The Relationship of Stable Isotopes to Late Woodland and Fort Ancient Agriculture, Mobility

The Relationship of Stable Isotopes to Late Woodland and Fort Ancient Agriculture, Mobility,

and Paleopathologies at the Turpin Site

A thesis submitted to the

Division of Graduate Studies and Advanced Research

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

in the Department of Anthropology

of the McMicken College of Arts and Sciences

2013

Ashley E. McCall

B.A., The Ohio State University, 2009

Committee: Kenneth Barnett Tankersley (Chair)

Brooke E. Crowley

Heather L. Norton

Abstract

This thesis uses stable isotope analyses to examine the relationships between diet, migration, paleopathologies, and agriculture for Newtown Phase Late Woodland and Fort Ancient Turpin

Phase populations from the type-site, Turpin (33Ha19), located in the lower Little Miami River

Valley, Hamilton County, Ohio. Investigating the subsistence strategy and health of the people who inhabited the Turpin site is important because this is one of the earliest locations of maize agriculture in eastern North America. Therefore, the Turpin population is crucial for our understanding of the dietary and health implications of maize agriculture in the Ohio Valley.

Human behavioral ecology states that as humans increase their economic reliance on maize agriculture, they decrease their mobility, increase social stratification, and increase their susceptibility to disease. Stable isotope values in human bone collagen and tooth enamel are used to determine dietary composition and mobility. Statistical analyses comparing į13C and G15N values among ages, sexes, and paleopathologies demonstrate that maize was a significant part of the diet (į13C values greater than -14.0‰) and that women were deficient in protein (low G15N values). Maize was likely consumed on a regular basis by the Fort Ancient population and made up more than 25% of the diet. With few exceptions, there is little variation in the 87Sr/86Sr isotope levels of enamel carbonate, which is indicative of a semi-sedentary community. There is evidence that a few individuals may have migrated into the area. These immigrations may have been the result of captivity or intertribal marriage.

Acknowledgments

I thank my advisor, Dr. Kenneth Tankersley for introducing stable isotope chemistry to me and helping me figure out a thesis topic. I also thank Dr. Heather Norton and Dr. Brooke Crowley for being on my committee and their support during the arduous task that is writing a thesis. I am eternally grateful to Mr. Bob Genheimer, who made the samples available and to the Cincinnati

Museum of Natural History, where the population that is the focus of my thesis is currently housed. I also am obliged to Prof. Tench for lending me her extensive notes, without them I would have been completely lost. Though I also appreciate all of my fellow graduate students who have helped me through this process, a special thanks goes out to Janine Sparks who did so much of the footwork regarding the paleobotany section and gathering the results of other isotopic studies. Also, I owe so much to Paula Grubb who provided her expertise to assist with the statistics of this project and made it possible for me to understand them. More thanks go to my grandparents who not only helped make this study possible, you have no idea how much it meant to me, but also had a genuine interest in my studies. I thank my family, especially my mom and dad, who have supported me in this venture and have laughed and cried with me during this process. However, the biggest thanks go out to my best friend, Denise Knisely. You not only have spent hours upon hours with me while we worked on our theses together, but you have surely kept me sane throughout all of our graduate work together and have satiated my need for all things orange and fuzzy.

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii

Acknowledgements ...... iv

Table of Contents ...... v

List of Tables ...... viii

List of Figures ...... ix

Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1

Hypotheses ...... 2

Chapter 2: Background on Stable Isotopes ...... 4

Reporting Isotopes ...... 4

Isotope Discrimination ...... 5

į13C Values in Plants ...... 6

G15N Values in Plants...... 7

į13C and G15N Values and Consumers ...... 8

G15N Values and Paleopathologies ...... 10

Strontium Isotopes ...... 11

Chapter 3: Archaeological Background ...... 15

Geological and Geographical Background ...... 15

Late Woodland ...... 16

Newtown Phase ...... 17

Subsistence ...... 18

Fort Ancient ...... 18

Turpin Phase ...... 20

Subsistence ...... 20

The Turpin Site (33Ha19) ...... 21

Published Radiocarbon Dates for Turpin ...... 22

Previous Research and Excavations ...... 23

Subsistence ...... 26

Maize ...... 26

Late Woodland Newtown Phase Component...... 27

Fort Ancient Turpin Phase Component ...... 30

Previous Research of Tuberculosis...... 32

Previous Stable Carbon Isotope Investigations ...... 34

Chapter 4: Theoretical Background ...... 38

Human Behavioral Ecology ...... 38

Chapter 5: Methods ...... 41

Anthropometric Data of Samples ...... 41

Relative Fluoride Dating ...... 46

Human Bone Collagen Extraction for Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis ... 47

Human Tooth Enamel Extraction for Strontium Isotope Analysis ...... 48

Statistical and Computational Analyses ...... 50

Chapter 6: Analytical Results of Stable Isotope Values ...... 51

Statistical Analysis of į13C Values for Age, Sex, and Paleopathological Groups ...... 51

Statistical Analysis of G15N Values for Age, Sex, and Paleopathological Groups ...... 53

Relative Fluoride Analysis...... 54

Statistical Analysis of Stable Isotope Values for Paleopathologies ...... 58

Strontium Analysis of Human Tooth Enamel ...... 61

Chapter 7: Discussion ...... 67

į13C Values as Diet Indicators ...... 67

G15N Values as Diet Indicators ...... 69

Paleopathologies and Agriculture ...... 71

87Sr/86Sr Isotope Ratios and Migration ...... 73

Chapter 8: Conclusion ...... 76

Bibliography ...... 79

Appendix A: Paleobotany of the Ohio Valley Region ...... 105

Appendix B: Faunal Remains of the Ohio Valley Region ...... 134

Appendix C: Turpin Database ...... 141

Appendix D: Sample Information and Stable Isotope Values and Relative Fluoride Content ....

...... 179

vii

List of Tables

Table 1: Published radiocarbon dates for Turpin and calibrated dates using CalPal...... 23

Table 2: Artifact information based on the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History’s 1946-1949 excavations ...... 29

Table 3: Turpin individuals with suspected tuberculosis ...... 33

Table 4: Greenlee’s (2002) samples by time period/ mortuary feature ...... 35

Table 5: Greenlee’s (2002) samples...... 36

Table 6: Samples by sex ...... 42

Table 7: Samples by skeletal age ...... 43

Table 8: Samples by age category ...... 43

Table 9: Frequency of post-cranial pathologies ...... 45

Table 10: Frequency of dental pathologies ...... 46

Table 11: į13C values by sample ...... 52

Table 12: Mean į13C value ± 1 SD for each group ...... 52

Table 13: G15N values by sample ...... 53

Table 14: Mean G15N value ± 1 SD for each group ...... 54

Table 15: Relative fluoride content by sample ...... 55

Table 16: Summary statistics of į13C and G15N for each paleopathological category ...... 59

Table 17: Mean į13C, G15N, and relative fluoride content values by presence of caries ...... 60

Table 18: Mean relative fluoride content for paleopathological and non-paleopathological individuals ...... 61

Table 19: 87Sr/86Sr ratio by sample ...... 62

Table 20: Mean 87Sr/86Sr ratio for each group...... 62

viii

List of Figures

Figure 1: Modeled 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the continental United States based on bedrock geology ..

...... 13

Figure 2: The Fort Ancient cultural area ...... 16

Figure 3: Location of the Turpin site ...... 22

Figure 4: Drawing of the Fort Ancient burial mound pattern...... 25

Figure 5: Sample number by relative fluoride content...... 56

Figure 6: į13C value and relative fluoride content ...... 57

Figure 7: G15N value and relative fluoride content...... 58

Figure 8: į13C and G15N values for individuals exhibiting various paleopathologies ...... 59

Figure 9: į13C and G15N values of the samples by presence of caries ...... 60

Figure 10: 87Sr/86Sr ratios and relative fluoride content ...... 63

Figure 11: 87Sr/86Sr ratios and relative fluoride content with the control group ...... 65

Figure 12: į13C values and 87Sr/86Sr ratios ...... 66

Figure 13: G15N values and 87Sr/86Sr ratios...... 66

Figure 14: į13C values of Greenlee’s (2002) Late Woodland samples with my samples ...... 69

Figure 15: Map of 87Sr/86Sr ratios for the Turpin samples ...... 74

Chapter 1: Introduction

For several decades, stable isotope analyses have been used by archaeologists to help determine diet composition and migration patterns of prehistoric peoples. My research focuses on the skeletal remains from Turpin, the type-site of the Late Woodland Newtown Phase and Fort

Ancient Turpin Phase, which is located in the lower Little Miami River Valley, Ohio. While plant and animal remains from this site suggest what the inhabitants might have eaten, stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes obtained from human bone collagen can provide a more in-depth picture of the relative amounts of animal and plant matter that was consumed. Similarly, ethnohistorical documents provide analogies for prehistoric human migration patterns, but stable strontium isotope ratios obtained from human enamel allow researchers to track the movement of an individual and ultimately determine whether a person was a local individual or moved from another area.

Utilizing these isotopic tools, I look for differences in diet between Late Woodland and

Fort Ancient people who inhabited the Turpin site. I examine shifts in diet over hundreds of years, from ca. A.D. 500 to A.D. 1200. I also identify social status and mobility of the Fort

Ancient people from the Turpin site and shed light on the impact of maize agriculture on human nutrition and disease. The following section introduces my predictions regarding human nutrition, paleopathologies, and mobility, and how these factors can be linked to develop a more cohesive picture of the economic and technological transition from the Late Woodland to Fort

Ancient cultural periods at Turpin.

Hypotheses

I hypothesize that there was a progression from the more mobile Late Woodland Newtown Phase

period horticulturalists to semi-sedentary Fort Ancient Turpin Phase agriculturalists at Turpin.

To test this hypothesis, I will address the following four predictions concerning diet, social

status, mobility, and health of the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase inhabitants of the Turpin site:

1 If the Fort Ancient inhabitants of the Turpin site had a greater dietary dependence on

maize than their Late Woodland progenitors, then I expect that carbon isotope (į13C) values obtained from Fort Ancient human bone collagen will be higher than those obtained from Late

Woodland period human bone collagen.

2 If the Fort Ancient population at the Turpin site relied heavily on maize agriculture, then

I expect that nitrogen isotope (G15N) values in bone collagen will be relatively low, reflecting a plant-based or omnivorous diet. I also expect to find higher G15N values in males than females, reflecting increased social stratification.

3 Fort Ancient human skeletal remains from the Turpin site with paleopathologies will exhibit higher G15N values than their healthy counterparts, which is consistent with internalization of nitrogen during stress induced by illness.

4 If the Fort Ancient inhabitants from Turpin were semi-sedentary, then I expect to find strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) ratios obtained from human enamel to show little or no variation when compared to sympatric small vertebrates characterized as non-migratory animals with small, localized home ranges.

This thesis is separated into several sections. The next chapter provides a background of stable isotopes. Chapter 3 details the archaeological background of the Turpin site, including past excavations and subsistence patterns. Chapter 4 introduces the theoretical background of human

2 behavioral ecology. Chapter 5 explains the methods used to determine the anthropometric measurements of the samples and the sample processing for relative fluoride dating and stable isotopic analysis. Chapter 6 reports statistical results. Chapters 7 and 8 are the discussion and conclusion, respectively.

Chapter 2: Stable Isotope Background

Organisms are composed of elements. Elements are made up of electrons, neutrons, and protons.

Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and electrons but have differing

numbers of neutrons. These neutrons contribute to the mass of an element, which is how isotopes

are named. For example, 12C has 12 nucleons (6 protons and 6 neutrons). 13C has 13 nucleons (6

protons and 7 neutrons). Although isotopes display similar behavior during chemical and

physical reactions, heavier isotopes with larger masses react more slowly than their lighter

counterparts (Sharp 2007). This process leads to fractionation or, discrimination, among

substances and results in isotopic enrichment in consumers (Sharp 2007).

Reporting Isotopes

Carbon (C) has three naturally occurring isotopes. Two of these isotopes are stable (12C and 13C)

and one is radiogenic (14C). Nitrogen (N) has two naturally occurring isotopes, 14N and 15N, both of which are stable. Isotopes from these two elements are reported using the delta (G) notation.

This notation represents the relative difference in isotopic composition between the material being tested and a known standard substance. For example:

(13C 12C) į13C = 1 × 1,000 (13C 12C) Τ ௦௔௠௣௟௘ Τ ௦௧௔௡ௗ௔௥ௗ Delta values are reported in per mil (‰),ቂ or parts per thousand.െ ቃ Carbon is reported relative to

Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB) and nitrogen is reported relative to ambient air (AIR).

Strontium (Sr) has four stable isotopes: 88Sr, 87Sr, 86Sr, and 84Sr. All of these isotopes are non-radiogenic, but 87Sr is produced by the beta decay of 87Rb (Beard and Johnson 2000; Price et al. 1994). This type of decay produces distinct 87Sr abundances in areas underlain by different

types of bedrock (Beard and Johnson 2000; Bentley 2006; Price et al. 1994). Unlike carbon and

nitrogen, strontium isotopes are reported as a ratio rather than a delta value that is compared to a

standard. The 87Sr abundances are normalized to a non-radiogenic isotope, 86Sr, which removes

variations in 87Sr that can reflect natural variations in total strontium (Beard and Johnson 2000).

The Sr isotope ratio of a sample is described by the following equation:

87 86 87 86 87 86 Ȝt [ Sr/ Sr]T2 = [ Sr/ Sr]T1 + [ Rb/ Sr](e – 1)

87 86 87 86 where [ Sr/ Sr]T1 is defined as the Sr/ Sr ratio a sample had at some point in the past, Ȝ is the

87 87 86 decay constant for Rb, t = T1 – T2 in years, and [ Sr/ Sr]T2 is the ratio at some younger time as measured in a laboratory (Beard and Johnson 2000).

Isotope Discrimination

Differences in mass and bond strength between atoms that contain more neutrons (heavy isotopes) and atoms that contain less neutrons (light isotopes) of the same element lead to differences in the rate of physical and chemical reactions (Schoeninger 1995; Sharp 2007). The bond strength for heavier isotopes is slightly stronger; therefore the heavier isotopes react more slowly than lighter isotopes. These differences in reaction rates lead to isotopic fractionation among different substances or phases. The differences in reaction rates and bond energy are directly proportional to the mass difference between isotopes (Schoeninger 1995; Sharp 2007).

Light elements are thus more likely to display fractionation than their heavier counterparts.

Discrimination is the measurable isotopic differences between different substances, for example plant or animal tissues versus human tissue (Schoeninger 1995).

į13C Values in Plants

Three photosynthetic pathways take place among plants. The most common pathway is C3

(Calvin-Benson cycle), where the initial carboxylation reactions result in a three-carbon acid, phosphoglyceric acid (Ehleringer and Monson 1993). C3 plants are typically trees, shrubs, herbs, and some grasses (Lee-Thorp 2008). Examples of C3 plants that are common in the Ohio Valley are black walnut, goosefoot, honey locust, and marsh elder. In contrast to the C3 pathway, in C4 photosynthesis (Hatch-Slack cycle), the initial carboxylation reaction results in a four-carbon acid, oxaloacetate (Ehleringer and Monson 1993). C4 plants are typically tropical grasses and sedges (Lee-Thorp 2008). Maize is the most commonly associated C4 plant in Ohio Valley archaeological remains, but other plants such as pigweed, amaranth, Indian chickweed, nimblewill, panic grass, and purslane are native to the region. The third pathway, crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), is similar to C4 where the carboxylation reaction results in a four- carbon acid, but differs in structural features and temporal activity of the carboxylation reaction

(Ehleringer and Monson 1993).

Each of these pathways discriminates against 13C differently due to their use of carbon during photosynthesis. For example, whereas C3 plants fix CO2 by the enzyme ribulose- bisphosphate carboxylase, C4 plants uptake CO2 through the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate (O’Leary 1981, 1988). This difference in CO2 fixation results in variation

13 of į C values where terrestrial C3 plants from North America range from -23 to -30‰ (Bender et al. 1981) with a mean value of approximately -28.3‰ (Morton and Schwarcz 2004). C3 plants

13 have varying į C values due to environmental factors and physiological differences in CO2 conductance, carboxylation rates, and water use efficiency (Codron et al. 2005). These different factors result in variable isotopic discrimination during photosynthesis (Codron et al. 2005). C4

plants, like hardier grasses and maize, have į13C values ranging from -9 to -16‰ (Schoeninger and Moore 1992) with a mean value of approximately -13.8‰ (Morton and Schwarcz 2004).

13 CAM plants are similar to C4 plants in į C values (Keegan 1989), but because they are not as common in the Ohio Valley area they will not be discussed further.

Carbon isotope values in plants reflect the current CO2 levels in the atmosphere.

However, over the past 150 years, a significant amount of fossil fuels have been burned, releasing more CO2 into the atmosphere. This burning of fossil fuels has changed the ratio of atmospheric concentrations of carbon (13C and 12C) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil fuel derived CO2 (Keeling et al. 1989). The isotopic result of this anthropogenic admixture is known as the Suess Effect. In order to determine an accurate į13C value of archaeological plants based on present-day plant į13C values, a correction factor of approximately +1.5‰ is necessary

(Keeling et al. 1989).

