Geosite of a Steep Lava Spatter Cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah Eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Cent. Eur. J. Geosci. • 5(2) • 2013 • 189-195 DOI: 10.2478/s13533-012-0123-x

Central European Journal of Geosciences

Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Communication

M.R. Moufti1, K. Németh1,2, H. Murcia3, J.M Lindsay3, N. El-Masry1

1 Geological Hazard Research Unit, Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 2 Volcanic Risk Solutions, CS-INR, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand 3 School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Received 23 December 2012; accepted 15 February 2013

Abstract: UNESCO promotes geoconservation through various programs intended to establish an inventory of geologically and geomorphologically significant features worldwide that can serve as an important database to understand the Earth’s global geoheritage. An ultimate goal of such projects globally is to establish geoparks that represent an integrated network of knowledge transfer opportunities, based on a specific array of geological and geomorphological sites able to graphically demonstrate how the Earth works to the general public. In these complex geoconservation and geoeducational programs, the identification of significant geological and geomorphological features is very important. These are commonly referred to as ‘geosites’ or ‘geomorphosites’, depending on whether the feature or processes the site demonstrates is more geological or geomorphological, respectively. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is an extraordinary place due to its arid climate and therefore perfect exposures of rock formations. The Kingdom is also home to extensive volcanic fields, named “harrats” in Arabic, referring particu- larly to the black, basaltic lava fields that dominate the desert landscape. Current efforts to increase awareness of the importance of these volcanic fields in the geological landscape of Arabia culminated in the first proposal to in- corporate the superbly exposed volcanic features into an integrated geoconservation and geoeducation program that will hopefully lead to the development of a geopark named, “The Harrat Al Madinah Volcanic Geopark” [1]. Here we describe one of the extraordinary features of the proposed Harrat Al Madinah Volcanic Geopark, namely a steep lava spatter cone formed during a historical eruption in 1256 AD. Keywords: monogenetic volcanic field • scoria cone • lava fountain • lava flow • lava spatter • geotourism • geoheritage © Versita sp. z o.o.

1. Geological Setting

in extensive volcanic fields at the surface (Fig. 1A) [2–9]. This typical intra-continental volcanism formed thick piles of sheet-like basaltic lava flows with associated networks The Saudi Arabian intraplate basaltic volcanic fields are of shield and fissure fed volcanoes, as well as more sili- located in the western margin of the Arabian Peninsula, cic lava domes ranging in composition from mugearite to forming a broad zone parallel to the Red Sea Rift which trachyte [9]. One of the largest volcanic fields is named has been active over the last 30 Ma [2]. During the last Harrat Rahat (Fig. 1A), the northern and youngest seg- 30 Ma, the complex tectonic history of the area resulted in ment of which is called Harrat Al Madinah, located near a geodynamic environment in which mantle-derived melts the holy city of Al Madinah (Fig. 1A). Harrat Al Madi- fed various types of magmatism that manifest primarily 189 Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

