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Benedict XV's Diplomacy in Greater Syria (S THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA Facing the Emergence of the Modern Middle East: Benedict XV’s Diplomacy in Greater Syria (Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine) 1914-1922 A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Theology and Religious Studies Of The Catholic University of America In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree Doctor of Philosophy © Copyright All Rights Reserved By Agnes Aupepin de Lamothe-Dreuzy Washington, D.C. 2012 Facing the Emergence of the Modern Middle East: Benedict XV’s Diplomacy in Greater Syria (Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine) 1914-1922 Agnes Aupepin de Lamothe-Dreuzy, Ph.D. Director: Jacques M. Gres-Gayer, STD, Ph.D. Pope Benedict XV’s pontificate (1914-1922), misunderstood by his contemporaries and neglected by recent scholarship, coincides with the reshaping of the Middle East, from the beginning of World War One to the assignment of Mandates to France and Britain over Syria and Palestine. This study examines Benedict XV’s diplomacy in Greater Syria. Its unique aspect resides in the combination of two approaches. Benedict’s main priority was to ensure the survival of Christians in the Middle East, providing them with a dynamic ecclesiological structure. The pontiff completed and institutionalized the traditional ecclesiological approach in favor of unionism, with the goal to strengthen the ecclesial structures of the Eastern churches and equip them with solid legal foundations. This ecclesiological approach was integrated in Benedict XV’s global geo-political vision that shifted away from its past Eurocentric vision and was combined with an anticipation of the decolonization era. Benedict completed these guiding principles with a policy of emancipation of the missionary world from the bondage of colonial powers, preparing the Church for an active role in the world. These principles were implemented in Syria- Lebanon, as Benedict XV navigated between the pressure of French imperialism and Prince Feisal’s Arab nationalism, as well as in Palestine, dominated by the tension between Britain and France, the implementation of a Jewish national home, and the proselytizing of Protestant missions. The core of the dissertation, which stands at the confluence of Church history, international politics, and law, rests upon a historically critical evaluation of documents found in the Vatican Secret Archives, the Archives of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, and of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in Rome, Italy. Benedict XV reigned during a decade that shook the world. He witnessed, in Greater Syria, events that had tremendous historical, religious, and political implications for the future of the region and our understanding of the unending turmoil affecting the Middle East a century later. Pope Benedict emerges as a wise pontiff, a skilled geo- politician, well ahead of his time. This dissertation is the first regional study of Pope Benedict’s diplomatic endeavors. This dissertation by Agnes Aupepin de Lamothe-Dreuzy fulfills the dissertation requirement for the doctoral degree in Church History approved by Jacques M. Gres- Gayer, STD, Ph.D., as Director, and by Sidney H. Griffith, STL, PhD., and Charles Morerod, O.P., Ph.D., as Readers. __________________________________________ Jacques Gres-Gayer, STD, Ph.D., Director __________________________________________ Sidney H. Griffith, STL, Ph.D., Reader __________________________________________ Charles Morerod, O.P., Ph.D., Reader __________________________________________ Wilhelmus Valkenberg, Ph.D. ii CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……………………………………………. vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………… viii INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………. 1 1. BENEDICT XV, POPE OF PEACE ……………………………… 19 The Road to the Chair of Peter Benedict XV, the Universal Pope Benedict XV, the Peace Maker Benedict XV, the Realist Diplomat PART I IN SEARCH OF A NEW COMPASS: VATICAN PROTECTION OF CATHOLIC INTERESTS IN PRE-WAR AND WAR-TIME (September 1914 – December 1917) 2. PRE-WAR PROTECTION OF CATHOLICS: FROM DHIMMITUDE TO CIVIL EQUALITY ……………………….. 47 Status and Organization of Eastern Christians in Muslim Land Christians under Religious Protectorates Abolition of Capitulations and Future of French Protectorate 3. VATICAN WAR-TIME FOREIGN POLICY: INTEGRATING DIPLOMACY AND ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY ……………… 84 Rome and Constantinople in Diplomatic Negotiations: The Future of the French Protectorate Constantinople and the Russian Equation Ecclesiastical Diplomacy and Unionist Ecclesiology iii 4. WAR-TIME DIPLOMATIC PROTECTION OF CATHOLIC CLERGY AND PROPERTY ……………………………………… 131 Confiscation of Catholic Property Expulsion and Persecution of Catholic Clergy Assessment: The Disintegration of the Catholic Religious and Cultural Network 5. HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE: BENEDICT XV’S FRONTLINE DIPLOMACY …………………………………………………….. 