G15N Values in Plants

- + Plants acquire their nitrogen from nitrate (NO3 ) or inorganic ammonium (NH4 ) in the soil, or

15 via symbiosis with N2-fixing bacteria in the atmosphere (Ambrose 1991). Plant G N values are affected by climate and the amount of nitrogen in the soil (Cormie and Schwarcz 1985).

Nadelhoffer and Fry (1994) state that plants and soils in most terrestrial ecosystems have G15N values between -10 and 15‰. Martinelli et al. (1999) found plants from Brazil, Cameroon,

France, Germany, Sarawak, Scotland, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States, have G15N values that range from 3.7‰ for tropical foliage to -2.8‰ for temperate forest material. For example, in

Maine, plant tissues typically have G15N values ranging from approximately -5 to 2‰

(Nadelhoffer and Fry 1994). Plants growing on cultivated soil in California have a G15N value of

approximately 6‰, 3‰ higher than forest soils (Peters et al. 1978). Legumes are unlike most

other plants. They have symbiotic bacteria that are able to fix nitrogen directly from the

atmosphere into a plant-available form. Therefore, they have G15N values closer to atmospheric

nitrogen (0‰) than non-legumes (Morton and Schwarcz 2004).

į13C and G15N Values and Consumers

Isotope values in animal tissues reflect those of their diet, with some discrimination. The

difference in į13C values between herbivore bone collagen and diet is approximately +5‰ (van der Merwe and Vogel 1978). The difference in į13C between carnivores and herbivores is 1 to

2‰ (Lee-Thorp 2008). These isotopic differences between plants and herbivores and between herbivores and carnivores are called trophic levels. The importance of trophic levels for this study is that after accounting for trophic discrimination, į13C values in bone collagen can be used to estimate the relative consumption of C3 and C4 plants.

13 Due to the bimodal distribution of į C values for C3 and C4 plants there is little or negligible overlap in their į13C values (Keegan 1989). This segregation of į13C values between

C3 and C4 plants is important when determining the dietary composition of ancient humans.

13 Maize, a C4 plant, has į C values between -16 and -9‰ (DeNiro and Hastorf 1985; Schoeninger

13 and Moore 1992). These į C values can be used to determine the importance of maize, or C4 plants in general, to a population of ancient humans.

Carbon isotope values in collagen can be used to calculate the approximate percentage that maize contributed to the diet, which also hints at the presence of maize agriculture.

Schwarcz et al. (1985) developed a formula using plants from Ontario, Canada to calculate the

13 approximate percentage of C4 plants in the diet of a population from Ontario using collagen į C values.

Percent C4 = (įc – į3 + ǻdc)/(į4 – į3) x 100 where įc is the measured value of the collagen sample, į3 is the average value of C3 plants after accounting for the Suess Effect (-26.5‰), ǻdc is the -5‰ difference between plants and consumers, and į4 is the average value of archaeological maize (-9.5‰). Using this equation, a

į13C value of about -14‰ suggests a 44% maize-based diet whereas -7‰ reflects an 85‰ maize- based diet.

The main indicator of meat consumption is nitrogen isotope values. Dietary nitrogen is incorporated into the protein pool of the consumer with about 3‰ isotopic discrimination

(Hobson et al. 2010). Therefore, the resulting G15N values of consumers “reflect the degree to which the diet meets the amino acid requirement of the consumer” (Hobson et al. 2010:279). For this thesis, I assume that the G15N values of the plant source are approximately 3‰ (Schoeninger and Moore 1992). After accounting for trophic discrimination of 3 to 4‰, human collagen G15N values around 7‰ should reflect a predominantly herbivorous diet of terrestrial plants, while approximately 10‰ should reflect a more carnivorous diet (DeNiro and Epstein 1978;

Schoeninger and Moore 1992).

Legumes, such as beans, could be an important plant group when evaluating the presence of agriculture at an archaeological site. Beans have G15N values close to 0‰. Therefore, consumers of significant amounts of beans would also be expected to have relatively low G15N values (Schoeninger and Moore 1992). It is noteworthy that studies at Pecos Pueblo, New

Mexico analyzing beans have found G15N values that are more positive than the expected 0‰, ranging from 5.3 to 5.6‰ (Spielmann et al. 1990). However, these G15N values are possibly due

to domesticated beans not fixing atmospheric nitrogen and instead using nitrates from fertilizers

or organic decay (Schoeninger and Moore 1992).

Although beans, along with maize and squash, are part of the trifecta of plant sisters

when discussing agricultural development, they were probably not a significant contributor to

diet in areas where maize agriculture dominated (Sharp 1996). Archaeobotanical records indicate

that wild beans were present at Fort Ancient sites (Martin 2009), and areas just north of the Fort

Ancient cultural area display a rather late arrival of beans at ca. A.D. 1000 (Morton and

Schwarcz 2004). Furthermore, beans were not prominent in archaeological contexts in eastern

North America prior to ca. A.D. 1300 (Hart and Scarry 1999). Therefore, I will not be

considering beans when using G15N values to determine diet.

G15N Values and Paleopathologies

Several factors may contribute to unexpectedly elevated G15N values in a consumer’s bone. Low

protein intake results in a consumer catabolizing protein from its own tissues (Hobson et al.

1993; Strange 2006). Additionally, water stress (Ambrose 1991) and heat stress that result in

enriched 14N urea output (Ambrose 1991) can both lead to elevated G15N values. Pathological individuals can display high G15N values due to stress caused by disease or illness.

Throughout the life of an individual, bone tissue is regularly remodeled. This remodeling helps bones maintain their strength and shape, and adapt to new stresses. However, prolonged illness or disease can interrupt this process of normal bone maintenance. Due to this altered bone maintenance, the isotope values in bones might also be affected by disease. For example, White and Armelagos (1997) found that individuals exhibiting osteoporosis from the Sudan displayed elevated G15N values.

Katzenberg and Lovell (1999) conducted a detailed study of the enrichment of G15N values in pathological bone. Seven individuals were sampled, four of which were pathological.

Diseased individuals had higher G15N values compared to individuals that did not have pathologies (Katzenberg and Lovell 1999). Additionally, these authors found that the G15N values for a lesion obtained from a patient suffering from AIDS was considerably higher (12.9‰) than healed bone (11.0‰) or unaffected bone (11.3‰). These findings suggest that overall wasting due to disease, in this case AIDS, may result in elevated G15N values across the entire skeleton

(Katzenberg and Lovell 1999).

Strange (2006) also analyzed stable nitrogen isotope values of individuals deemed normal and individuals with tuberculosis to determine isotopic variation within and between these individuals. She sampled two vertebrae from ten individuals. Five of these individuals had tuberculosis, and their vertebrae exhibited lesions consistent with tuberculosis caused by

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. She found that the pathological individuals, on average, had slightly higher G15N values (12.7‰) than the non-pathological individuals (11.9‰), however this difference in G15N values was not statistically significant. She concluded that G15N was affected by tuberculosis, and therefore pathologies have an effect on G15N values. Both of these studies indicate that catabolism and recycling of nitrogen related to a prolonged disease can result in higher G15N values in bone.

Strontium Isotopes

The utility of strontium isotopes in archaeological research is their ability to determine variation in background environmental 87Sr/86Sr values. Such variation can then be used to establish location-specific 87Sr/86Sr ratios. In turn, this information can be used to identify movement

patterns of humans across the landscape (i.e. migration). Unlike carbon and nitrogen, strontium

does not fractionate during physical or chemical reactions related to biological processes. Tooth

enamel is the most optimal material to analyze because it is resistant to diagenetic alteration and

is, therefore, less likely to be compromised postmortem (Beard and Johnson 2000; Bentley

2006). Teeth are developed early in life and then remain isotopically inert. Therefore, strontium

isotope ratios in tooth enamel reflect childhood and young adult years (Beard and Johnson 2000;

Bentley 2006; Price et al. 2002).

Unlike tooth enamel, bone is constantly regenerating. Consequently, 87Sr/86Sr ratios in bone will reflect a more current, time averaged strontium composition (Beard and Johnson

2000). If an individual’s teeth have a significantly higher 87Sr/86Sr ratio than the local bedrock where this individual died, then this individual would be deemed non-local, even if he or she spent most adult years at this particular location. Conversely, if an individual immigrated to an area and lived there for several years prior to death, his or her bones, as opposed to teeth, would have had enough time to integrate local strontium, and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of bones would reflect the local strontium levels.

Beard and Johnson (2000) modeled the strontium ratios for the continental United States based on the bedrock geology. The majority of the Midwest shows a small range of strontium values reflecting the Cretaceous to Ordovician rock types (Beard and Johnson 2000). Bataille and Bowen (2012) elaborated on the study conducted by Beard and Johnson (2000). These authors modeled 87Sr/86Sr ratios in bedrock as well as watersheds by developing GIS-based models. Such “isoscapes” can be used to predict 87Sr/86Sr in water and bedrock across the continental United States.

Bataille and Bowen (2012) modeled 87Sr/86Sr within the watersheds of the Watershed

Boundary Dataset and according to their map, Ohio has two distinct levels of 87Sr/86Sr ratios

(Figure 1). According to this model, the eastern half of Ohio exhibits 87Sr/86Sr from 0.715 to

0.720 and the western segment ranges from 0.709 to 0.711. These values agree with those

Figure 1. Modeled 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the continental United States based on bedrock geology (Bataille and Bowen 2012).

measured in Ohio waters by Stueber et al. (1972). They found 87Sr/86Sr ratios in Ohio waters, ranging from 0.7078 to 0.7130, with the southern and eastern part of the state exhibiting higher

87Sr/86Sr ratios than those in the north or west (Bataille and Bowen 2012).

Several studies have been conducted using strontium isotopes to determine migration

patterns and origin of prehistoric and historic populations of humans (see Beehr 2011; Bentley et

al. 2003; Evans et al. 2006; Perry et al. 2008; Price et al. 1994). For example, Beehr (2011)

performed a study using stable strontium isotopes to ascertain whether migration occurred during

the Middle Woodland period at three archaeological sites in the Midwest: Albany Mounds and

Utica Mounds in Illinois and the Hopewell Mound Group in Ohio. She found that collagen from

humans and faunal remains from all three sites overlap in overall 87Sr/86Sr ratios, suggesting that the bioavailable strontium may not be distinguishable among sites. However, through statistical analysis, several faunal samples were deemed outliers, five white-tailed deer and one beaver. A recalculation was conducted excluding the faunal outliers to provide a better 87Sr/86Sr range for the human samples (Beehr 2011).

Using this refined dataset, Beehr (2011) determined that eight humans were potential migrants. Five of these individuals came from the Hopewell Mound Group samples and the other three came from the Albany Mounds samples. The outliers from the Hopewell Mound Group do not fall within the range of either Illinois sites. Conversely, the outliers from Albany Mounds fall within the range of both the Utica Mounds and Hopewell Mound Group, making the outliers potential migrants from these two sites. All of Beehr’s (2011) findings will be compared with the strontium isotope ratios from my study in a later chapter. Additionally, I will use archaeological evidence and the maps created by Beard and Johnson (2000) and Bataille and Bowen (2012) to determine the probable areas from which non-local Turpin individuals may have migrated.

Chapter 3: Archaeological Background

The Ohio Valley region has been of particular interest to archaeologists for a number of reasons.

This area provides early evidence of agriculture in the New World, which in turn is associated with a reduction in mobility. This region also provides a venue to study the appearance of paleopathologies, such as tuberculosis, migration, and the effects of European contact (i.e. trade, metal goods, and new culture).

Additionally, the many rivers that make up the geography of this area would have provided transportation routes. The Ohio River afforded a communication axis from the northeast to the southwest and the Great Miami River, draining into the Ohio River, gave access from the north to the south. The Ohio River was of historical importance to migrating European settlers and most likely to the prehistoric Native Americans (Drooker 1997; Henderson et al.

1986; Myer 1928; Tanner 1989).

Geological and Geographical Background

Southwestern Ohio is composed of several layers of Paleozoic deposits. In most areas, the exposed layer is Ordovician (ranging from 505 to 438 million years ago) and is composed of shale and limestone (Coogan 1996; Dalbey 2007). Some areas of southwestern Ohio may also include a thin overlying layer of Silurian deposits (Coogan 1996; Dalbey 2007). These sediments were deposited approximately 348 to 408 million years ago (Coogan 1996; Dalbey

2007). There is also an underlying, unexposed Precambrian layer of east continent rift basin sediments, including Cambrian carbonates, sandstones, shales, and Precambrian igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks (Coogan 1996; Dalbey 2007). The Late Woodland period

15 encompasses parts eastern Canada and the eastern United States, where the Newtown Phase is centralized in the Fort Ancient cultural area. The following map (Figure 2) outlines the Fort

Ancient cultural area.

Figure 2. The Fort Ancient cultural area.

Late Woodland

The term Woodland is used to define prehistoric groups in the eastern United States from ca.

1000 B.C. to A.D. 1000 (Railey 1996). These groups are characterized as making pottery, constructing burial mounds, and subsisting on hunting, gathering, and gardening (Railey 1996;

Stoltman 1978). The Woodland period is divided into three subperiods as defined by Railey

(1996): Early Woodland (ca. 1000 to 200 B.C.), Middle Woodland (ca. 200 B.C. to A.D. 500), and Late Woodland (ca. A.D. 500 to 1000). For the purpose of my thesis, only the Late

Woodland period will be discussed in length.

Late Woodland pottery consisted of cord-marked pots and jars (Railey 1996). However, the development of the bow and arrow with triangular projectile points became staple artifacts of

Late Woodland assemblages (Railey 1996). By the Late Woodland period, earthwork construction declined (Railey 1996). Muller (1986) theorized that this decline, coupled with reduced trade of ritual items and cultural changes, was due to the refocus toward localized village economies. Several Late Woodland sites were nucleated villages and were centralized around a public space consisting of grouped houses, work areas, and garbage pits (Railey 1996).

However, in the lower Ohio Valley, most settlements consisted of small farmsteads and hamlets and some contained mounds and plazas (Railey 1996). The societies of the Late Woodland period appear to have remained kin-based with little political authority (Railey 1996).

Newtown Phase. The Newtown Phase is characterized as a transitional cultural complex between the Late Woodland and Fort Ancient time periods (Griffin 1952). The Newtown Phase is so named because sites containing these typical assemblages were first discovered near

Newtown, Ohio (Seeman and Dancey 2000). The epicenter of the Newtown Phase includes southwestern Ohio, southeastern Indiana, and northern Kentucky, and is considered a progenitor of the Fort Ancient period (Tankersley and Haines 2010).

Radiocarbon dates from of Newtown features at the Turpin and nearby Sand Ridge sites range from ca. A.D. 500 to 1000 (Riggs 1986). However, the majority of this phase was diagnosed using typed artifacts in stratigraphic layers (Seeman and Dancey 2000). Distinctive

17 vessel shapes, decorative motifs, and limestone-temper define the Newtown Phase (Griffin

1956). Newtown Phase vessels are tear-drop in shape, cord-marked, tempered with calcium carbonate, and carbon-smudged (Tankersley and Haines 2010).

Subsistence. Late Woodland subsistence included hunting and gathering as well as gardening (Railey 1996). The intensification of horticulture became the focus of Late Woodland period subsistence practices, with an increase in the use of maize (Railey 1996). The main game sources included deer, raccoons, elk, turkey, and other forest mammals (Breitburg 1992; Railey

1996). Muller’s (1986) theory requires a shift from extraneous cultural practices, as seen in the

Early and Middle Woodland periods, to a more locally focused economy. This movement towards a more centralized economy may have resulted, or was combined with, the development of maize agriculture during the Late Woodland period.

Fort Ancient

The Fort Ancient cultural group is geographically centered on the Ohio River at the crossroads of numerous trails and water routes (Drooker 1997; Henderson et al. 1986; Rountree 1993; Tanner

1989). Travel routes are critical pieces of evidence to determine possible migration patterns, cultural influences, trade, and site selection. It is likely that the Fort Ancient peoples communicated with relative ease with surrounding contemporaneous cultural groups.

Fort Ancient sites have been found in western West Virginia, northern Kentucky, southern Ohio, and the southeastern corner of Indiana (Drooker 1997; Essenpreis 1978; Griffin

1966; Henderson and Turnbow 1987; Keller 1949; Mills 1904; Prufer and Shane 1970; Sharp

1990; Shetrone 1920; Tankersley 1992). This area encompasses the Allegheny Plateau, and the

18 associated Central Lowlands, which provided a richly diverse geomorphological and biological setting (Drooker 1997).