nah, or the Al Madinah Volcanic Field, hosts numerous and diverse volcanic landforms. Due to the almost to- tal absence of vegetation, the features, consequently, are very well-exposed. Because of this, they could provide perfect volcanic geosites to study nearly unmodified volcanic landforms inferred to represent syn-eruptive volcanic morphology of monogenetic volcanoes as defined else- where [10]. The Al Madinah Volcanic Field hosts at least 500 basaltic scoria and lava spatter cones associated with rubbly [11] and/or slabby [12] pahoehoe in the vicinity of the vents (about 2-km from the vents in most cases) that gradually transform to transitional pahoehoe-to-a’a lava flows [13, 14]. Toothpaste flows [15, 16], as tran- Figure 1. A) Harrats of the Arabian Peninsula. The presented sitional pahoehoe-to-a’a type lava flows, are also com- Geosite location is shown as a star on the map. B) Aerial view from the SW to NE of the AD 1256 historic Al Madi- mon. The volcanic cones are, in most cases, complex nah eruption site. Volcanic cones are shown on the image. and aligned along fissures forming elongated lava spatter The described geosite is the third cone from the south, lo- cones and voluminous scoria cones, many with multiple cated at 24°20’ 45.46” N; 39°46’ 30.61” E. Close to cone 1 is a convenient car parking area; from there, it is an easy craters and nested crater rims. They provide a unique op- 600 m walk (one way) along the marked path (dotted line), portunity to study the numerous features formed due to which can take visitors to the geosite. lava fountaining, lava lake infill and drainage, scoria and lava spatter cone collapse and rafting as well as cyclic lava spattering along the axis of eruptive fissures. The Al Madinah Volcanic Field offers numerous potential volcanic geosites [17] that can increase our understanding of the basis to developing geoconservational, geoeducational Hawaiian and Strombolian-style volcanic eruptions form- and geotouristic programs. The smallest unit in such sys- ing scoria/cinder and lava spatter cones (Fig. 1B). The tems is the geosite [20–23] or geomorphosite [24–26] re- volcanic field hosts the two youngest volcanic eruption flecting the nature of the feature classified (e.g., of geosites of the Arabian Peninsula, both of which are located logical or geomorphological importance). In this respect, near the city of Al Madinah. An early eruption took place geosites or geomorphosites are normally single/simple ge- in 641 AD, southwest of the city and formed four small vol- ologically and/or geomorphologically important features canic cones aligned NNW-SSE [18]. A younger and his- unique in representativeness, scientific interest, rarity, torically documented eruption took place at the southern landscape value and educational value; moreover, they edge of the city in 1256 AD [6, 18] leaving behind at least are relatively easy to access [25, 27, 28]. In this pa- seven volcanic cones aligned NNE-SSW (Fig. 1B). This per, therefore, we understand geosites as the core features eruption lastedWafa 52 daysAl-Wafa with Bi’Akhbar distinct eruptive Dar Al-Mustafa episodes of any geoeducational, geoconservation and geoheritage lasting hoursNooruddin to days, Ali and Bin was Ahmed described Al-Samhoodi briefly in an programs. Arabic book “ ” written by [19]. Following the above outlined logical argument a specific This description documents small earthquakes felt locally geological phenomenon can normally be comprised of nu- prior to the main eruption event that followed a widely merous geosites. For instance, a volcanic cone can poten- felt and relatively strong earthquake a day before. tially host numerous geosites that individually fulfill the 2. Geosites – Geotop - Geopark selection/identification criteria to define it as a geosite as mentioned above. Such groups of geosites are commonly defined as a specific geotop, following a similar concept as ecologists apply for biological features. The geotop is therefore a complex and internally consistent From the geoconservation, geoeducation and geotouris- set of geological features identified that fulfill the repre- tic point of view, geological (and geomorphological) fea- sentativeness, scientific interest, rarity, landscape value tures can be classified with respect to their representa- and educational value of the feature in a higher and more tiveness, scientific interest, rarity, landscape value, educa- complex way than as a single/simple geosite. Specifically tional value and accessibility. Such distinction naturally applicable to volcanic regions, a geotop could be a small creates a system from the simplest geological and geomor- volume monogenetic volcano altogether with its distinct phological features to more complex systems that can form geological features [29]. 190 M.R. Moufti, K. Németh, H. Murcia, J.M Lindsay, N. El-Masry

The above outlined separation and definition of geosites and geotops seems simple, but there are still great dif- ficulties and debates to follow an internally consistent and externally uniform approach to identify geosites and geotops that carry similar meaning for everyone. Com- monly, geosites and geotops are used as interchangeable terms and/or they evolve with each other as a reflection on either the evolution of the scientific knowledge of the phe- nomena and/or the knowledge level of the general public. Here we define a specific volcanic geosite part of a volcanic geotop of the recently proposed Harrat Al Madinah Volcanic Geopark [17]. We also provide geological evidence to demonstrate that the proposed geosite is unique enough to be labelled as a geosite. At this stage in this report we focus on the geological and geomorphological aspects to define the proposed geosite without analyzing its more complex aspects including its biological, ecolog- ical or cultural value. 3. The 1256 AD Al Madinah Volcanic Eruption Geotop

Today the volcanic nature of the landscape near Al Madi- Figure 2. A) A striking view of the three volcanic cones of the AD nah city is∼ evident. An easy drive to the south from the city 1256 Al Madinah historic eruption site. Note the varia- of Al Madinah can take the visitor to the 1256 AD eruption tions in slope angle and compare with the visible surface texture of the cone edifices. 30-33 degree slope angles site. The 20 km long complex lava flow field is dominated corresponds well with the angle of repose of loose granu- by proximal rubbly pahoehoe (with a well developed tube lar scoriaceous coarse ash and lapilli forming cones 2 and 4, while the presented geosite (cone 3) is strikingly steeper network in near vent positions) to distal (and steep mor- due to the agglutination and coalescence of lava spatter phological step-related) a’a lava flows emitted towards the forming its edifice. B) View of the geosite from the south shows that dynamic lava spattering played a major role in North. From this location, the flows terminate very close the growth of this cone. Arrows mark the extent of the lava to the southernmost runway of the Al Madinah airport. spatter collar draping the cone. Circle marks a person in The source of the 1256 AD1256 eruption AD Al Madinah is a 2.3 Volcanic km-long front of the lava spatter cone geosite. fissure-alignedEruption Geotop chain of seven volcanic cones that have been proposed to form the “ ”. These cones vary in volume, height, base diameter, and crater width with the northernmost cone being the most complex in terms of cone collapse, provided the perfect physical conditions to accumulate py- cone flank rafting, and evidence of lava lake infill and roclasts that coalesced together, forming an increasingly drainage (Fig. 1B). Each of the volcanic cones show evi- steepening cone morphology at the eruption site of the dence for crater floor subsidence, crater wall collapse, and 1256 AD Al Madinah Volcanic Eruption Geotop. some degree of rafting of the cone’s outer flank through 4. Proposed Geosite lower cone flank lava outbreaks. This suggests that the craters of these cones were filled with lava lakes and that their eruptions were largely dominated by Hawaiian-style lava fountaining and Strombolian-style explosive erup- The proposed geosite [24°20’45.53”N; 39°46’30.55”E] is tions. Lava fountains accumulated lava spatters along the the third distinct cone (Fig. 1B; 2) of the 1256 AD Al active vents, providing hot material to form agglutinate Madinah Volcanic Eruption Geotop. South of the pro- that commonly fed clastogenic lava flows. Most impor- posed geosite is cone 2 which is a volumetrically small tantly, the high heat from the lava lakes stored in the (about 40 m above base level) cone with a relatively small broad and elongated craters of the cones and the heat (about 25 m wide) but enclosed crater with a steep crater retention of the fast accumulating pyroclasts on the flank wall. The crater rim of cone 2 is partially covered by lava 191 Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

