Diplomarbeit Titel der Diplomarbeit Sectarian Differences in the Narratives of Lebanese History Textbooks With Special Regard to the Naissance and Early Years of the Lebanese Republic Verfasser Zsolt Sereghy angestrebter akademischer Grad Magister der Philosophie (Mag. phil.) Wien, 2010 Studienkennzahl A385 Studienrichtung Diplomstudium Arabistik Betreuer Univ.- Prof. Dr. Stephan Procházka 1 Drága szüleimnek és nagynénémnek To my parents and my aunt 2 Contents i. Acknowledgements 5 ii. Notes on transliteration 6 iii. Notes on statistical data 7 iv. List of abbreviations 8 v. Preface 10 I. Introduction 13 I.1 Structure and methods 17 I.2. Review of available literature 18 I.3. Notes on terminology 20 II. Background 27 II.1 Lebanon’s communities 28 II.1.1 Religious communities 29 II.1.1.1 Maronite Christians 29 II.1.1.2 Other Christian communities 32 II.1.1.3 Shiʿi Muslims 36 II.1.1.4 Sunni Muslims 41 II.1.1.5 Druze 44 II.1.1.6 Jews 48 II.1.2. Ethnic communities 50 II.1.2.1 Armenians 51 II.1.2.2 Palestinians 53 II.1.3 Lebanon’s confessional system 56 II.2 Lebanon’s educational system 60 II.2.1 Theories of origin 63 II.2.2 Education in the Ottoman era 65 II.2.3 Education in the French mandate era (1920-1943) 72 II.2.4 Education in the first three decades of independence (1943-1975) 81 II.2.5 Education during the Civil War (1975-1990) 85 II.2.6 The Ṭāʾif Agreement and the Educational Reforms of the 1990s 87 II.2.7 Contemporary aspects of language policy 91 III. Textbook analysis 93 III.1 Presentation of material 94 III.1.1 Christian textbook 96 III.1.2 Sunni textbook 99 III.1.3 Shiʿi textbook 101 III.2 Geographic scope 102 III.3 Analysed historical periods 105 III.3.1 World War I and the transitional period (1914-1920) 106 III.3.1.1 Formal aspects 107 III.3.1.2 Ottoman Lebanon 110 III.3.1.3 Emigration 111 3 III.3.1.4 Ottoman measures during the war 113 III.3.1.5 The King-Crane Commission 115 III.3.1.6 International accords shaping Lebanon 118 III.3.2 The French mandate and the State of Greater Lebanon (1920-1926) 122 III.3.2.1 Formal aspects 123 III.3.2.2 The mandate system and its application 125 III.3.2.3 The State of Greater Lebanon 129 III.3.3 The Constitution of 1926 133 III.3.3.1 Formal aspects 133 III.3.3.2 Promulgation and content 135 III.3.4. The Lebanese Republic (1926-1939) 138 III.3.4.1 Formal aspects 138 III.3.4.2 Charles Dabbās’ presidency 139 III.3.4.3 Ḥabīb Bāšā as-Saʿd’s presidency 140 III.3.4.4 Émile Eddé’s presidency and the Franco-Lebanese Treaty of 1936 141 III.3.5 Achieving independence (1939-1943) 146 III.3.5.1 Formal aspects 147 III.3.5.2 World War II and its impact on Lebanon 150 III.3.5.3 The way to independence 150 III.3.5.4 Independence 152 III.3.5.5 Constitutional amendments 152 III.3.5.6 The National Pact 153 III.3.5.7 Aftermath 154 III.3.5.8 In the textbooks 155 IV. Conclusion 157 V. Sources 160 IV.1 Primary sources 160 IV.2 Secondary sources 161 VI. Annex 167 VI.1 LAMMES, Henri : Histoire de la Syrie, précis historique : Table of Contents 168 VI.2 Sample : Christian Textbook 174 VI.3 Sample: Sunni Textbook 175 VI.4 Sample: Shiʿi Textbook 176 Curriculum Vitæ: Zsolt Sereghy 177 Abstract|Kurzfassung 178 4 i. Acknowledgements This diploma thesis was written as the final part of my studies at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Vienna University. During these years and especially by the time of working on this paper, I had the privilege to receive help and support from various quarters in various ways. Hence, my acknowledgement list is a long one indeed. Mein erster Dank is to Dr. Stephan Procházka, professor at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Vienna University. His academic excellence, deep humanity and profound knowledge have always served to me as a standard. Additionally, I also owe him alf šukr for assisting from the alpha to the omega of this paper as my supervisor. Hatalmas hála és köszönet to my beloved parents, Ágota and László Sereghy as well as my dear aunt Ingrid Pennelli for their generous moral and financial support on all levels of my life that has brought me so far. Besides providing me a loving home and a fabulous childhood, they have enabled me to study abroad and broaden my horizon through countless journeys to the Middle East and beyond. I just hope I will be able to return them something from their love and care later in my life. Special thanks to my friend and former flatmate, Jeremy Smith and his friend Elizabeth Macleod who were kind and enthusiastic enough to proofread the text for me. Rav todot to my colleague and friend