Fort Ancient culture is typically broken down into three subperiods. Several different time frames have been attributed to these periods (Cassidy 1984; Essenpreis 1978; Griffin 1943;

Henderson and Turnbow 1987; Keller 1949; Mills 1904; Perzigian et al. 1984; Prufer and Shane

1970; Sharp 1990; Shetrone 1920; Tankersley and Meinhart 1982). For the purpose of this paper,

Drooker’s (1997) dates will be used: Early Fort Ancient (ca. A.D. 1000 to 1250), Middle Fort

Ancient (ca. A.D. 1250 to 1450), and Late Fort Ancient (ca. A.D. 1450 to 1750). The Late Fort

Ancient period is also known as the proto-historic or historic Madisonville Horizon. The last period has been further subdivided into two additional subperiods: Early Madisonville (ca. A.D.

1450 to 1550) and Late Madisonville (ca. A.D. 1550 to 1750; Drooker 1997). Pollack and

Henderson’s (1992) Middle Fort Ancient period and the early Madisonville Horizon correspond with Drooker’s (1997) temporal span.

Fort Ancient period ceramic assemblages resembled Late Woodland ceramics, containing cord-marked pottery that was limestone- or grit-tempered (Sharp 1996). Contrasting Late

Woodland pottery, Fort Ancient pots had strap or loop handles and some had decorative motifs

(Sharp 1996). Lithic assemblages often contained awls, worked bone, triangular projectile points, and other flaked stone tools (Sharp 1996). Fort Ancient sites were often comprised of villages with a central plaza and houses and were typically less permanent than those of later time periods

(Sharp 1996). There was a general absence of platform mounds at Fort Ancient sites (Sharp

1996). However, some burials mounds have been discovered, but placement and lack of social distinction in the form of burial goods show the absence stratification (Sharp 1996).

Turpin Phase. The Turpin Phase dates from A.D. 1000 to 1250 (Griffin 1992) and coincides with the Early Fort Ancient. Lithics assemblages are similar to other Fort Ancient period sites, but also include stone and ceramic ear spools and spud and stone discoidal celts

(Drooker 1997). Bone and copper ear spools also occur at these sites. Ceramics include pots with handles, which occurs for the first time in the middle Ohio Valley during this phase (Cowan

1987). Furthermore, Turpin Phase settlements had plazas or palisades and were larger than Late

Woodland villages (Drooker 1997).

Subsistence. Unlike their Woodland predecessors, Fort Ancient groups had a subsistence strategy that utilized not just hunting, but farming and gathering as well (Tankersley 1992).

Between A.D. 1000 and 1650, maize, squash, gourds, and beans are thought to have been the focus of Fort Ancient peoples, particularly to survive through the meager winter and spring months (Tankersley 1992; Wagner 1987; Watson 1989). Ethnohistorical accounts have shown that the Native Americans living in the Great Lakes area were utilizing several different species of plants for various purposes (Griffin 1966). Griffin (1966:156) found that 275 plant species were used for medicinal purposes, 130 as food, 27 for smoking, 25 as dyes, 18 as beverages and flavoring, and 52 for other various purposes.

Though the Great Lakes area is north of the Fort Ancient cultural boundary, it is possible that similar species and their uses were present in the Fort Ancient area. Paw paw, grape, bedstraw, smartweed, pokeberry, chenopod, tobacco, and morning glory were definitely exploited by Fort Ancient peoples (Drooker 1997; Pollack and Henderson 1992). Martin’s

(2009) research focused on the botanical remains at two Fort Ancient communities: Sunwatch and Wildcat. A full list of Martin’s (2009) findings and other Ohio Valley and Fort Ancient botanical remains can be found in Appendix A.

The Turpin Site (33Ha19)

The Turpin site is characterized as a stratified open-air site, which included Late Woodland and

Early to Middle Fort Ancient villages and an Early Fort Ancient burial mound (Oehler 1973).

Furthermore, the Turpin site is a type-site of both the Newtown Phase and Turpin Phase (Griffin

1952). Cassidy (1984) stated that it is important to understand the subsistence and health of the people that lived at the Turpin site not only because the Ohio River Valley was (and is) ecologically rich, but also because evidence suggests that this population was one of the earliest to practice agriculture in eastern North America. Therefore, this population is located in a key area. Understanding the changes and uses of staple crops associated with agriculture of the

Turpin population will supplement the overall knowledge of prehistoric agriculture in the Ohio

Valley area.

The Turpin site measures 2.02 hectares and is located in front of the Turpin homestead from which its name originates (Greenlee 2002). According to one of the earliest accounts of this archaeological site, it was located on the Batavia turnpike (today known as OH-32), and was half a mile east of the Union Bridge (Metz 1878). The coordinates of Turpin are 39 ° 06’ 52” N, 84 °

23’ 39” W (Oehler 1973). The site is situated on the south side of the Little Miami River on the second terrace in Hamilton County (Figure 3; Griffin 1966). Turpin is located just east of the geographical center of the Fort Ancient cultural area and is close in proximity to the Late

Woodland Sand Ridge village site, the Middle Fort Ancient Hahn Field village site, the Late Fort

Ancient Madisonville cemetery site, and the Fort Ancient Wynema village site.

Wynema Madisonville

Turpin Ohio River Hahn Field Sand Ridge

Figure 3. Location of the Turpin site.

Radiocarbon Dates for Turpin

Table 1 lists the radiocarbon dates from Drooker (1997) and Maslowski et al. (1995) for Turpin and the adjusted 68% confidence range. These dates span from the Middle Woodland period through the Middle Fort Ancient period.

Lab Number Reported 14C Age Calibrated Time Period (B.P.) ± 1 SD Calendric Age (A.D.) ± 1 SD M-907 675 ± 150 1285 ± 113 Middle Fort Ancient WIS-1793 820 ± 70 1173 ± 75 Early Fort Ancient Uga-4483 855 ± 65 1149 ± 78 Early Fort Ancient WIS-1749 1140 ± 70 876 ± 84 Late Woodland Uga-4486 1155 ± 245 876 ± 227 Late Woodland WIS-1750 1320 ± 70 718 ± 63 Late Woodland WIS-1751 1460 ± 70 565 ± 66 Late Woodland Uga-4484 1760 ± 120 264 ± 135 Middle Woodland Uga-4485 1775 ± 75 247 ± 95 Middle Woodland

Table 1. Published radiocarbon dates for Turpin and calibrated dates using CalPal.

Previous Research and Excavations. Human remains were first exposed at the Turpin site when the cellar for a farmhouse was dug (Oehler 1973). Oehler (1973:1) stated that in 1800, workmen excavating the area for the cellar removed 50 skeletons. Subsequently, this farm was recognized as a prehistoric Indian village by Charles Metz, who wrote two articles about the site:

The Prehistoric Monuments of the Little Miami Valley and The Prehistoric Monuments of

Anderson Township, Hamilton County, Ohio published in 1878 and 1881, respectively. These works focused on the area of what is now known as Anderson Township.

The initial research of Turpin and the surrounding area focused on the earthworks scattered across the landscape. Metz (1878:125) documented twelve mounds and their sizes in

Anderson Township. At the time of Metz’s (1878:125) investigation, he first noticed that one mound, situated directly in front of the Turpin house, was 175 feet around the base and ten feet in elevation. In a later investigation and subsequent publication, Metz (1881:301) documented findings from Group E, which included the Turpin site. By this second publication, the mound noted in Metz’s 1878 publication was further reduced to being only 50 feet in diameter (157 foot

23 circumference) at the base. Metz’s (1878, 1881) research proved to be important because it showed that in only a few years this mound had been reduced in general size by about 10 percent.

The first documented discoveries have given rise to additional research to better understand archaeological sites in the Ohio Valley, including the livelihoods of prehistoric peoples, and the Turpin site specifically. The Cincinnati Museum of Natural History conducted field studies at Turpin from 1946 to 1949 (Oehler 1973). These initial excavations started off by removing ten-foot blocks around the house, focusing only on one area at a time to preserve the house’s foundation (Oehler 1973). By the closing of the first season, 26 burials and several thousand artifacts were recovered that represented the Fort Ancient culture (Oehler 1973). The

1947 season included an extensive survey and an excavation of the Fort Ancient mound where a

Late Woodland period village was beneath the Fort Ancient material (Oehler 1973). The mound at the time of excavation was elliptical in shape, six feet high at the highest point with a 40-foot diameter (Oehler 1973). This mound and the mound Metz (1878, 1881) documented are one in the same. Within three years the mound Metz described had a 10 percent reduction in circumference and the following 66 years showed an additional 20 percent reduction in size, which was due to intensive farming and natural erosion. During the museum’s excavations, well- preserved human skeletons and isolated bones were uncovered (Oehler 1973).

The 1948 season expanded the excavation to beyond the edge of the mound, unearthing more burials, and an additional mound made of stone, named Stone Mound, was found west of the Turpin homestead (Oehler 1973). During the last season, 1949, the Stone Mound was the focus where multiple fragmented skeletons were excavated and some complete or nearly complete Late Woodland and Fort Ancient burials were found (Oehler 1973). Oehler’s (1973)

24 publication, Turpin Indians, discussed the posthole patterns, ceramics, lithics, cultural items, and burials in detail.

Oehler (1973) categorized the burial complex into three groups: Late Woodland Stone

Mound, Fort Ancient village, and Fort Ancient mound. The Fort Ancient mound contained a burial pattern where individuals were buried at right angles to one another, or at least showed evidence at having been in that original position (Figure 4; Oehler 1973). The mound itself contained over sixty skeletons and the surrounding area contained more than forty additional skeletons (Oehler 1973). Among these skeletons, only four individuals had materials interred with them (Oehler 1973). The Fort Ancient village had an additional twenty-six skeletons with only strands of shell beads and an animal claw bracelet as accompanying material (Oehler 1973).

Figure 4. Drawing of the Fort Ancient burial mound pattern (Oehler 1973:47).

Subsistence. Many bone and shell artifacts have been discovered and can be interpreted as being part of the dietary repertoire of the Turpin population. Deer, elk, and turkey were the most common faunal remains found at Turpin for both the Late Woodland and Fort Ancient components. According to Breitburg (1992), the faunal resources that comprised the dietary backbone of Fort Ancient communities were deer, elk, and turkey, thus supporting the theory that the Turpin people consumed these animals with some regularity. Other Fort Ancient sites show that squirrels, raccoons, woodchucks, bobcat, and sometime later, bison were also present archaeologically (see Appendix B; Drooker 1997).

Fishhooks were also discovered at Turpin (Oehler 1973). The preponderance of worked shell ornamentation and food utensils indicates that a utilization of riverine animals as a supplemental food source was likely. Due to Turpin being located near several rivers and other bodies of water, it seems only logical that the resident population would have exploited these resources for food and for manufacturing cultural items.

Maize. Maize was the single most important Fort Ancient agricultural produce. Maize fragments have been documented in the Ohio Valley as early as ca. A.D. 330 (Greenlee 2006).

Middle Woodland gardeners had utilized maize, though not to the extent of later populations

(Cook 2007). However, maize-based subsistence systems in the Ohio Valley abruptly appeared ca. A.D. 900 (Greenlee 2006). The rapidity of maize integration into the diet is why the archaeological record of the Ohio River Valley is of particular interest to archaeologists.

When a local semi-sedentary or sedentary population surpassed the carrying capacity of the surrounding animal resources a dietary shift was necessary to survive. Turpin contained at least a few hundred individuals who would have required a significant change from the hunting, gathering, and gardening subsistence strategy to an agricultural-base subsistence strategy in order

26 to support the dietary needs of such a large population. “Changes in subsistence practices are often viewed as related to changes in technology, settlement pattern, and sociopolitical organization” (Pollack and Henderson 1992:77). Fort Ancient groups are considered agriculturalists subsisting on maize, squash, gourds, and beans supplemented with wild plant cultivation and hunting (Pollack and Henderson 1992; Tankersley 1992). Perzigian et al.

(1984:348-9) stated that Fort Ancient period populations became centralized for agricultural activity, which required intensive labor to support this change.

Cassidy (1984) stated that there is little direct archaeological evidence of maize agriculture. However, archaeobotanical research has shown the presence of maize. Material found in Fort Ancient vessels from Turpin, Madisonville, Sand Ridge, and State Line was either charred corncobs or charred corn (Tankersley and Meinhart 1982). Ethnohistorical accounts provide additional evidence for the presence and importance of maize. For example, in 1679,

Hennepin, a French explorer, observed a Kaskaskia village in Illinois had hidden corn in underground trenches for the next harvest and this stash was a precious food source (Tankersley

1992).

All of this evidence points to the presence of maize during the Fort Ancient occupation at

Turpin. The archaeobotanical presence of maize along with ethnohistorical accounts that showed the use of intensive maize agriculture at contemporaneous sites cannot be denied. The assumption that maize agriculture was present at Turpin during the Fort Ancient time period is not radical. I anticipate that isotopic evidence will verify the use of maize agriculture by the Fort

Ancient population at Turpin.

Late Woodland Newtown Phase Component. Several thousand artifacts make up the

Turpin collection. Many of these artifacts were discovered in stratigraphically separate sections

27 of the mound and village areas (Table 2). The earliest stratigraphic layer was that of the Late

Woodland component, which is below the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase remains, and directly preceded these occupants at Turpin. The most characteristic of Late Woodland component artifacts were found in the Stone Mound, a mound strictly associated with the Late Woodland period at Turpin (Oehler 1973).

Pottery of the Late Woodland component found within the Stone Mound was made up of crushed stone and sand temper (Oehler 1973). A small cord-marked grit-tempered pot was found in a pit in the Late Woodland village and follows the regular Late Woodland design and composition (Oehler 1973). The Late Woodland period lithic artifacts were made up of several diagnostic styles. Stemmed and side-notched points along with grooved axes were common in the stratigraphically Late Woodland areas of Turpin (Oehler 1973). Several Late Woodland limestone-like shale gorgets were uncovered in both the village and Stone Mound (Oehler 1973).

The use of limestone in the Late Woodland component was common in the production of cultural items like gorgets. Additionally, one style of pipe and skeletal element alteration were also found in the Late Woodland levels (Oehler 1973). These artifacts include notched bone beads and notched bird bones. Other artifacts, like bell-shaped type stone pestles, were also found in the Late Woodland village area and the Stone Mound (Oehler 1973).

Additional artifacts found in the Stone Mound and the Late Woodland village includes bone celts and bone beaming tools (Oehler 1973). Both complete and partial bone gorgets were found in the Late Woodland village and Stone Mound (Oehler 1973). Furthermore, there were two styles of Late Woodland burials that contained flexed primary and partial secondary burials that were contained in the Stone Mound, which was unlike that of the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase component.

Period Ceramics Lithics Pipes Skeletal Burials Remains Crushed shell Flint drill Human effigy Human Extended

)

0 temper pipe effigy hair position 5

2 Strap handles Elongate point or pin 1

t blade and 0

0 curvilinear Triangular Bone ear 0 1

. design projectile points spools D . Madisonville Fine polished, A (

e Cord-marked unperforated s

h jars discoidal stones P

n Madisonville Perforated discoidal Rabbit effigy Copper foil Right i p

r Plain jars stones tobacco pipe covered angles to u T Small vessel Large trianguloid bone ear each other t n e

i with blades spools c

n perforated rim Disc type Ulna awls A

r hammerstones o

F Abrading stones

Crushed stone Stemmed and side- Limestone, Notched Flexed

s and sand notched points shale, and bone beads primary a h temper granitic burials P

) n

0 Chipped shale-like expanded center Bone Partial w 0 o 0 t limestone stone stones gorgets secondary 1

w o e t

discs burials N

0 d 0 Grooved axes n 5

a . l Limestone-like Notched Mound d D . o

o A shale, sandstone, bird bones constructed ( W and slate stone out of stone e t a gorgets L Calcite spool

Table 2. Artifact information based on the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History’s 1946- 1949 excavations (Oehler 1973).

Fort Ancient Turpin Phase Component. Based on differences in temper, two distinct manufacturing styles can be seen at the Turpin site. In contrast to the crushed stone and sand temper of the Late Woodland period, the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase temper was comprised of crushed shell (Oehler 1973). Oehler (1973:9) stated that there was a stratigraphically divergent pattern where excavated “blocks have shown 100% [Late] Woodland sherds in the lowest levels and an increase of shell tempered Ft. Ancient type ware in the top levels to almost 100%.”

Several of these stratigraphically separated sections proved to be diagnostic artifacts and are remarkable in their preservation. One of these artifacts is a Fort Ancient Turpin Phase shell- tempered clay vessel with strap handles found near the feet of a child (Oehler 1973).

Additionally, a single negative painted pottery sherd found among Fort Ancient Turpin Phase debris is classified as Angel Site negative painted pottery (Oehler 1973). This type of pottery was not made by Fort Ancient people and is associated with Middle Mississippians, who were contemporaneous with the Fort Ancient time period at Turpin (Oehler 1973).

Bifacially flaked-stone projectile points, or arrowheads, dominate the chert assemblages, specifically the Fort Ancient diagnostic triangular points (Oehler 1973). One unperforated, fine polished discoidal stone was found interred with a Fort Ancient skeleton (Oehler 1973).

Discoidal stones, trianguloid blades, and hammerstones were also present in the Fort Ancient component (Oehler 1973).