169 Catholic Humanitarian Assistance: A Phantom? Benedict XV: “Benefactor of the People” The American Near East Relief and the Accusations of Discrimination against Catholics PART II ADJUSTING TO NEW GEO-POLITICAL REALITIES: POST WAR PROTECTION OF CATHOLIC INTERESTS (December 1917 – January 1922) 6. THE HOLY SEE AND THE POST-WAR WORLD ORDER …… 201 The Holy See at the Center of the Diplomatic World Mandate System: Concealed Colonization? The Holy See’s Policy of Emancipation 7. THE HOLY SEE BETWEEN FRENCH IMPERIALISM AND ARAB NATIONALISM IN SYRIA ……………………………… 233 The Holy See and Arab Nationalism The Holy See, France, and Syria’s Struggle for Independence A Christian State: Greater Lebanon iv 8. THE HOLY SEE AND THE BRITISH MANDATE IN PALESTINE: ZIONISM AND PROTESTANTISM …………………………….. 266 Who Shall Control Palestine? Benedict XV and Zionism: Break or Continuity? The Protestant Conquest: A Mighty Danger to Catholic Future 9. CONCLUSION …………………………………………………… 308 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………. 317 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This journey started ten years ago when Fr. Gres-Gayer and Fr. Komonchak welcomed me with open arms at the Catholic University of America. I am forever grateful for their caring guidance and friendship. After an unfortunate hiatus in the writing of the dissertation, I found a new stamina thanks to the encouraging support of my dear friends Dr. Gretchen Reydams-Schils, Professor of Philosophy at Notre Dame University, Fr. Leo Lefebure, Professor of Theology at Georgetown University, and Dr. Donna Orsuto, Professor at the Institute of Spirituality of the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. Without their unwavering support, care, and friendship, this dissertation would have never been completed. I am especially indebted to Fr. Leo’s insights and his challenging me to always think further. I also owe a special debt of gratitude to Dr. Orsuto who hosted me at the Lay Centre at Foyer Unitas in Rome, allowing me to write most of this dissertation in a heavenly environment. They remain trusted mentors, friends, and models of sound and demanding scholarship. It is also with deep gratitude that I will remember my readers, Fr. Griffith and Bishop Morerod. I wish to thank especially Dr. Valkenberg for accepting to become a committee member on very short notice. This dissertation was able to take shape when I traveled to Rome and spent exciting weeks in the Vatican Secret Archives, the archives of the Sacred Congregation “de Propaganda Fide,” and those of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. I would like to thank especially Dr. Gianpaolo Rigotti for his patience with my broken Italian and vi his tremendous help in navigating through the Archives of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. I am forever indebted to Bishop Morerod whose friendship, sharp wit, and kindness brightened my days in the Eternal City. While in Rome, it was also my privilege to meet with Fr. Carlo Pioppi, Professor of Church History at the Pontifical University of the Holy Cross, whose spiritual support was invaluable. “A friend is someone who knows the song in your heart and can sing it back to you when you have forgotten the words,” wrote C.S. Lewis. Through good health and illness, through joy and sadness, along this journey I have been supported by my dearest friends, Fr. Thomas Longua, Eugenie Cabot, Maika Fowler, Anne-Elisabeth Giuliani, Jill Kalinski, Solveig Loretz, and Clare Wilde. I am grateful beyond words. Maybe one day they will find the time to read this dissertation! I dedicate this work to my husband Philippe and my children Olivia and Pierre. They are my pillars and my inspiration. vii ABBREVIATIONS ACCO Archivio della Congregazione per le Chiese Orientali AAS Acta Apostolicae Sedis AES Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari AP, N.S Archivio della S. Congregazione “de Propaganda Fide,” Nuova Serie Arch. Deleg. Archivio Delegazioni Apostoliche Arch. Nunz. Archivio Nunziatura ASS Acta Sanctae Sedis ASV Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Vatican Secret Archives) CRFJ Centre de Recherche Français de Jerusalem FO Foreign Office (G.B) KCB Knight Commander (Order of Bath) KCMG Knight Commander (Order of St. Michael and St. George) NASB New American Standard Bible Segr. Stato Segretaria di Stato viii INTRODUCTION RETHINKING BENEDICT XV’S CONTRIBUTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS If the successor of Gregory and Innocent is not to-day the monarch of monarchs, the dispenser of crowns, the distributor of continents and oceans, he still personifies the greatest moral force of the world … If he is not a sovereign, for lack of territory, he is still treated as a sovereign … However, he does not have to make war.1 Had Pope Benedict XV read these lines, written in 1896
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