spatter that forms an erosion resistant collar around the crater rim. The base of the cone is more granular and composed of highly vesicular scoria. A large scoria cone (cone 4) emerges North of the proposed geosite and about 100 m from the base level, forming a dominant landform that is partially open towards the North. The crater of cone 4 hosts a complex pit crater with lava spatter ram- parts. Cone 4 is dominated by loose scoriaceous ash and lapilli that is littered by some fluidal volcanic bombs at its lower flanks and some agglutinate horizons in its crater Figure 3. A) View to the crater of the proposed lava spatter geosite. rim. Note the debris fan feeding lapilli and bombs from the outer flank of cone 4 (black, dotted arrow). The elon- The proposed geosite is located between cones 2 and 4 gated crater consists of two sub-craters (C1, C2). The in- (Fig. 1B) and shows different morphology in comparison ner crater wall is steep and consists of collapsed blocks of lava and lava spatter agglutinate benches. Within the cir- with cones 2 and 4. It has a very steep slope angle, cle are people for scale. B) View towards the South along being almost 60 degrees along the crater rim and over the chain of cones showing Cone 1 and Cone 2. The in- 35 degrees at its base (Fig. 2A). These slope angles are ner crater wall of Cone 3 is composed of agglutinated lava spatter that forms a near perpendicular edifice at the tip of higher than the angle of repose of any granular mate- the cone. rial and account for the agglutination and coalescence of individual pyroclasts on the flank of the growing lava spatter cone to maintain these slope angle values (Fig. 2B). The crater rim is about 30 metres above its base (Fig. 2B & 3A). It hosts a crater (about 20 m deep) with a vertical and degradation is a long standing research subject in wall and numerous draped lava tongues (dm-wide, twisted volcanology [30–34]. In the past decade an increasing and folded solidified lava) forming lava benches over col- number of scientific works have addressed research ques- lapsed crater wall sections (Fig. 3A), indicating that the tions about scoria cone degradation. Various approaches crater was once filled with a lava lake that changed its have been suggested to define and measure volcanic cone level numerous times. The crater itself is fissure-aligned dimensions [10, 35–42]. These methods advocate measur- (following the same NNE-SSW orientation as the entire ing cone morphometric parameters to generate discrimi- 1256 AD vents alignment) and is about 100 m long and nation diagrams, as well as using volcanic slope angles 40 m wide (Fig. 3C). It seems that there are two dis- as a key physical parameter to indicate typical erosion tinct craters associated with this volcano (Fig. 3A) that paths and relative erosional trends over time for scoria are partially covered by eruptive products from the more cones (on a scale of up to millions of years). Recently northernmost scoria cone (cone 4). A debris fan grad- new researches have pointed out the importance of under- ually feeds rounded, degassed and non-vesicularhuman scalelapilli standing the link between syn-eruptive volcanic processes, and bombs into the crater from the southern flank of cone 4 syn-eruptive geomorphology and post-eruptive erosional (Fig. 3A). The proposed geosite is a perfect “ ” trends [10, 43, 44]. These studies have identified that the location that can be accessed easily by a ca. 10 minute eruption style hugely determines the initial (syn-eruptive) walk (600 m) from a parking area (e.g., it can be accessed volcanic morphology of a small-volume volcanic cone, and from the main road that connects Al Madinah city and its future erosion path is strongly dependent on these Mahd ad-Dahab), passing cones 1 and 2 that are differ- startingsensu stricto volcanic dimensions and architecture. It seems ent in morphology in comparison to the proposed geosite that many of the cones previously viewed as scoria cones (Fig. 1B). Cone 1 is a broad volcanic cone composed of lava “ ” (i.e., erupted through Strombolian-style ex- spatter with a crater occupied by lava flow while cone 2 is plosive eruptions producing coarse ash to lapilli size gran- a more regular shape cone with low slope angle (Fig. 3B). ular pyroclasts) are, in fact, complex volcanoes that are Cone 4 is a more voluminous (Fig. 3A) complex cone that in many cases dominated by lava fountain eruptions that produced a substantial amount of volcanic ash and lapilli produce lapilli to bomb-sized hot pyroclasts that generate forming an ash-plain around its edifice while in its crater agglutinated assemblages of pyroclasts, especially along a complex nested pit crater and associate spatter rampart the crater rim (Fig. 2B) as well as the proximal inner and can be seen. outer flanks of the growing cones. Volcanic cones domi- Beside the aesthetic value of the landscape (Fig. 2B) nated by lava fountain eruptions are exclusively built up and its perfect preservation, the site is also scientifi- by lava spatter layers [45]. These products gradually build cally significant. Understanding of scoria cone growth up a steep, stable and erosion-resistant volcanic edifice 192 M.R. Moufti, K. Németh, H. Murcia, J.M Lindsay, N. El-Masry