A surface find not attributable to either of the two periods present at Turpin was a Middle

Mississippian-like large spatulate celt-type artifact (Oehler 1973). Several pipes, complete and nearly complete, were also discovered. A rabbit effigy pipe was found in the Stone Mound, but is attributed to the Fort Ancient occupation (Griffin 1966; Oehler 1973). A frog effigy and human effigy pipe were also discovered. The frog effigy, which was found in the top of the burial

30 mound, does not look like a typical Fort Ancient artifact, but is more similar to late Middle

Mississippian artifacts (Oehler 1973). Another artifact of the Mississippian style is a shell tempered clay pipe, which further suggests the Middle Mississippian influence (Oehler 1973).

Aside from ceramics, bone objects were the most common artifacts found during the

Cincinnati Museum of Natural History’s excavations (Oehler 1973). The most common bone artifacts were deer and elk ulna awls in the Fort Ancient village debris (Oehler 1973). Of particular interest was a bone hair ornament found among the Fort Ancient village (Oehler

1973). “It is by far the finest bone object recovered during the entire exploration and ranks among the finest artifacts of its type ever found in Ohio” (Oehler 1973:27).

Another fragmented ornament, a snake effigy, depicts a copperhead and a rattlesnake

(Oehler 1973). While copperheads and rattlesnakes were extirpated from southwestern Ohio, their skeletal remains are common at Fort Ancient sites (Fletcher et al. 1996). Furthermore, the

Shawnee, direct descendants of the Fort Ancient cultural group, have a snake clan and a secret men’s society called “the copperheads” and these serpents were motifs depicted in Fort Ancient effigy earthworks and stoneworks in the Ohio River Valley (Fletcher et al. 1996; Tankersley

2008).

One of the most important bone artifacts found was a pair of bone ear spools covered in copper foil (evidenced by green stains and fragmented copper oxide). These artifacts were located in the burial where they would have been in the ears of the deceased at the time of the burial (Oehler 1973). These spools are unusual because there is no other evidence of copper, or any other metal, being present at Turpin (Oehler 1973). Though notched bird bones were only present in Late Woodland contexts, bone flutes and antler tines were found in both villages

(Oehler 1973). Additionally, three large animal tooth pendants, most likely wolf, were found in a

Fort Ancient child burial (Oehler 1973).

In addition to the more tangible artifacts, post holes were a particularly beneficial find in

reconstructing Turpin culture. Oehler (1973) stated that the posthole patterns were indicative of

small houses where small logs, placed upright, were used as part of the constructional

foundation. Oehler (1973:5) speculated that these “posts were then probably covered with twigs

or bark, over which, in the Ft. Ancient house at least, mud mixed with grass was plastered.”

Evidence of these wall construction materials was preserved when some of the houses were

burned (Oehler 1973). One fire-preserved house in particular rendered fragments of clay with

grass and twigs embedded in it (Oehler 1973). Additional post holes with no particular

configuration were found inside the house patterns indicating the presence of furniture or racks

(Oehler 1973). Fire basins were also found near the center of the houses suggesting that a small

opening in the roof would have been present to prevent unnecessary smoke inhalation (Oehler

1973). However, many other post-holes were set up in an unrelated manner, including partial

house outlines and a double row of post-holes (Oehler 1973).

Previous Research of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by infection with the

bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is transmitted through the air via an infected cough or sneeze. This disease particularly attacks the lungs but can affect other parts of the body.

The manifestation of musculoskeletal TB consists of lesions, particularly on the spine, and is commonly referred to as Pott disease. The expectation of a communicable disease, such as tuberculosis, being present in sedentary or semi-sedentary communities is compatible with

Perzigian and Widmer’s (1979) findings.

Perzigian and Widmer (1979) analyzed the Turpin population and found six cases of likely TB. Four women, ranging in age from 16 to 25 were diagnosed along with two men older than 35 (Perzigian and Widmer 1979). Tench (1983) identified an additional male, aged 25 to 34 as having paleopathological evidence associated with TB (Table 3). Six of these individuals had lesions on their vertebrae where one individual had an infectious left acetabulum and adjacent ilium (Perzigian and Widmer 1979). The infected individuals followed the pattern of tuberculosis spondylitis where either the center or anterior portion of vertebral bodies (or both) suffered lytic destruction (Perzigian and Widmer 1979). Perzigian and Widmer (1979:2644) observed that

In a semi-sedentary village population like Turpin, where tuberculosis is endemic, we would expect osseous lesions to occur preponderantly in the thoracolumbar vertebrae and less commonly in the cervical spine or hip. The pattern reported here is compatible with these expectations.

Catalog number Age Sex Reference 952/50 20 to 24 Female Perzigian and Widmer (1979) 952/104 35 to 44 Female Perzigian and Widmer (1979) 952/151 25 to 34 Male Tench (1983) 952/243 35 to 44 Male Perzigian and Widmer (1979) 952/236 35 to 44 Male Perzigian and Widmer (1979) 952/186, 117 15 to 19 Female Perzigian and Widmer (1979) 952/282 15 to 19 Female Perzigian and Widmer (1979)

Table 3. Turpin individuals with suspected tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis thrives in a larger population due to its method of airborne transmission. As a group of people become increasingly sedentary, the population size is likely to increase, provided it can be sustained through dietary and cultural changes. Maize agriculture would be able to feed a growing population. As TB does not favor smaller groups it would be

logical to assume that the presence and frequency of TB would be less frequent for smaller, less

agriculturally dependent groups.

Buikstra’s (1976) research supported this theory by finding that cases of possible

tuberculosis-related skeletal lesions were more frequently documented in agriculturally based

groups than earlier hunting and gathering groups. Two of my sampled individuals have been

previously documented as having tuberculosis (samples 2 and 38). If Buikstra’s (1976) findings

and the theory behind an endemic disease occurring in a larger population, typically supported

by maize agriculture, holds true, the isotopic evidence discussed in a later chapter will indicate a

likely maize-based diet.

Tuberculosis is also a population-driven disease where, if provided a large enough group

of people, it would thrive. As TB is clearly present among several individuals in the Turpin

population, the theory that they were a long-time semi-sedentary population is feasible. The

significant and abundant presence of paleopathologies, caries, and other abnormalities is crucial

in providing a holistic picture of the impact of consuming a disproportionate amount of maize on

a rather large semi-sedentary group.

Previous Stable Carbon Isotope Investigations. Two other studies for Turpin have been conducted regarding į13C isotopic values: van der Merwe and Vogel (1978) and Greenlee

(2002). These studies had sample sizes of 10 and 32, respectively. The basis of these studies was to determine the presence and importance of maize in the Ohio Valley.

Six females and four males were sampled for van der Merwe and Vogel’s (1978) study.

The two reported į13C values from this study, -11.0‰ and -12.5‰, were the average values for males and females, respectively (van der Merwe and Vogel 1978). Greenlee’s (2002) samples included individuals from three different periods: Late Woodland or Stone Mound, burial pattern

around the Fort Ancient mound, and the Fort Ancient mound (Table 4). Greenlee’s (2002)

samples were characterized using Tench’s (1983) notes and research, which is discussed in the

demography chapter. Each of Greenlee’s (2002) samples was processed three times and an

average į13C value was calculated, including the standard error. The overall į13C results ranged from -20.6 to -8.2‰ with an average of -12.6‰ (Table 5). Greenlee (2002) used these data to determine that the majority of the analyzed individuals were from the Fort Ancient mound and the burial pattern around the mound consumed maize. She also determined that the Late

Woodland mound (Stone Mound) had two separate distributions where eight individuals had

13 13 į C values indicative of a primarily C3 diet and the other eight had į C values indicative of a

C4 diet (i.e. maize). These findings suggest a change in diet composition occurred during the

Late Woodland period.

Period/Mortuary Feature Number of Range of į13C Mean į13C Value Individuals Values (‰) (‰) Late Woodland mound 16 -20.6 to -8.7 -15.5 Burial pattern around mound 7 -10.2 to -8.2 -9.1 Fort ancient mound 9 -11.3 to -9.2 -10.3

Table 4. Greenlee’s (2002) samples by time period and mortuary feature.

Sample Catalog Burial Period/Mortuary Feature Element į13C Value Number Number Number Sampled (‰) 184 268 235* Burial pattern around mound Femur -9.5 186 289 258* Burial pattern around mound Fibula -10.2 190 220 170* Burial pattern around mound Fibula -9.6 198 236 140* Burial pattern around mound Fibula -9.4 200 216 144* Burial pattern around mound Fibula -8.2 202 231 135* Burial pattern around mound Fibula -8.2 206 213 117* Burial pattern around mound Fibula -8.8 209 103 91* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -9.2 211 134 62* Fort Ancient mound Humerus -10.1 214 108 205* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -11.0 215 157 56* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -11.3 219 155 52* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -10.0 220 156 75* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -10.3 224 159 57* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -11.1 227 141 80* Fort Ancient mound Fibula -9.8 228 86 Not specified Late Woodland mound Femur -10.1 229 80 37 Late Woodland mound Fibula -20.4 230 83 Not specified Late Woodland mound Fibula -10.4 231 82 Not specified Late Woodland mound Radius -9.3 232 84 Not specified Late Woodland mound Fibula -20.6 234 78 34 Late Woodland mound Femur -20.6 235 81 41 Late Woodland mound Tibia -20.6 236 91 Not specified Late Woodland mound Fibula -20.1 237 78 33 Late Woodland mound Femur -20.5 238 93 Not specified Late Woodland mound Tibia -11.9 240 76 32 Late Woodland mound Fibula -8.7 241 87 Not specified Late Woodland mound Tibia -10.7 242 90 Not specified Late Woodland mound Ulna -20.5 243 151 103* Fort Ancient mound Ulna -9.5 244 92 Not specified Late Woodland mound Fibula -11.3 245 89 Not specified Late Woodland mound Ulna -20.4 246 88 Not specified Late Woodland mound Tibia -11.4

Table 5. Greenlee’s (2002) samples. * denotes information from Tench (1983).

The previously recounted research and investigations provided a vast amount of information regarding the Turpin site and its Late Woodland Newtown Phase and Fort Ancient

Turpin Phase inhabitants. Since the 1940s, many researchers, including Diana Greenlee,

Anthony Perzigian, and Patricia Tench have focused on Turpin. Research projects have ranged from excavations to ceramic analysis to skeletal analysis to disease interpretation. Tench’s

(1983) and Perzigian and Widmer’s (1979) research focused on reassembling the hundreds of skeletal remains (currently housed in the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History’s Geier

Research Center) and studying the presence of tuberculosis. Unfortunately, not all of the burials have been fully reassembled and there are many skeletal elements missing from several burials.

Though there is poor preservation of part of the Turpin population, many of the individuals prove to be useful for my study. The research by Metz (1878, 1881) has already been recounted along with that of The Cincinnati Museum of Natural History, but additional research from others will be utilized in my study. The most important of these researchers is Tench (1983) for her diligence in reconstructing and documenting the paleopathologies and demography of the

Turpin population. Additionally, Perzigian and Widmer (1979) researched the presence of tuberculosis found in the Turpin population. All of this information and previous research will be fully discussed and used in combination with my study to elucidate the living conditions of the

Turpin population in terms of diet, paleopathologies, and the development of agriculture.

Chapter 4: Theoretical Framework

This chapter presents the theoretical framework that allows an explanation for the progression of agricultural intensification for the Turpin population. Human behavioral ecology regarding the development and continued use of agriculture is outlined and applied to my hypotheses.

Human Behavioral Ecology

Human behavioral ecology combines the principles of evolutionary theory and optimal foraging theory where optimization of food versus energy efficiency expended to procure food is inversely proportional, i.e. higher caloric input with lower caloric output. Cohen (2009) outlined and evaluated human behavioral ecology to determine its application to agricultural development in prehistoric times. As hunting and gathering shifted towards adding cultigens to the diet, labor inputs to food outputs declined (Cohen 2009:592).

Cohen (2009) theorized that a shared factor was needed to push populations to employ and ultimately rely on agriculture. This common denominator would have been population pressure defined as “an imbalance between a population, its choice of foods, and its work standards which forces the population either to change its eating habits or to work harder”

(Cohen 2009:591). Boserup (1965) also suggested that population growth was the main pressure for developing new technology, i.e. agriculture. In line with Cohen (2009), she theorized that agricultural technology was dependent on the size of the population and an increase in means to optimize production. This technology would then result in increased production to support a growing population (Boserup 1965).

Additionally, human behavioral ecology maintains that immediate returns on readily available food resources are more desirable (Cohen 2009). Cohen (2009) also stated that storable foods are less desirable because of the risk of loss due to unknown events. However, with ethnohistorical and archaeological evidence, subterranean storage practices were used. For example, Hennepin and La Salle, who were both French explorers of North America in the late

1600s, documented underground trenches used to store corn (Tankersley 1992). Furthermore,

White (1943:336) suggested three contributing factors in a developing cultural situation:

(1) The amount of energy per capita per unit of time harnessed and put to work within the culture, (2) the technological means with which this energy is expended, and (3) the human need-serving product that accrues from the expenditure of energy.

When new culture develops, it is measured by its efficiency to serve needs (White 1943).

White’s (1943) generalized cultural evolution also coincides with the interpretation of Boserup

(1965) and Cohen (2009). Cultural change develops when energy expenditure per capita is increased or the efficiency of technology, like maize agriculture, is increased. As plants became domesticated, nature was harnessed to increase the per capita energy input and decrease the per capita energy expenditure (White 1943). Throughout the great civilizations like Egypt,

Mesopotamia, and Peru, the ability and means to control the forces of nature, like that of agriculture, was the driving force in their development and hence their growth (White 1943).

Although White’s (1943) theory, where agriculture resulted in a growing population, is contrary to Boserup’s (1965) theory, where a growing population resulted in agriculture, the proverbial chicken or the egg argument does not entirely matter. Agriculture was able to feed a larger group of sedentary people than their nomadic ancestors or counterparts and thus an increased reliable food supply became the primary dietary source. Therefore, utilizing human

39 behavioral ecology is the best explanation for the occurrence of agriculture in the Ohio River

Valley during the time the Turpin site was occupied.

Chapter 5: Methods

Data for my study were obtained at the Turpin site from the 1940s through the 1970s by the

Cincinnati Museum of Natural History. Oehler’s (1973) published material and Tench’s (1983) unpublished notes were used to create a paleodemographic database with anthropometric and paleopathological information (see Appendix C). Tench’s (1983) notes and research were used to identify the Fort Ancient individuals to be sampled. Three different methods were used in my study: fluoride dating, collagen extraction for carbon and nitrogen isotopes, and pretreatment of enamel for strontium extraction. Permission to sample the individuals’ bones was obtained from

Bob Genheimer from The Cincinnati Museum of Natural History’s Geier Research Center.

Anthropometric Data

Tench (1983) determined the paleodemographic categories of the Turpin population. However, some age estimations had to be adjusted in order to fit them into broader categories by first appropriating numerical ages assigned by Tench (1983) into larger groups (i.e. 1 to 2, 3 to 5, 6 to

9) and then adjusting those figures into age categories (i.e. infant, child, adolescent, young adult, and old adult). Tench (1983) also characterized the paleopathologies, but I also separated these paleopathologies into encompassing categories, discussed below. Furthermore, the sexes concluded by Tench (1983) were used, but for the purpose of my study any individuals identified as probable female or probable male were assumed female or male, respectively. Tench (1983) found evidence of caries. I tabulated the presence of caries for comparison between the entire population and my samples. Any specific anomaly determined by Tench (1983) was noted accordingly.

I selected fifty Fort Ancient individuals from the Turpin population. These individuals had both ribs and teeth available for isotopic sampling. After the samples had been selected, they were categorized into their respective groups. Though the number of males, females, and indefinite individuals that comprise the sample group do not necessarily represent the sex ratio for the entire population, a similar count of males and females is required to determine any statistical differences, such as stable isotope values, between them (Table 6).

Sex Number of Sampled Percentage Number of Turpin Percentage Individuals Individuals Male 25 50.0 118 42.3 Female 23 46.0 104 37.3 Indefinite 2 4.0 57 20.4

Table 6. Samples by sex.

Out of the 334 individuals excavated from Turpin only 223 were given either a specific age or age range (Table 7). Though these percentages between the samples and the entire population are not wholly comparable, the age categories assigned to the other individuals not prescribed an age range were also calculated. A total of 277 individuals had an age or age category assigned to them (Table 8). These percentages are used to determine if the samples properly represent age at death for the entire population.

Age Range Number of Sampled Percentage Number of Turpin Percentage Individuals Individuals 0 to 1 0 0.0 9 4.0 1 to 2 1 2.0 4 1.8 3 to 5 1 2.0 5 2.2 6 to 9 1 2.0 4 1.8 10 to 14 2 4.0 7 3.1 15 to 19 11 22.0 29 13.0 20 to 24 6 12.0 36 16.1 25 to 34 7 14.0 58 26.0 35 to 44 13 26.0 51 22.9 45 to 54 5 10.0 18 8.1 55 to 64 3 6.0 5 0.9 Total 50 223

Table 7. Samples by skeletal age.