Alisa Douer for providing me a fabulous working atmosphere, quasi a second home in Vienna. Finding an ideal place was essential for me to perform well by writing this paper. Vielen Dank to the Stiftung Hans and its chairman Dr. Herbert Eisenstein for granting me financial aid that enabled a research-stay at the Georg-Eckert-Institut für Internationale Schulbuchforschung in Brunswick, Germany, where I had the privilege to benefit from the excellent working atmosphere and the abundance of the institute’s magnificent library. Šukran gazīlan to my polyglot friend, Haissam Saeed from the ʿAyn aš-Šams University in Cairo who helped me when I had difficulties with Arabic texts. His linguistic support saved me a lot of time and energy. Merci vielmal to Monika Bollinger from the University of Zurich, Switzerland who provided me helpful advices, literature lists and valuable contacts to my research work. Merci ktīr to Rita Maalouf from the Lebanese Association for Educational Studies (LAES) in Beirut who kindly helped me obtaining some primary and secondary sources for this paper. Ich danke Jonathan Kriener, lecturer at the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany who answered many of my questions concerning Lebanese textbooks and recommended me good addresses for my research in Beirut. Je me remercie my colleague and friend Lea Müller-Funk for her help in the library of the American University of Beirut and for her motivating ideas and cheering company during my research work in Beirut, Lebanon and later in Damascus, Syria in the long summer of 2009. Çok teşekkür ederim to my close friend Dr. Cem Ertay for offering me his Ankara apartment as hideaway to write on this paper. Even though I did not have the time to use the opportunity, I am still very much appreciating this act of friendship. And finally, Danke, köszönöm, šukran, merci and thanks to my family and friends in Europe and the Middle East for standing by my side during the long process of writing on this paper as well as for their interest to my work and my studies in general. 5 ii. Notes on transliteration Arabic words and names appearing in this paper are transliterated according to the rules of the English language edition of Hans Wehr‟s Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic.1 Consequently, tā⁾ marbūṭa ending, commonly transliterated as a final –ah in English, will ـة the feminine appear as a sole –a. The morphemes th, dh, gh, kh, and, sh conventionally used in English to ,and have been replaced by ṯ, ḏ, ġ, ḵ, and š , , ,ذ , represent the Arabic letters respectively, throughout this paper. Geographical names Words of Arabic origin such as geographical names that have found their way into the vocabulary of the English Language has not been transliterated (e.g. Beirut instead of Bayrūt, or Mashreq and not Mašriq). Names of Lebanese localities without direct correspondence in the English Language are referred to as their Romanized spelling based on Hans Wehr‟s oeuvre in addition to the official Standard Lebanese Geographic Name Rules2, For example Zaḥla/Zahlé for the town of ‎in the Biqāʿ/Beqaa Valley. In some rare cases, Ottoman Turkish versions of geographical names occur in the paper. These were transcribed following the practice of the İslam Ansiklopedisi (İA).3 Proper names of foreign origin Especially foreign (i.e. not Arabic) given names will be presented in their original form (e.g. Pierre instead of Biyār or Georges instead of Jūrj), while family names and Arabic given names follow the general rules for the Romanization of the Arabic language mentioned above. However, some Arabic proper names (of mainly historical figures) commonly used in Western literatures and media, and whose spellings are thus becoming standard will retain their commonly Romanised (mainly French influenced) form as they commonly appear in most Western sources. For instance, Cammille Chamoun has not been transliterated as Kāmīl Šamʿūn. 1 Wehr, Hans; Cowan, Milton (ed.): A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Urbana: Spoken Language Services, 1994) 2 Following a conference of Arab experts in geographic naming held in 1971 in Beirut, a special order was published regulating the Romanization of Arabic geographic names in the member states of the Arab League. The so called Beirut paper with its guidelines in compliance with the English and French writing systems was made official with the UN resolution 1972(II/8). For the complete document cf. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/gegn22wp73.pdf (retrieved 01.02.2010).