghent, Albert Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham.[27] As to the alleged persecution, the first known reference to an imprisonment originates around 80 years after Bacon's death. It says the order was given by the head of the Franciscans because of unspecified "suspected novelties".[28][29 ] However, the fact that no earlier report has been found drives skepticism over the assertion. Moreover, current historians of science who see an incarceration as plausible typically do not connect it with Bacon's scientific writings.[29] Instead, if it happened, scholars speculate that his troubles resulted from such things as his sympathies for radical Franciscans,[30] attraction to contemporary prophecies,[29] or interest in certain astrological doctrines.[31] Bacon's personality has also been mentioned as a factor.[32] A recent review of the many visions that each age has held about Roger Bacon says contemporary scholarship still neglects one of the most important aspects of his life and thought: the commitment to the Franciscan order. "His Opus maius was a plea for reform addressed to the supreme spiritual head of the Christian faith, written against a background of apocalyptic expectation and informed by the driving concerns of the friars. It was designed to improve training for missionaries and to provide new skills to be employed in the defence of the Christian world against the enmity of non-Christians and of the Antichrist. It cannot usefully be read solely in the context of the history of science and philosophy."[4] Works[edit] Optic studies by Bacon Bacon's Opus Majus contains treatments of mathematics and optics, alchemy, and the positions and sizes of the celestial bodies. View of the past[edit] The training Bacon had received showed him the defects in existing academic debate.[citation needed] Aristotle was known only through translations, as none of the professors would learn Greek; the same was true of Scripture and many of the other auctores ("authorities") referenced in traditional education. In contrast to Aristotle's argument that facts be collected before deducing scientific truths, physical science was not carried out by observations from the natural world, but by arguments based solely on tradition and prescribed authorities. Bacon withdrew from the scholastic routine[citation needed] and devoted himself to languages and experimental research. The mathematicians whom he considered perfect were Peter of Maricourt and John of London, and two were good: Campanus of Novara and a Master Nicholas. Peter was the author of a famous letter to a friend, Epistola de Magnete, in which he described some of the earliest European experiments with magnetism.[33] Campanus wrote several important works on astronomy, astrology, and the calendar.[34] Bacon often mentioned his debt to the work of Robert Grosseteste and Adam Marsh, as well as to other lesser figures. He was clearly not an isolated scholar in the thirteenth century.[35] New approach[edit] In his writings, Bacon calls for a reform of theological study. Less emphasis should be placed on minor philosophical distinctions than had been the case in scholasticism. Instead, the Bible itself should return to the centre of attention and theologians should thoroughly study the languages in which their original sources were composed. He was fluent in several languages and lamented the corruption of the holy texts and the works of the Greek philosophers by numerous mistranslations and misinterpretations.
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