By using this method of age determination, only one age category was not represented due to the unavailability of skeletal material for testing (fetus). Furthermore, the remaining categories are all within 4% of each other, signifying comparability between the samples and the entire population.

Age Number of Sampled Percentage Number of Turpin Percentage Category Individuals Individuals Fetus 0 0.0 3 0.7 Infant 1 2.0 9 3.2 Child 1 2.0 11 4.0 Adolescent 3 6.0 12 4.3 Young Adult 24 48.0 122 44.4 Old Adult 21 42.0 112 39.4 Total 50 277

Table 8. Samples by age category.

I categorized each individual’s pathologies in two general types of either arthritic/degenerative process or inflammatory process for post-cranial maladies, with four additional categories that do not fall in the previous two categories and require separate classification (Table 9). One individual, sample 25, had Osgood-schlatter disease, which is considered to be an arthritic/degenerative process. However, cranial pathologies were not grouped into larger categories so their specific pathologies are listed (Table 10). Additionally, two individuals had thirteen thoracic and four lumbar vertebrae, two more individuals had bone fractures, and one individual had an incisive canal, but these conditions or anomalies are not listed as pathological. Furthermore, some individuals displayed multiple types of pathologies and are as listed: one individual had both arthritic/degenerative and inflammatory processes, two had both enamel hypoplasia and periodontal disease, and one had a mandibular abscess and periodontal disease, however these paleopathologies are counted separately.

Percentages were also calculated for the post-cranial and dental pathologies in order to determine if the samples accurately represent the entire population. Only 263 out of the 334 individuals had identified post-cranial pathologies. Among the 263 individuals, some exhibited two or more pathologies, totaling 295 incidents of identified post-cranial pathological bone. For these pathologies, individuals exhibiting an inflammatory process are underrepresented by 5.5% relative to the entire population. The remaining categories are within 3% of each other, signifying that the samples provide a rather good depiction of the entire population.

Post-Cranial Number of Sampled Frequency Number of Turpin Frequency Pathologies Individuals (%) Individuals (%) Arthritic/degenerative 18 35.3 102 32.7 Inflammatory 6 11.8 54 17.3 Tuberculosis 2 3.9 7 2.2 Deformed skeletal 0 0.0 5 1.6 element Hip dysplasia/abscess 1 1.9 3 1.0 Thoracic Schmorl’s 0 0.0 1 0.3 Nodes None specified 24 47.1 140 44.9 Total 51 312

Table 9. Frequency of post-cranial pathologies.

Only 158 individuals had dental pathologies, four of which had two dental pathologies.

The only dental pathology not represented in the sampled population is the presence of enamel pearls. Furthermore, among the samples periodontal disease is overrepresented by 4.5% and individuals exhibiting no dental pathology are underrepresented by 8.6% relative to the entire population. The remaining dental pathologies are within 3% of each other. These percentages signify that the sampled population is comparatively similar enough with the entire Turpin population to properly represent it regarding dental pathologies.

Dental Pathologies Number of Sampled Frequency Number of Turpin Frequency Individuals (%) Individuals (%) Enamel hypoplasia 7 13.2 17 10.5 Periodontal disease 6 11.3 11 6.8 Abscess 2 3.8 3 1.9 Enamel pearl 0 0.0 3 1.9 Cementosis 1 1.9 1 0.6 None specified 37 69.8 127 78.4 Total 53 162

Table 10. Frequency of dental pathologies.

The frequency of caries was also calculated, where a total of 29 sampled individuals displayed carious lesions. The presence of caries in the sample population compared to that of the entire population is overrepresented by 26.4% and the lack of caries is underrepresented by

6.4%. This percentage indicates that, in terms of caries, the sampled individuals do not accurately represent the entire population.

Relative Fluoride Dating

The fluoride content of human rib bone samples was measured in ppm units with an ExStik

FL700 Fluoride Meter, a Potentiometric Ion Selective Electrode (PISE). The PISE was calibrated using a 1 ppm fluoride standard and a total ionic strength adjustment buffer (TISAB). A TISAB was crushed using a cleaned pestle and mortar and dissolved in 10 mL of purified water. These tablets were purchased at Test Equipment Depot and were manufactured by Extech for the purpose of being used with their ExStik fluoride meter.

The methods used were taken from Tankersley and Wells (2011). Bone tissue from each sample was hand pulverized using a pestle and mortar, which was cleaned using purified water and a damp Kimwipe between samples to avoid cross contamination. Ten mg of pulverized

tissue was measured, using an analytical balance (±0.01 mg), and transferred to a 100 mL glass

Pyrex beaker. Ten mL of 0.5 M HCl was added to the sample and then blended with a small

Teflon-coated stirring bar on a magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes at a relatively constant room

temperature, measuring within approximately 3o C of each sample, to maintain reliable measurements that could be affected by temperature fluctuation and influence. Afterwards, a 10 mL TISAB solution, which was made fresh for each sample, was added and stirred for an additional 5 minutes. The electrode was lowered into the solution and after 35 seconds, a stable value was obtained. The PISE was wiped clean with purified water and a damp Kimwipe between each sample.

Fluoride relative dating has been used for more than 200 years (Tankersley and Wells

2011). The theory behind fluoride dating is that fluoride from the surrounding soil is absorbed into the individual’s bones at a constant rate given that the area in which the individuals were buried was of the same chemical makeup. The individuals found at the Turpin site were all buried in the same area therefore differing soil chemical composition would not be significant to affect the uptake rates for a relative chronology. This relative chronology can be used to examine changes in į13C, G15N, and 87Sr/86Sr values through time.

Human Bone Collagen Extraction for Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis

Collagen extraction was conducted in the winter of 2011 at the University of Cincinnati’s Ohio

Valley Archaeology Lab and Dr. Brooke Crowley’s lab in the Geology Department at the

University of Cincinnati. Rib sections were weighed between 100 to 150 mg and coarsely ground using a pestle and mortar that was cleaned using purified water and a damp Kimwipe between samples. Each sample was placed into a clean 50 mL beaker. To deionize and demineralize the

47 samples, they were submerged in 0.1 M HCl for five days and then rinsed three times with distilled-deionized H2O and freeze-dried. Samples were then placed in loosely covered 15 mL test tubes with 0.01 M HCl on a heating plate at a constant temperature of 57 °C for 24 hours.

Samples were then placed in 0.01 M NaOH in order to remove humates. A suction vacuum was used to separate the non-collagen material from the collagen and the remaining sample was placed into a clean 50 mL beaker. The samples were then placed in an oven to evaporate the liquid and leave the remaining collagen.

Bone collagen samples were sent to the University of Florida’s Geological Sciences

Department. According to Dr. Jason Curtis (personal communication 2012) samples were loaded into tin capsules and placed in a 50-position automated Zero Blank sample carousel on a Costech

ECS 4010 elemental analyzer. After combustion in a quartz column at 1000 °C in an oxygen-rich atmosphere, the sample gas was transported in a He carrier stream and passed through a hot reduction column (650 °C) consisting of elemental copper to remove oxygen. The effluent stream from the elemental analyzer then passed through a magnesium perchlorate trap to remove water. The sample then passed into a ConFlo III preparation system and into the inlet of a

Thermo Finnigan DeltaPlus XL mass spectrometer running in a continuous flow mode where the sample gas was measured relative to laboratory reference gas. All carbon isotopic results are expressed in a notation relative to VPDB and all nitrogen isotopic results are expressed relative to AIR.

Human Tooth Enamel Extraction for Strontium Isotope Analysis

Teeth collected were either a premolar or canine (only three individuals’ canines were sampled due to the unavailability of a premolar). Additionally, five animals comprised of three raccoons,

one porcupine, and one opossum (samples 51 through 55) were sampled. These animals were

chosen due to their small territorial span and will be used as a basis of comparison with the

Turpin samples. Full teeth were sent to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign’s

Department of Anthropology and Department of Geology for processing by Philip Slater.

According to Mr. Slater (personal communication 2012) each sample was treated in 50% Clorox

for one day, treated again with refreshed 50% Clorox for another day, and then rinsed neutral.

The samples were placed in 0.1 M acetic acid for two to four hours, rinsed neutral, placed in a

freezer for 40 minutes, and then freeze dried. Approximately 3.5 mg of each treated sample was

weighed and then dissolved in a 0.5 mL 3 M HNO3 solution. The samples were loaded onto a

Teflon column (washed four times) and the elute strontium (Sr) was placed in a 4 mL autosampler vial to be run in a Nu Plasma HR multicollector ICP-mass spectrometer.

Mass bias correction was done by internal normalization (assumed 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194).

Small interferences by Kr and Rb required corrections to be made (Alyssa Shiel, personal communication 2012). The results were normalized using analyses of NIST SRM-987 with an estimated precision of ± 0.00003 (Alyssa Shiel, personal communication 2012).These techniques were selected due to their common acceptance in the scientific community (Alyssa Shiel, personal communication 2012).

The results of these isotopic tests will allow for full isotopic analyses of the Turpin population. The carbon and nitrogen results will provide information on plant and meat consumption. The strontium results will illuminate the place of origin of the individuals sampled.

Furthermore, the application of all the isotopic results will provide a more complete picture of the Turpin population in terms of agricultural presence and migration patterns.

Statistical and Computational Analyses

The program used for statistical analyses was SPSS 20.0. Each group (sex, age, and

paleopathology) was coded accordingly. Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances was used to

compare each group’s į13C, G15N, and 87Sr/86Sr values in order to determine the normal distributions and homogeneity. Group statistics and independent t-tests were performed to determine the relationship between the isotopic values and groups. A Welch’s t-test was used for

G15N values and sex. A one-way ANOVA was used for the į13C and G15N values and paleopathological groups. Microsoft Excel 2010 was used to create graphs and calculate linear regressions and correlation coefficients.

Chapter 6: Analytical Results of Stable Isotope Values

In this chapter I analyze results for į13C and G15N values obtained from the Fort Ancient Turpin

Phase individuals’ bone collagen, fluoride ion content measurements of cortical bone, and

87Sr/86Sr ratios of human tooth enamel (raw data for each individual are provided in Appendix

D). The purpose of these analyses is to determine patterns of diet between age groups, sexes, and paleopathologies, changes through time, and mobility. The results should indicate if selective availability of food resources was present among any of these groups. In the case of paleopathologies, where a host of dietary deficiencies can exacerbate diseases and other problems, it is reasonable to assume that dietary differences would have occurred among individuals with paleopathologies relative to individuals without paleopathologies. Charts, tables, and graphs are provided that show the relationships among isotope measurements and sex, age, and paleopathologies.

Statistical Analysis of į13C Values for Age, Sex, and Paleopathological Groups

Carbon isotope results are listed in Table 11. Descriptive statistics for į13C values of age, sex, and paleopathologies are provided in Table 12. The variances for the age groups (adolescent and adult) are not significantly different (F = 0.122, p > 0.05). There is no significant difference in mean į13C values between adolescents and adults (t[48] = 0.166, p > 0.05). For the sex groups

(male and female), the variances are equal (F = 0.041, p > 0.05). No significant difference in

į13C values is apparent between males and females (t[46] = 0.896, p > 0.05). Finally, the variances between the non-paleopathological and paleopathological individuals are not

significantly different (F = 0.728, p > 0.05), and there is no significant difference in į13C values between these two groups (t[48] = -0.007, p > 0.05).

Sample į13C Sample į13C Sample į13C Sample į13C Number Value (‰) Number Value (‰) Number Value (‰) Number Value (‰) 1 -9.7 14 -10.3 27 -8.1 40 -9.3 2 -10.6 15 -10.4 28 -9.6 41 -8.6 3 -10.2 16 -9.1 29 -12.9 42 -8.6 4 -9.1 17 -13.4 30 -9.5 43 -9.4 5 -12.2 18 -8.3 31 -9.7 44 -9.1 6 -9.1 19 -10.0 32 -11.0 45 -9.7 7 -9.0 20 -11.4 33 -9.7 46 -8.7 8 -9.9 21 -10.4 34 -9.7 47 -11.1 9 -9.8 22 -10.9 35 -9.7 48 -9.8 10 -9.6 23 -9.6 36 -9.5 49 -8.5 11 -10.2 24 -9.5 37 -10.3 50 -9.1 12 -9.8 25 -11.9 38 -9.8 13 -11.1 26 -12.3 39 -9.5

Table 11. į13C values by sample.

Group N Mean į13C Value (‰) ± 1 SD 0 to 14 Years 5 -9.9 ± 1.4 15 to 64 Years 45 -9.9 ± 1.1 Female 23 -10.2 ± 1.0 Male 25 -9.9 ± 1.3 Paleopathological 26 -10.0 ± 1.0 Non-paleopathological 24 -10.0 ± 1.3

13 Table 12. Mean į C value ± 1 SD for each group.

In addition to the statistics, I used the equation by Schwarcz et al. (1985:189) presented in

Chapter 1, to calculate the percentage of C4 plants in the diet for these individuals. On average, the sampled individuals consumed roughly 68% maize, with a range of approximately 48 to 79% maize composition.

Statistical Analysis of G15N Values for Age, Sex, and Paleopathological Groups

The G15N values are provided in Table 13. Descriptive statistics were prepared for G15N values of age, sex, and paleopathologies (Table 14). Variances do not differ among age groups (F = 0.666, p > 0.05). Mean G15N values also do not differ (t[48] = 1.297, p > 0.05). The variances for the non-paleopathological and pathological groups are equal (F = 1.509, p > 0.05), with no significant differences in the mean G15N values between these two groups (t[48] = 1.822, p >

0.05).

Sample G15N Sample G15N Sample G15N Sample G15N Number Value (‰) Number Value (‰) Number Value (‰) Number Value (‰) 1 7.6 14 8.3 27 8.4 40 9.2 2 7.2 15 7.1 28 9.5 41 9.5 3 9.0 16 9.3 29 9.0 42 8.6 4 8.9 17 8.2 30 10.1 43 9.6 5 8.9 18 6.6 31 9.0 44 9.2 6 7.6 19 7.3 32 8.3 45 9.5 7 8.6 20 9.2 33 9.3 46 7.8 8 9.6 21 7.8 34 8.6 47 9.0 9 6.8 22 8.0 35 9.4 48 8.3 10 8.4 23 8.6 36 9.8 49 8.6 11 8.7 24 9.1 37 8.2 50 8.9 12 8.3 25 8.1 38 8.8 13 9.0 26 8.3 39 8.3

15 Table 13. G N values by sample.

Group N Mean G15N Values (‰) ± 1 SD 0 to 14 Year 5 9.0 ± 1.0 15 to 64 Year 45 8.5 ± 0.8 Female 23 8.1 ± 0.8 Male 25 8.9 ± 0.5 Paleopathological 26 8.8 ± 0.6 Non-paleopathological 24 8.4 ± 0.9

Table 14. Mean G15N value ± 1 SD for each group.

Nitrogen isotope values for the two sexes exhibit unequal variances (F = 0.041, p < 0.05).

Therefore, a Welch’s t-test was performed to compare G15N values between these two groups.

There is a statistically significant difference between men and women (Welch t[35.67] = 4.285, p

< 0.01), where men have significantly higher G15N values than women.

Relative Fluoride Analysis

The recorded fluoride value for each sample is provided in Table 15. Values range from 249.6 to

288.2 ppm. Figure 5 shows the relative chronology based on the fluoride values. This figure shows that the majority of the individuals died at approximately the same time. Two individuals

(samples 2 and 16) had identical fluoride content (270.7 ppm), suggesting they were buried at the same time.

Sample Fluoride Content (ppm) Sample Fluoride Content (ppm)

1 257.1 26 276.0 2 270.7 27 270.3 3 262.9 28 275.4 4 275.9 29 272.7 5 265.7 30 267.4 6 275.3 31 263.0 7 271.8 32 260.2 8 274.8 33 273.7 9 275.0 34 273.5 10 271.4 35 266.0 11 274.8 36 274.7 12 276.9 37 264.9 13 274.3 38 277.0 14 271.7 39 268.0 15 269.2 40 267.1 16 270.7 41 265.2 17 275.1 42 258.0 18 279.6 43 262.3 19 279.3 44 273.4 20 281.0 45 273.9 21 276.6 46 271.1 22 279.4 47 249.6 23 276.1 48 272.3 24 268.1 49 288.2 25 270.1 50 283.7

Table 15. Relative fluoride content by sample.

. t n e t n o c

e d i r o u l f

e v i t a l e r

y b

r e b m u n

e l p m a S

. 5

e r u g i F

A linear regression of the į13C values versus fluoride content (y = 0.0083x – 12.239, r2 = 0.0026, p > 0.05) shows no increase in į13C values through time (Figure 6). Furthermore, the correlation coefficient of the į13C values versus fluoride content is -0.05, indicating a very weak negative linear relationship.

-6.00

-7.00 -8.00

-9.00 ) ‰ (

-10.00 e u l a V

-11.00 C 3 1

-12.00 į -13.00 -14.00 -15.00 288.0 283.0 278.0 273.0 268.0 263.0 258.0 253.0 248.0 Fluoride Content (ppm)

Figure 6. į13C value and relative fluoride content.

Similar to the į13C and fluoride content comparisons, the G15N values, when plotted in order of fluoride content, also show no change through time (Figure 7). The linear regression (y

= 0.0172x + 13.248, r2 = 0.0235, p > 0.05) also indicates no increase of G15N values through time.

11.00

10.00

9.00 ) ‰ (

e u l

8.00 a V

N 5 1

7.00 G

6.00

5.00 288.0 283.0 278.0 273.0 268.0 263.0 258.0 253.0 248.0 Fluoride Content (ppm)

Figure 7. G15N value and relative fluoride content.

Statistical Analysis of Stable Isotope Values for Paleopathologies

Figure 8 presents isotope values for individuals exhibiting various types of paleopathologies and

Table 16 presents summary statistics of į13C and G15N values for each paleopathological category. One-way ANOVAs indicate that there are no significant differences among paleopathological groups for į13C (F[5, 44] = 0.118, p > 0.05) or G15N (F[5, 44] = 1.387, p >

0.05).

11.00 Arthritic/degenerative

10.00 Inflammatory

9.00 Tuberculosis e u l a V

5 Arthritic/degenerative 8.00 1 G and inflammatory

Hip dysplasia 7.00

No paleopathology 6.00 -14.00 -13.00 -12.00 -11.00 -10.00 -9.00 -8.00 -7.00 -6.00 į13C Value

Figure 8. į13C and G15N values for individuals exhibiting various paleopathologies.

Paleopathological Number of Mean į13C value Mean G15N value category individuals ± 1 SD ± 1 SD Arthritic/degenerative 17 -9.9 ± 0.9 8.8 ± 0.6 process Inflammatory process 5 -10.3 ± 1.3 8.8 ± 0.4 Tuberculosis 2 -10.2 ± 0.6 7.9 ± 1.1 Arthritic/degenerative 1 -9.9 9.6 process and inflammatory process Hip dysplasia 1 -9.8 8.6 No paleopathology 24 -9.9 ± 1.3 8.4 ± 0.9

13 15 Table 16. Summary statistics for į C and G N values for each paleopathological category.

Summary isotopic data for individuals with and without carious lesions are presented in Table

17. The į13C and G15N values were also plotted with their presence of carious lesions (Figure 9).

Regardless of the presence of caries, there is no significant difference in į13C values (t[48] =

0.473, p > 0.05). Nitrogen isotope values are also not affected by the presence of caries (t[48] = -

0.517, p > 0.05). Finally, there is only a minimal difference in relative fluoride content between individuals with and without carious (t[48] = -2.009, p = 0.05).

Presence of Number of į13C mean G15N mean Relative Fluoride caries individuals value (‰) value (‰) Content (ppm) ± 1 SD ± 1 SD ± 1 SD Yes 29 -9.9 ± 1.1 8.5 ± 0.7 269.776 ± 7.4 No 21 -10.1 ± 1.2 8.7 ± 0.8 273.695 ± 5.8

13 15 Table 17. Mean į C, G N, and relative fluoride content values by presence of caries.

11.00

10.00

9.00 ) ‰

(

e Caries u l a

V 8.00 No caries N 5 1 G

7.00

6.00 -14.00 -13.00 -12.00 -11.00 -10.00 -9.00 -8.00 -7.00 -6.00

į13C Value (‰)

Figure 9. į13C and G15N values of the samples by presence of caries.

However, there are differences in relative fluoride content among paleopathological (combing all

paleopathologies) and non-paleopathological individuals (t[39.47] = -2.195, p < 0.05).

Paleopathological individuals have lower fluoride content than non-paleopathological individuals

(Table 18).

Group N Relative Fluoride Content (ppm) ± 1 SD Paleopathological 26 269.4 ± 8.3 Non-paleopathological 24 273.6 ± 4.6

Table 18. Mean relative fluoride content for paleopathological and non-paleopathological individuals.

Strontium Analysis of Human Tooth Enamel

Strontium analysis was conducted on the enamel of 50 teeth from humans and 5 teeth from

small-bodied mammals (data provided in Table 19). Descriptive statistics are provided in Table

20. The variances for the age groups (adolescent and adult) are not statistically different (F =

0.005, p > 0.05). There is no significant difference in mean strontium ratios between adolescents

and adults (t[48] = 0.112, p > 0.05). Similarly, the variances for the sex groups are equal (F =

3.560, p > 0.05) and there is no difference in strontium ratios between males and females (t[46] =

1.187, p > 0.05). Finally, the variances between the non-paleopathological and paleopathological individuals are not significantly different (F = 0.731, p > 0.05), and there is no significant difference in strontium ratios between these two groups (t[48] = 0.244, p > 0.05).

87 86 87 86 87 86 87 86 Sample Sr/ Sr Sample Sr/ Sr Sample Sr/ Sr Sample Sr/ Sr Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio 1 0.70935 15 0.71032 29 0.70982 43 0.71039 2 0.70975 16 0.70973 30 0.70983 44 0.70983 3 0.70963 17 0.70969 31 0.71026 45 0.70948 4 0.71069 18 0.70979 32 0.71000 46 0.71090 5 0.70991 19 0.71035 33 0.71032 47 0.71275 6 0.70961 20 0.71346 34 0.71004 48 0.70963 7 0.70969 21 0.71032 35 0.70991 49 0.70987 8 0.70994 22 0.70985 36 0.70983 50 0.70970 9 0.70946 23 0.71032 37 0.71181 51 (raccoon) 0.71001 10 0.71016 24 0.71092 38 0.70990 52 (raccoon) 0.71184 11 0.71047 25 0.70981 39 0.70986 53 (porcupine) 0.71031 12 0.71065 26 0.70974 40 0.70981 54 (opossum) 0.71091 13 0.71250 27 0.70977 41 0.70991 55 (raccoon) 0.71058 14 0.70965 28 0.70999 42 0.71084

Table 19. 87Sr/86Sr ratio by sample.

Group N Mean 87Sr/86Sr Ratio ± 1 SD 0 to 14 Years 5 0.71024 ± 0.00061 15 to 64 Years 45 0.71020 ± 0.00085 Female 23 0.71037 ± 0.00103 Male 25 0.71008 ± 0.00061 Paleopathological 26 0.71023 ± 0.00019 Non-paleopathological 24 0.71017 ± 0.00013

Table 20. Mean 87Sr/86Sr ratio for each group.

A linear regression for the 87Sr/86Sr values (y = 0.00002x + 0.7146, r2 = 0.0189, p > 0.05) shows no pattern in 87Sr/86Sr values through time (Figure 10).

0.71400

0.71300 o i t

0.71200 a R

r S 6 8 / 0.71100 r S 7 8

0.71000

87 86 0.70900 288.0 283.0 278.0 273.0Table 268.021. Sr/263.0Sr ratios258.0 by sample.253.0 248.0 243.0 FigureRelative 10. 87Sr/ Fluoride86Sr ratio Content and relative (ppm) fluoride content.

To determine outliers among the Turpin individuals, two standard deviations from the

mean value for the faunal control samples was calculated (Beehr 2011). One of the faunal

controls, sample 52, was removed from the mean calculation due to this sample being outside the

2 standard deviations from the mean for the other control samples. The human samples were

ordered according to their sample number and their respective 87Sr/86Sr ratios were plotted: the

gray area signifies the standard deviation of the control group’s range (Figure 11). When the

samples were compared to the control group, four individuals (sample numbers 13, 20, 37, and

47) were determined to be outliers. Three of which are females and one male, all 35 years or

older.

When 87Sr/86Sr ratios are plotted against į13C values or G15N values, the four strontium outliers fall within the average range of the į13C values and G15N values for the population

(Figures 12 and 13). Despite the fact that control sample 52 is an outlier, it is possible that the

87Sr/86Sr ratio for this individual represents natural variation at Turpin. This possibility seems likely considering raccoons have small home ranges (Gehrt and Fritzell 1998). I, therefore, also calculated mean and standard deviation bars including this control sample. This range is represented by the dotted line in Figure 11. Using this range, only one human (sample 20) is an outlier. This individual is a female aged 35 to 44.

. p u o r g

l o r t n o c

e h t

h t i w

t n e t n o c

e d i r o u l f

e v i t a l e r

d n a

s o i t a r

r S 6 8 / r S 7 8

. 1 1

e r u g i F

-6.00

-7.00

-8.00

) -9.00 ‰ (

e -10.00 u l a V

-11.00 C 3

1 į -12.00

-13.00

-14.00

-15.00 0.70900 0.71000 0.71100 0.71200 0.71300 0.71400 87Sr/86Sr Ratio

Figure 12. į13C values and 87Sr/86Sr ratios.

11.00

10.50

10.00

9.50

e 9.00 u l a V

8.50 N 5 1

G 8.00

7.50

7.00

6.50

6.00 0.70900 0.71000 0.71100 0.71200 0.71300 0.71400 87Sr/86Sr Ratio

Figure 13. G15N values and 87Sr/86Sr ratios.

Chapter 7: Discussion

The following chapter discusses the isotopic results. The statistical analyses and isotope values will elucidate potential dietary intake. Human behavioral ecology will be incorporated in the explanation of the dietary changes between the Late Woodland, specifically Newtown Phase and the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase populations. Furthermore, discussion of the strontium isotopes will help determine any migration patterns.

į13C Values as Diet Indicators

Only a handful of the plants that have been identified through archaeobotany in the Ohio Valley area are C4 (pigweed, maize, amaranth, Indian chickweed, nimblewill, panic grass, and purslane). Two C4 plants were discovered in Paleoindian period contexts: grass (identifiable to the Gramineae family level) and pigweed (Dalbey 2007; Smith and Mocas 1995). Woodland period sites revealed maize as the only C4 plant in the archaeobotanical record (Blosser 1996;

Hawkins 1996; Reidhead 1976, 1981). Prehistoric Fort Ancient period sites had amaranth, maize, grass (identified at the Gramineae family level), Indian chickweed, nimblewill, panic grass, and purslane (Martin 2009; Reidhead 1976, 1981; Oehler 1973; Vickery et al. 2000). Protohistoric

Fort Ancient sites, which are sites occupied prior to European contact, contained maize, grass, panic grass, and pigweed (Drooker 1997; Hanson 1966; Henderson and Pollack 1992a, 1992b;

Henderson and Turnbow 1987; Pollack and Jobe 1992; Rossen 1992). Maize was discovered in the botanical remains at Turpin (Oehler 1973), indicating the presence of maize in the Late

Woodland Newtown Phase and Fort Ancient Turpin Phase time periods.

Comparing į13C values for the Turpin Phase samples from this study with Greenlee’s

(2002) Late Woodland Turpin samples indicate an increase in maize consumption over time

(Figure 14). To avoid any confusion, six samples overlapped between my study and those of

Greenlee’s (2002) samples. However, reported į13C values for four of these individuals differ from those measured for my samples (catalog numbers 151, 155, 213, and 231). This difference could be explained by standard error however, two of the samples are grossly different. For the samples that are significantly different, Greenlee (2002) reported these individuals as Late

Woodland in her study and only Fort Ancient individuals were sampled in my study. This issue is most likely due to catalog number reporting issues.

Although Greenlee’s (2002) samples do not have relative fluoride content measurements, they are placed prior to the samples of my study because they are from the earlier dated Late

Woodland period. As the typical į13C measurements for significant maize consumption is approximately -14‰, the Late Woodland samples show that maize was not consumed regularly.

Maize was a more prominent component of the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase diet at Turpin. By using the aforementioned equation from Schwarcz et al. (1985), the overall į13C values from the samples clearly indicate maize in the diet for these Fort Ancient Turpin Phase residents, thus supporting maize agriculture. The Fort Ancient Turpin Phase individuals were, on average, consuming roughly 68% maize, whereas Greenlee’s (2002) Late Woodland individuals range from 5.1 to 75.1%. The two distinct groups among Greenlee’s (2002) samples range from 5.1 to

8.2%, averaging 6.1%, and 56.5 to 75.1%, averaging 65.5%.

-6.0

-8.0

-10.0

) ‰ (

-12.0 e u l Greenlee's a -14.0 V

samples C 3 1

į -16.0 My samples

-18.0

-20.0

-22.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Samples

Figure 14. į13C values Greenlee’s (2002) Late Woodland samples with my samples.

This pattern suggests that as the Turpin population grew in size and became more sedentary through time, a stable dietary resource in the form of maize agriculture was necessary.

Human behavioral ecology states that the benefit of choosing an alternative food source through the employment of maize was a higher caloric input with a lower caloric output. Boserup (1965) postulated that population growth would have pressured a population to develop new technology.

This technology, for the Turpin population, was agriculture.

G15N Values as Diet Indicators

Nitrogen isotope values for collagen from the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase inhabitants (6.6 to

10.1‰) either fall below the expected value for carnivores (10‰) or coincide with this value. As discussed in Chapter 1, the cutoff for a primarily plant-based diet for G15N is approximately 5‰.

The Turpin samples are only slightly higher than this upper limit. These values suggest that a

mixture of plant and animal matter was consumed by the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase inhabitants

at Turpin.

However, the G15N values show an interesting pattern between the sexes where females

did not consume the same amount of meat protein as men. Men consuming more meat protein

while hunting could explain the differential meat consumption between females and males. Men

likely consumed more meat because they require a higher caloric intake (Rolls et al. 1991).

Although pregnant women require a higher calorie diet than women who are not pregnant

(Fowles 2006), they do not require as many calories as men. Additionally, pregnant and lactating

women have lower G15N values than other individuals (Fuller et al. 2004). Therefore, the interpretation that men were eating more meat than women is the most likely explanation.

In addition to caloric requirements, another possibility in explaining the difference in

G15N values between men and women is a differentiation in social status. As populations increase in size, they become more sedentary in order support maize agriculture, resulting in increased social inequality (Gould 1982; Keeley 1988; Kelly 1992; Price and Brown 1985). Unequal access to meat might have been a result of such social stratification. This theory also applies to the segregation of women from hunting groups composed of men. If women were seen as providing a more domestic purpose and therefore excluded from public activities typically associated with men, then it is plausible they were ascribed a lower status, resulting in unequal access to some foods.

Paleopathologies and Agriculture

Two opposing theories regarding agriculture and health are (1) the adoption of agriculture has a

negative impact on health (Alfonso et al. 2007; Cohen 1989; Cohen and Armelagos 1984) and

(2) agriculture has had a positive effect on the population’s health including mortality, life

expectancy, and fertility (Alfonso et al. 2007; Benfer 1990; Buikstra et al. 1986). The most

suggestive skeletal paleopathology for the introduction of maize consumption is carious lesions

(Cook 2007; Griffin 1967; Krigbaum 2007; Larsen et al. 2007; Perzigian et al. 1984). Maize is a

starchy carbohydrate that wears down teeth making them more susceptible to lesions (Krigbaum

2007). Among the sampled Fort Ancient Turpin Phase population, Tench’s (1983) notes indicate

that caries were present in 58.0% of the individuals whereas the entire population had a

frequency of carious lesions at 31.6%. This evidence, coupled with measured į13C values, supports the presence of starchy carbohydrates, in this case maize, in the diet. Unfortunately, the data provided by Greenlee (2002) for her Late Woodland Turpin samples were unable to be matched up with data in the Turpin database and therefore, the frequency of caries between Late

Woodland and Fort Ancient individuals cannot be determined. However, there is a marginally significant increase in caries over time for my samples along with the frequency of paleopathologies among individuals.

The lack of a difference in nitrogen isotope values between paleopathological individuals and non-paleopathological individuals revealed that, irrespective of the level of illness, the same amount of protein and plants were being consumed. A possible explanation for the non- paleopathological and paleopathological individuals exhibiting no difference in stable isotopic values is the osteological paradox. This paradox explains that although individuals might not display pathological bone, this interpretation does not exclude the possibility that they were not

ill (Wood et al. 1992). Three subgroups exist in populations. The first is a healthy group, the

second is a group overcome by stresses (due to illness or other reasons) that succumbs to disease

prior to any development of bone lesions, and the third is a stressed group that survives long

enough for bone lesions to form (Wood et al. 1992).

Two of these subgroups can be distinguished in an archaeological context: one group that

has no bone lesions and one group displaying bone lesions (Wood et al. 1992). Any individuals

that die before a disease reaches the bones will not be detected and are typically

indistinguishable from the healthy portion of the population. Furthermore, an increase in skeletal

lesions of the same type among an entire population suggests a higher probability of the

prevalence of the disease associated with those lesions in the overall population (Wood et al.

1992). This notion would then explain why a larger number of individuals would not display

skeletal evidence of contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis, in their bones.

Tuberculosis has been previously diagnosed among the Turpin population, including two

of my sampled individuals, sample numbers 2 and 38 (Perzigian and Widmer 1979; Tench

1983). As tuberculosis is a highly communicable disease it is possible that several more

individuals at Turpin contracted the disease but died before it could manifest in the bone. The

fact that G15N values do not differ between paleopathological and non-paleopathological

individuals may indicate that more of these individuals were ill than can be detected on the basis

of lesions alone. Individuals undergoing prolonged stress typically exhibit elevated G15N values reflecting negative nitrogen balance and catabolism of existing proteins from the body

(Katzenberg and Lovell 1999). It is possible that the Turpin population had a higher rate of tuberculosis than found in the skeletal remains, which may explain the lack of statistical difference in G15N values between the paleopathological and non-pathological groups. A larger

sample size could help clarify if differences do, indeed, exist among pathological and non-

pathological individuals.

87Sr/86Sr Isotope Ratios and Migration

Based on the local animals sampled and bedrock geology, most of the Turpin site individuals were likely local. However, one to four individuals may have migrated from elsewhere. The bedrock model of Beard and Johnson (2000) indicates that the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of Ohio range from

0.707318 to 0.710136. Bataille and Bowen (2012) also determined similar 87Sr/86Sr ratios for

Ohio ranging from 0.709 to 0.711. To further narrow down areas of origin, I modified the Local

Water Map produced by Bataille and Bowen (2012). The majority of the Turpin samples, deemed local individuals, have 87Sr/86Sr between 0.709 and 0.711. This range is found in the western half of Ohio (including Turpin), Iowa, and other sporadic areas across the continental

United States (Figure 15). Three of the four outliers have 87Sr/86Sr ratios between 0.711 and

0.713. These 87Sr/86Sr ratios are found in the southern parts of Texas, western California, the

Dakotas, and several other large areas (Figure 15).

The last outlying sample has a 87Sr/86Sr ratio between 0.713 and 0.715. This range is restricted to smaller areas of the inland states including parts of Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Michigan,

Minnesota, Montana, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Figure 15 shows the areas with the range of the local 87Sr/86Sr ratios, those of the three outlying individuals, and those of the remaining outlier. However, only the individual with the most extreme strontium ratio (sample 20) is an outlier if all control samples are included. The areas where sample 20 could have originated are, for the most part, outside of Mississippian cultural area. Exceptions include the small areas in

Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The probability of the outliers being from

Mississippian areas will be discussed further below.

87Sr/86Sr ratios from 0.709 to 0.711 (local Turpin samples)

87Sr/86Sr ratios from 0.711 to 0.713 (samples 13, 37, and 47)

87Sr/86Sr ratios from 0.713 to 0.715 (sample 20)

Figure 15. Map of 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Turpin samples.

Adapted from Bataille and Bowen (2012).

All of the Turpin samples, except for the four outliers, are within the range determined

from Utica Mounds and the Hopewell Mound Group (Beehr 2011). However, five individuals

did not fall within the range of Albany Mounds, including the four outliers and sample 24. Utica

Mounds and Albany Mounds are both located in Illinois and part of the Hopewell Interaction

Sphere during the Middle Woodland period (Beehr 2011). However, these sites also fall within

the Mississippian cultural area.

The Mississippian cultural area, when compared to the maps of Bataille and Bowen

(2012), has 87Sr/86Sr ratios ranging from 0.707 to 0.720. This range fully encompasses the

87Sr/86Sr ratios of the sampled Turpin population, including the outlying samples. Though areas across the continental United States have similar 87Sr/86Sr to the sampled individuals determined to be outliers, the archaeological evidence suggests that migration from a Mississippian cultural group is likely, even for sample 20.

Artifacts of the Mississippian style or influence suggest that communication through trade was present during the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase period. Strontium data further indicate that travel or migration among localities occurred. This particular insight gives credence to the probability that cultural groups exchanged more than just goods and ideas. They integrated outside individuals into their communities.

Chapter 8: Conclusion

While maize appears in the Ohio River Valley approximately 2,000 years ago, it was not a significant part of the diet until the increase in human population during a Late Newtown Phase

Woodland and Fort Ancient Turpin Phase transition. Here I have used stable carbon, nitrogen, and strontium isotopes to investigate the dietary composition and mobility patterns of the Turpin site population. In combination with the theoretical framework of human behavioral ecology, the isotopic evidence indicates a significant increase in the consumption of maize between the Late

Woodland and Fort Ancient inhabitants. Human behavioral ecology provided the explanation of population pressure selection to support a decrease in mobility. Population pressure results in a change of technology, such as agriculture. As a group becomes larger, a more reliable food source is needed in order to optimize labor efficiency. Agriculture feeds a growing population and provides a storable food.

Stable carbon isotopes and the presence of caries indicate that maize agriculture was a dietary staple among the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase inhabitants of the Turpin site. There is a substantial increase in the consumption of maize between the Late Woodland Newtown Phase and Fort Ancient Turpin Phase populations. This evidence supports Boserup’s (1965) idea that a growing population resulted in an increased dependence on agriculture. Although agriculture requires a reduction in mobility, G15N values indicate meat was still being consumed during the

Turpin Phase. While maize consumption was ubiquitous in the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase population, the consumption of meat varied by sex. Men ate more meat either as a result of consuming it while hunting or a differentiation in social status, or both.

I had expected that the G15N values for paleopathological individuals would be slightly elevated due to the body’s reaction to disease. However, the individuals with debilitating paleopathologies do not have significantly elevated G15N values. This evidence suggests that either disease were communicative rather than dietary based or that G15N values are not a good proxy of pathological disease. Diseases like arthritis do not result from dietary deficiencies and therefore, are not a direct result of an increase in reliance of maize. Alternatively, malnutrition, which affects respiratory infections and immune development, may be a predictor of tuberculosis

(Jaganath and Mupere 2012). Muscle wasting has been found in individuals with tuberculosis, which in turn is associated with higher morbidity and mortality rates (Macallan 1999). However, the nitrogen isotope data do not indicate wasting or malnutrition in the individuals diagnosed with tuberculosis.

Contemporary non-Fort Ancient cultural groups such as Oliver, Oneoto, and

Mississippian, lived in the greater Ohio River Valley region. Connections among those cultural groups likely provided trade networks, the exchange of marriage partners, or the seizing of captives during warfare. A few Mississippian and Mississippian-style artifacts were recovered from the Fort Ancient Turpin Phase stratum of the Turpin site, suggesting trade with

Mississippian populations. The strontium isotope data also confirm that a few individuals may not have been born in the area.

Future research regarding Fort Ancient diet, agriculture, and skeletal paleopathologies will help elucidate our understanding of Fort Ancient people by providing a holistic picture of their livelihood. Additional isotopic studies of the Turpin site would be beneficial because of the large skeletal population and the presence of tuberculosis in North American prehistory and specifically the Turpin site. Further research of the Late Woodland population would also be

77 useful for determining whether the development of maize agriculture was either gradual or abrupt, if there are associated changes in nitrogen isotope values, if pathologies are similar among these two cultural groups and periods, and if they were similarly sedentary.

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Appendix A: Paleobotany of the Ohio Valley Region

Paleoindian (9500 B.C. to 8000 B.C.) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway American Prunus americana C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) plum American Platanus Smith and C3 Paddy's West sycamore occidentalis Mocas (1995) Lepper (1994) Manning Site Lepper and Cummings Ash Fraxinus sp. C3 (1993) Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Spadie Collins (1979) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Bedstraw Galium sp. C3 Maple Creek Vickery (1976) Longworth Beech Fagus grandifolia C3 Collins (1979) Gick Birch Betula sp. C3 Spadie Collins (1979) Black cherry Prunus serotina C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Bullskin Creek Vickery (2008) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Longworth Collins (1979) Gick Lepper (1994) Lepper and Black walnut Juglans nigra C3 Manning Site Cummings (1993) Maple Creek Vickery (1976) Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Spadie Collins (1979) Rubus Blackberry C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) allegheniensis Vaccinium Blueberry C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) highbush

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Paleoindian (9500 B.C. to 8000 B.C.) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Bullskin Creek Vickery (2008) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Longworth Collins (1979) Butternut Juglans cinerea C3 Gick Maple Creek Vickery (1976) Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Cane Arundinaria sp. C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Lepper (1994) Cedar Juniperus sp. C3 Manning Site Lepper and Cummings (1993) Smith and Cherry Prunus sp. C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Chokecherry Prunus virginiana C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Smith and Conifer Pinophyta div. C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Elderberry Sambucus sp. C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Elm Ulmus sp. C3 Spadie Collins (1979) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Goosefoot Chenopodium sp. C3 Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Longworth Collins (1979) Gick Grape Vitis sp. C3 Maple Creek Vickery (1976) Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Grass Gramineae fam. C3 and C4 Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Hackberry Celtis occidentalis C3 Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995)

106

Paleoindian (9500 B.C. to 8000 B.C.) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Smith and Hawthorn Crataegus sp. C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Hazelnut Corylus sp. C3 Bullskin Creek Vickery (2008) Longworth Hemlock Tsuga sp. C3 Collins (1979) Gick Bullskin Creek Vickery (2008) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Longworth Collins (1979) Gick Lepper (1994) Lepper and Hickory Carya sp. C3 Manning Site Cummings (1993) Maple Creek Vickery (2008) Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Spadie Collins (1979) Gleditsia Honey locust C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) triacanthos Kentucky Gymnocladus Smith and C3 Paddy's West coffeetree dioicus Mocas (1995) Knotweed Polygonum sp. C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Smith and Maple Acer sp. C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Phalaris Smith and Maygrass C3 Paddy's West caroliniana Mocas (1995) Smith and Mulberry Morus sp. C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Bullskin Creek Vickery (2008) DuPont Dalbey (2007) Longworth Collins (1979) Gick Oak Quercus sp. C3 Maple Creek Vickery (1976) Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Spadie Collins (1979)

107

Paleoindian (9500 B.C. to 8000 B.C.) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Paw paw Asimina triloba C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Diospyros Longworth Persimmon C3 Collins (1979) virginiana Gick DuPont Dalbey (2007) Pigweed Amaranthus sp. C4 Smith and Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Prunus DuPont Dalbey (2007) Pin cherry C3 pensylvanica Maple Creek Vickery (1976) Lepper (1994) Poplar Populus sp. C3 Manning Site Lepper and Cummings (1993) Smith and Ragweed Ambrosia sp. C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Juniperus Longworth Red cedar C3 Collins (1979) virginiana Gick Sedge Cyperaceae fam. C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Smith and Slippery elm Ulmus rubra C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Smith and Smooth sumac Rhus glabra C3 Paddy's West Mocas (1995) Tankersley Big Bone Lick (1985, 2007) Lepper (1994) Spruce Picea sp. C3 Manning Site Lepper and Cummings (1993) Bullskin Creek Vickery (2008) Wild bean Strophostyles sp. C3 DuPont Dalbey (2007) Longworth Yew Taxaceae fam. C3 Collins (1979) Gick

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Woodland (1000 B.C. to A.D. 900/1000) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway American Reidhead (1976, Prunus americana C3 Leonard Haag plum 1981) Reidhead (1976, Bedstraw Galium sp. C3 Leonard Haag 1981) Black locust Robinia sp. C3 Turner Greber (2003) Arrowhead Mocas (1976) Farm Jennison Black walnut Juglans nigra C3 Blosser (1996) Guard Villier Collins (1979) Rubus Reidhead (1976, Blackberry C3 Leonard Haag allegheniensis 1981) Jennison Copperleaf Acalypha sp. C3 Blosser (1996) Guard Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Reidhead (1976, Leonard Haag Corn Zea mays C4 1981) Miami Fort (Twin Hawkins (1996) Mounds) Hansen Ahler (1987) Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Reidhead (1976, Goosefoot Chenopodium sp. C3 Leonard Haag 1981) Miami Fort (Twin Hawkins (1996) Mounds) Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Reidhead (1976, Leonard Haag Grape Vitis sp. C3 1981) Turner Greber (2003) Villier Collins (1979) Jennison Groundnut Apios americana C3 Blosser (1996) Guard

109

Woodland (1000 B.C. to A.D. 900/1000) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Hackberry Celtis occidentalis C3 Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Hawthorn Crataegus sp. C3 Haag 1981) Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Hazelnut Corylus sp. C3 Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Arrowhead Mocas (1976) Farm Hansen Ahler (1987) Jennison Blosser (1996) Hickory Carya sp. C3 Guard Miami Fort (Twin Hawkins (1996) Mounds) Villier Collins (1979) Jennison Blosser (1996) Gleditsia Guard Honey locust C3 triacanthos Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Hansen Ahler (1987) Jennison Blosser (1996) Knotweed Polygonum sp. C3 Guard Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Maple Acer sp. C3 Turner Greber (2003) Marsh elder Iva ciliata C3 Hansen Ahler (1987) Hansen Ahler (1987) Phalaris Maygrass C3 caroliniana Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Mulberry Morus sp. C3 Turner Greber (2003)

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Woodland (1000 B.C. to A.D. 900/1000) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Leonard Reidhead (1976, Oak Quercus sp. C3 Haag 1981) Turner Greber (2003) Villier Collins (1979) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Paw paw Asimina triloba C3 Haag 1981) Phytolacca Leonard Reidhead (1976, Pokeweed C3 americana Haag 1981) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Shrub Viburnum sp. C3 Haag 1981) Slippery elm Ulmus rubra C3 Turner Greber (2003) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Smooth sumac Rhus glabra C3 Haag 1981) Hansen Ahler (1987) Squash Cucurbita pepo C3 Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Sumpweed Iva sp. C3 Haag 1981) Jennison Blosser (1996) Guard Sunflower Helianthus annuus C3 Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Tobacco Nicotiana sp. C3 Haag 1981) Hansen Ahler (1987) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Walnut Juglans sp. C3 Haag 1981) Miami Fort (Twin Hawkins (1996) Mounds) Jennison Wild bean Strophostyles sp. C3 Blosser (1996) Guard Jennison Wild onion Allium cernuum C3 Blosser (1996) Guard

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Prehistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1000/1050 to A.D. 1400/1450) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Sunwatch Amaranth Amaranthus sp. C4 Martin (2009) Wildcat American Leonard Reidhead (1976, Prunus americana C3 plum Haag 1981) Barnyard grass Echinochloa sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Vickery et al. Bedstraw Galium sp. C3 State Line (2000) Sunwatch Martin (2009) Wildcat Vickery et al. Black locust Robinia sp. C3 State Line (2000) Vickery et al. Black walnut Juglans nigra C3 State Line (2000) Rubus Leonard Reidhead (1976, Blackberry C3 allegheniensis Haag 1981) Blackberry/ Sunwatch Rubus sp. C3 Martin (2009) Raspberry Wildcat Vaccinium Blueberry C3 Wildcat Martin (2009) corymbosum Vickery et al. Butternut Juglans cinerea C3 State Line (2000) Vickery et al. Cane Arundinaria sp. C3 State Line (2000) Chenopod Chenopodium sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Vickery et al. Chokecherry Prunus virginiana C3 State Line (2000) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Vickery et al. State Line Corn Zea mays C4 (2000) Sunwatch Martin (2009) Turpin Oehler (1973) Wildcat Martin (2009)

112

Prehistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1000/1050 to A.D. 1400/1450) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Flowering Cornus florida C3 Wildcat Martin (2009) dogwood Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Goosefoot Chenopodium sp. C3 Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Vickery et al. Grape Vitis sp. C3 State Line (2000) Sunwatch Martin (2009) Wildcat Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Grass Gramineae fam. C3 and C4 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Wildcat Ground cherry Physalis sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Sunwatch Celtis sp. Martin (2009) Wildcat Hackberry C3 Leonard Reidhead (1976, Celtis occidentalis Haag 1981) Sunwatch Martin (2009) Hawthorn Crataegus sp. C3 Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Hazelnut Corylus sp. C3 Haag 1981) Heal-all Prunella sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Vickery et al. Hickory Carya sp. C3 State Line (2000) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Gleditsia Haag 1981) Honey locust C3 triacanthos Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Indian C3-C4 Vickery et al. Mollugo sp. State Line chickweed intermediate (2000)

113

Prehistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1000/1050 to A.D. 1400/1450) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Jewelweed Impatiens biflora C3 Wildcat Martin (2009) Sunwatch Martin (2009) Wildcat Leonard Reidhead (1976, Knotweed Polygonum sp. C3 Haag 1981) Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Sunwatch Little barley Hordeum pusillum C3 Martin (2009) Wildcat Wildcat Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Phalaris Maygrass C3 Haag 1981) caroliniana Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Passiflora Maypops C3 Wildcat Martin (2009) incarnata Sunwatch Nightshade Solanum nigrum C3 Martin (2009) Wildcat Muhlenbergia Nimble will C4 Wildcat Martin (2009) schreberi Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Oak Quercus sp. C3 Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Ohio buckeye Aesculus glabra C3 Turpin Oehler (1973) Panic grass Panicum sp. C3 and C4 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Paw paw Asimina triloba C3 Haag 1981) Wildcat Martin (2009) Sunwatch Pea Fabaceae fam. C3 Martin (2009) Wildcat Penny cress Thlaspi arvense C3 Wildcat Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Phytolacca Pokeweed C3 Haag 1981) americana Sunwatch Martin (2009)

114

Prehistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1000/1050 to A.D. 1400/1450) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Vickery et al. Poppy Papaver dubium C3 State Line (2000) Vickery et al. Purslane Portulaca sp. C4 State Line (2000) Rattlebox Crotalaria sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Shrub Viburnum sp. C3 Haag 1981) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Smooth sumac Rhus glabra C3 Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Spurge Euphorbia sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Squash Cucurbita pepo C3 Vickery et al. State Line (2000) Sunwatch Sumac Rhus sp. C3 Martin (2009) Wildcat Leonard Reidhead (1976, Sumpweed Iva annua C3 Haag 1981) Wildcat Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Vickery et al. Sunflower Helianthus sp. C3 State Line (2000) Sunwatch Martin (2009) Wildcat Tick-trefoil Desmodium sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Leonard Reidhead (1976, Haag 1981) Tobacco Nicotiana sp. C3 Sunwatch Martin (2009) Wildcat Sunwatch Verbena Verbena sp. C3 Martin (2009) Wildcat

115

Prehistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1000/1050 to A.D. 1400/1450) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Vickery et al. Violet Viola sp. C3 State Line (2000) Virginia Vickery et al. Parthenocissus sp. C3 State Line creeper (2000) Leonard Reidhead Walnut Juglans sp. C3 Haag (1976, 1981) Sunwatch Wild bean Strophostyles sp. C3 Martin (2009) Wildcat Witch-hazel Hamamelis sp. C3 Wildcat Martin (2009) Vickery et al. Wood sorrel Oxalis stricta C3 State Line (2000)

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack (1992a, Lower 1992b) Shawnee Henderson and American Castanea dentata C3 Town Turnbow chestnut Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Madisonville Drooker (1997) American Prunus americana C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997) plum

116

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack (1992a, American Lower 1992b) Platanus occidentalis C3 sycamore Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Madisonville Drooker (1997) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack (1992a, Lower 1992b) Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Ash Fraxinus sp. C3 Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Madisonville Drooker (1997) Rossen (1992) Snag Creek Pollack and Jobe (1992)

117

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, 1992b) Shawnee Aster Aster sp. C3 Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Bedstraw Galium sp. C3 Pollack Lower (1992a, 1992b) Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Madisonville Drooker (1997) Beech Fagus grandifolia C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997)

118

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack (1992a, Lower 1992b) Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Birch Betula sp. C3 Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack (1992a, Lower 1992b) Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Black locust Robinia sp. C3 Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Black Solanum nigrum C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997) nightshade

119

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack (1992a, Lower 1992b) Black walnut Juglans nigra C3 Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Madisonville Drooker (1997) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Blackberry Rubus allegheniensis C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997) Vaccinium Blueberry C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997) corymbosum Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997) Buckwheat Polygonaceae fam. C3 Madisonville Drooker (1997)

120

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, 1992b) Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Butternut Juglans cinerea C3 Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, 1992b) Shawnee Cane Arundinaria sp. C3 Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Common Phaseolus vulgaris C3 Pollack and bean Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992)

121

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, 1992b) Corn Zea mays C4 Shawnee Henderson and Town Turnbow Complex (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Elderberry Sambucus sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Elm Ulmus sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Erect Drooker Polygonum erectum C3 Madisonville knotweed (1997) Drooker Goosefoot Chenopodium sp. C3 Madisonville (1997)

122

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Grape Vitis sp. C3 Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Grass Gramineae fam. C3 and C4 Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Drooker Hackberry Celtis occidentalis C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Hawthorn Crataegus sp. C3 Madisonville (1997)

123

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Drooker Madisonville (1997) Hazelnut Corylus sp. C3 Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Hickory Carya sp. C3 Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992)

124

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos C3 Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Kentucky Drooker Gymnocladus dioicus C3 Madisonville coffeetree (1997) Drooker Little barley Hordeum pusillum C3 Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Maple Acer sp. C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Maygrass Phalaris caroliniana C3 Madisonville (1997)

125

126

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Oak Quercus sp. C3 Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Panic grass Panicum sp. C3 and C4 Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992)

127

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Paw paw Asimina triloba C3 Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Drooker Persimmon Diospyros virginiana C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Pigweed Amaranthus sp. C4 Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Pine Pinus sp. C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Baby's-breath Drooker Gypsophila sp. C3 Madisonville (Pink) (1997)

128

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Pokeweed Phytolacca americana C3 Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Pondweed Potamogeton sp. C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992)

129

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Poplar Populus sp. C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Purslane Portulaca sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Raspberry Rubus. sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Red oak Quercus rubra C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Rush Juncaceae sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Sedge Cyperaceae sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Shrub Viburnum sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Slippery elm Ulmus rubra C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992)

130

131

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Squash Cucurbita pepo C3 Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Madisonville (1997) Pollack and Snag Creek Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Henderson and Turnbow (1987) Augusta Turnbow and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Hanson (1966) Henderson Sumac Rhus sp. C3 and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker Sunflower Helianthus annuus C3 Madisonville (1997) Drooker Tobacco Nicotiana sp. C3 Madisonville (1997)

132

Protohistoric Fort Ancient (A.D. 1400/1450 to A.D. 1650/1750) Common Scientific Photosynthetic Site Reference Name Nomenclature Pathway Drooker Vervain Verbena sp. C3 Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) White ash Fraxinus americana C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992) Drooker White oak Quercus alba C3 Madisonville (1997) Hanson (1966) Henderson and Pollack Lower (1992a, Shawnee 1992b) Wild bean Strophostyles sp. C3 Town Henderson Complex and Turnbow (1987) Pollack and Jobe (1992) Rossen (1992)

133

Appendix B: Faunal Remains of the Ohio Valley Region

Species marked with the reference “1946-1949 excavations” were remains found in the faunal assemblages at the Geier Research Center, which were recovered during the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History’s excavations. This list does include all of the possible animal species from the Turpin Site, but is more of an overarching faunal assemblage of the Fort Ancient period.

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Arcuate pearly Epioblasma Snag Creek Mollusc Call (1992) mussel flexuosa Thompson Bass Centrarchidae fam. Fish Thompson Breitburg (1992) Augusta Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) Beaver Castor canadensis Mammal Thompson Turpin Oehler (1973) Augusta Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Black bear Ursus americanus Mammal Snag Creek Thompson Turpin Oehler (1973) Black Fox Farm Ligumia recta Mollusc Call (1992) sandshell Thompson Bobcat Lynx rufus Mammal Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Bobwhite Colinus Bird Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) quail virginianus Augusta Fox Farm Box turtle Terrapene carolina Reptile Breitburg (1992) Snag Creek Thompson Snag Creek Butterfly Plagiola lineolata Mollusc Call (1992) Thompson Canada goose Branta canadensis Bird Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) Fox Farm Catfish Ictaluridae fam. Fish Breitburg (1992) Thompson Channel Ictalurus punctatus Fish Augusta Breitburg (1992) catfish Clubshell Pleurobema clava Mollusc Thompson Call (1992)

134

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Fox Farm Corvus Common crow Bird Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) brachyrhynchos Thompson Augusta Common mole Scalopus aquaticus Mammal Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Snag Creek Conch Strombidae fam. Mollusc Turpin Oehler (1973) Augusta Cottontail Sylvilagus Fox Farm Mammal Breitburg (1992) rabbit floridanus Snag Creek Thompson Fox Farm Deer mouse Peromyscus sp. Mammal Breitburg (1992) Thompson Domestic cow Bos taurus Mammal Augusta Breitburg (1992) Snag Creek Domestic dog Canis familiaris Mammal Breitburg (1992) Thompson Domestic pig Sus scrofa Mammal Augusta Breitburg (1992) Downy Dendrocopos Bird Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) woodpecker pubescens Augusta Aplodinotus Fox Farm Drumfish Fish Breitburg (1992) grunniens Snag Creek Thompson Augusta Fox Farm Meleagris Breitburg (1992) Eastern turkey Bird Snag Creek gallopavo Thompson Turpin Oehler (1973) Snag Creek Ebonyshell Fusconaia ebena Mollusc Call (1992) Thompson Elephant ear Elliptio crassidens Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) Augusta Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Elk Cervus canadensis Mammal Snag Creek Thompson Turpin Oehler (1973)

135

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Cyprogenia Fanshell Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) stegaria Lampsilis radiata Fatmucket Mollusc Fox Farm Call (1992) luteola Augusta Fox squirrel Sciurus niger Mammal Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Thompson Fragile Leptodea fragilis Mollusc Fox Farm Call (1992) papershell Augusta Freshwater Pleurobema sp. Mollusc Snag Creek Call (1992) mussel Thompson Freshwater Ptychobranchus Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) mussel fasciolaris Snag Creek Frog Rana sp. Amphibian Breitburg (1992) Thompson Augusta Garfish Lepisosteus sp. Fish Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Thompson Augusta Urocyon Fox Farm Gray fox Mammal Breitburg (1992) cinereoargenteus Snag Creek Thompson Augusta Sciurus Fox Farm Gray squirrel Mammal Breitburg (1992) carolinensis Snag Creek Thompson Accipitriformes Hawk Bird Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) ord. Hickorynut Obovaria olivaria Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) Fusconaia Augusta Long-solid maculata Mollusc Snag Creek Call (1992) maculata Thompson Fox Farm Mallard/Black Anas sp. Bird Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) duck Thompson

136

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Quadrula Mapleleaf Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) quadrula Marginellidae Marginella Mollusc Turpin Oehler (1973) fam. Augusta Oryzomys Fox Farm Marsh rice rat Mammal Breitburg (1992) palustris Snag Creek Thompson Meadow jumping Zapus hudsonius Mammal Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) mouse Mink Mustela vison Mammal Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) Augusta Fox Farm Minnow Cyprinidae fam. Fish Breitburg (1992) Snag Creek Thompson Quadrula Monkeyface Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) metanevra Augusta Actinonaias Fox Farm Mucket ligamentina Mollusc Call (1992) carinata Snag Creek Thompson Muskrat Ondatra zibethica Mammal Thompson Breitburg (1992) Non- Fox Farm poisonous Colubridae fam. Reptile Breitburg (1992) snake Snag Creek Augusta Pleurobema Ohio Pigtoe Mollusc Snag Creek Call (1992) cordatum Thompson Snag Creek Didelphis Breitburg (1992) Opossum Mammal Thompson marsupialis Turpin Oehler (1973) Painted/Map Chrysemys sp./ Augusta Reptile Breitburg (1992) turtle Graptemys sp. Thompson Fox Farm Passenger Ectopistes Bird Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) pigeon migratorius Thompson

137

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Augusta Passeriformes Passerine Bird Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) ord. Thompson Pileated Dryocopus Bird Thompson Breitburg (1992) woodpecker pileatus Quadrula Pimpleback Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) pustulosa Pink Snag Creek Potamilus alatus Mollusc Call (1992) heelsplitter Thompson Pink mucket Lampsilis abrupta Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) Plain Lampsilis Mollusc Fox Farm Call (1992) pocketbook ventricosa Augusta Fox Farm Pocketbook Lampsilis ovata Mollusc Call (1992) Snag Creek Thompson Fox Farm Poisonous Crotalidae fam. Reptile Snag Creek Breitburg (1992) snake Thompson Purple Cyclonaias Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) wartyback tuberculata Quadrula Snag Creek Rabbitsfoot Mollusc Call (1992) cylindrica Thompson Augusta Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Raccoon Procyon lotor Mammal Snag Creek Thompson Turpin Oehler (1973) Augusta Ring pink Obovaria retusa Mollusc Snag Creek Call (1992) Thompson Round Obovaria Fox Farm Mollusc Call (1992) hickorynut subrotunda Thompson Sampson's Epioblasma Snag Creek Mollusc Call (1992) pearly mussel sampsoni Thompson Plethobasus Sheepnose Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) cyphyus

138

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Slough Lampsilis teres Snag Creek Mollusc Call (1992) sandshell teres Thompson Snake Serpentes subord. Reptile Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Snapping Chelydra Reptile Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) turtle serpentina Augusta Softshell Fox Farm Trionyx spiniferus Reptile Breitburg (1992) turtle Snag Creek Thompson Augusta Fox Farm Spike Elliptio dilatata Mollusc Call (1992) Snag Creek Thompson Sternotherus Stinkpot Reptile Thompson Breitburg (1992) odoratus Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis Mammal Fox Farm Breitburg (1992) Augusta Catostomidae Fox Farm Sucker Fish Breitburg (1992) fam. Snag Creek Thompson Threehorn Obliquaria Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) wartyback reflexa Fox Farm Threeridge Amblema plicata Mollusc Call (1992) Thompson Thompson Breitburg (1992) Timber wolf Canis cf. lupus Mammal Turpin Oehler (1973) Toad/Frog sp. Bufo sp./Rana sp. Amphibian Thompson Breitburg (1992) Tubercled Epioblasma Snag Creek Mollusc Call (1992) blossom torulosa torulosa Thompson White Plethobasus Mollusc Thompson Call (1992) wartyback cicatricosus

139

Common Scientific Category Site Reference Name Nomenclature Augusta Fox Farm White-tailed Odocoileus Breitburg (1992) Mammal Snag Creek deer virginianus Thompson Turpin Oehler (1973) Fox Farm Woodchuck Marmota monax Mammal Breitburg (1992) Thompson

140

Appendix C: Turpin Database (continued on following page)

* Denotes sampled individual † Denotes category with information that may have been altered to encompass larger groupings ‡ Denotes category with information that may have been combined for consistency

141

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142

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143

s e t o N

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173

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t t t t t t t t t t t t L o o o o o o o o o o o o N N N N N N N N N N N N

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p p p p t A l u u u u t t t t t r r r r

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r d d d d d d d d d l e e e e e e e e e e a i i i i i i i i i b i f f f f f f f f f r i i i i i i i i i

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a d d d d d d d d d d d n n n n n n n n n n n c

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177

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178

Appendix D: Samples and Stable Isotope Values and Relative Fluoride Content

Relative Sample Burial Catalog į13C Value G15N Value 87Sr/86Sr Fluoride Number Number Number (‰) (‰) Ratio Content 1 1 952/47 -9.7 7.6 0.70935 257.1 2 4 952/50 -10.6 7.2 0.70975 270.7 3 7 952/53 -10.2 9.0 0.70963 262.9 4 10 952/56 -9.1 8.9 0.71069 275.9 5 11 952/57 -12.2 8.9 0.70991 265.7 6 12 952/59 -9.1 7.6 0.70961 275.3 7 18 952/65 -9.0 8.6 0.70969 271.8 8 19 952/66 -9.9 9.6 0.70994 274.8 9 22 952/69 -9.8 6.8 0.70946 275.0 10 23 952/70 -9.6 8.4 0.71016 271.4 11 34 A25.011 -10.2 8.7 0.71047 274.8 12 35 A25.014-061 -9.8 8.3 0.71065 276.9 13 36 A25.013 -11.1 9.0 0.71250 274.3 14 37 A25.015-139 -10.3 8.3 0.70965 271.7 15 43 A25.017 -10.4 7.1 0.71032 269.2 16 44 A25.018 -9.1 9.3 0.70973 270.7 17 45 A25.022 -13.4 8.2 0.70969 275.1 18 46 A25.023 -8.3 6.6 0.70979 279.6 19 48 A25.044 -10.0 7.3 0.71035 279.3 20 51 952/153 -11.4 9.2 0.71346 281.0 21 52 952/155 -10.4 7.8 0.71032 276.6 22 58 952/176 -10.9 8.0 0.70985 279.4 23 59 952/115 -9.6 8.6 0.71032 276.1 24 60 952/119 -9.5 9.1 0.71092 268.1 25 61 952/125 -11.9 8.1 0.70981 270.1 26 63 952/156 -12.3 8.3 0.70974 276.0 27 65 952/152 -8.1 8.4 0.70977 270.3 28 67 952/163 -9.6 9.5 0.70999 275.4 29 69 952/123 -12.9 9.0 0.70982 272.7 30 81 952/143 -9.5 10.1 0.70983 267.4 31 85 952/111 -9.7 9.0 0.71026 263.0 32 88 952/131 -11.0 8.3 0.71000 260.2

179

Relative Sample Burial Catalog į13C Value G15N Value 87Sr/86Sr Fluoride Number Number Number (‰) (‰) Ratio Content 33 89 952/161 -9.7 9.3 0.71032 273.7 34 90 952/102 -9.7 8.6 0.71004 273.5 35 96 952/101 -9.7 9.4 0.70991 266.0 36 98 952/113 -9.5 9.8 0.70983 274.7 37 100 952/128 -10.3 8.2 0.71181 264.9 38 103 952/151 -9.8 8.8 0.70990 277.0 39 108 952/197 -9.5 8.3 0.70986 268.0 40 112 952/200 -9.3 9.2 0.70981 267.1 41 117 952/213 -8.6 9.5 0.70991 265.2 42 122 952/192 -8.6 8.6 0.71084 258.0 43 123 952/212 -9.4 9.6 0.71039 262.3 44 126 952/237 -9.1 9.2 0.70983 273.4 45 127 952/37 -9.7 9.5 0.70948 273.9 46 128 952/222 -8.7 7.8 0.71090 271.1 47 129 952/223 -11.1 9.0 0.71275 249.6 48 134 952/211 -9.8 8.3 0.70963 272.3 49 135 952/231 -8.5 8.6 0.70987 288.2 50 136 952/227 -9.1 8.9 0.70970 283.7 51 676/2971 0.71001 52 676/5847 0.71184 53 676/7995 0.71031 54 676/3050 0.71091 55 676/9331 0.71058

180