lava lake formation, Strombolian-style explosive eruptions, pahoehoe-to-a’a lava effusion, transition, flow infla- tion/deflation/ponding and the influence of syn-eruptive architecture of such volcanoes on the post-eruptive erosion. The proposed geosite can serve as an important part of other geosites associated with the 1256 AD Al Madinah Eruption Geotop, as part of a current project to establish the first volcanic geopark (Harrat Al Madinah Volcanic Geopark) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [17]. Acknowledgements

Figure 4. Steep sided lava spatter cone along a major ﬁssure eruption side [24°18’20.76”N; 39°50’34.76”E], inferred to be Vo Ri Sa Quatenary in age. Note the agglutinated lava spatters and the steep outer ﬂank of the cone. Similar steep lava spatter This report is based on research results of the King Abdu- cones are common landforms of the Al Madinah Volcanic laziz University’s lcanic sk in udi Arabia (VORiSA) Field. project. Critical comments from Journal reviewers made this note more valuable. References

(Fig. 2B), which is strikinglyclassical different from a loose scoria lapilli-and-ash dominated pyroclast edifice. Scoria ash- [1] Moufti M.R., Németh K., The establishment of a vol- and lapilli-dominated “ ” Strombolian-style scoria canic geopark in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Al cones therefore represent a different type of volcanic ed- Madinah Volcanic Geopark. Basalt 2013 - Sencken- starting ifice to lava spatter-dominated cones, and therefore their berg Scientific Conference [24 - 28 April 2013, Go- syn-eruptive volcanic morphology is also expected to be erlitz, Germany], 2013, Oral Presentation different [43, 44]. As a result, the “ ” edifice mor- [2] CampJournal V.E., of Geophysical Roobol M.J., Upwelling Research-Solid asthenosphere Earth be- phology and architecture exposed to post-eruptive erosion neath Western Arabia and its regional implications. is different, and directly related to the dominant eruption , 1992, style that formed these cones [43]. The proposed steep 97, 15255-15271 lava spatter cone geosite at the 1256 AD Al Madinah Vol- [3] Camp V.E., Roobol M.J., The ArabianGeological Continental Soci- Al- canic Eruption Geotop provides a graphic example to show kaliety of Basalt America Province Bulletin .1. Evolution Of Harrat-Rahat, classical the difference between syn-eruptive cone morphology of Rahat, Kingdom-Of-Saudi-Arabia. a beautifully preserved lava spatter-dominated cone and , 1989, 101, 71-95 “ ” scoria cone morphologies in general (Figs 2A [4] Camp V.E., Roobol M.J., Hooper P.R., The Arabian & B), highlighting the scientific and educational values Continental AlkaliGeological Basalt SocietyProvince of .2. America Evolution Bul- of of the proposed geosite. In addition, the proposed lava Harratsletin Khaybar, Ithnayn, and Kura, Kingdom of spatter cone is probably among the steepest large lava Saudi-Arabia. spatter cones on Earth which makes it unique both locally , 1991, 103, 363-391 and globally and justifies it to be listed as a geosite. [5] Camp V.E., Roobol M.J., Hooper P.R., TheGeological Arabian While similar steep lava spatter cones are common in the ContinentalSociety of America Alkali BasaltBulletin Province .3. Evolution of Al Madinah Volcanic Field (Fig. 4), the proposed site is Harrat Kishb, Kingdom of Saudi-Arabia. easiest to access and closest to Al Madinah city. The , 1992, 104, 379-396 common presence of such steep lava spatter cones across [6] Camp V.E., Hooper P.R., Roobol M.J., White D.L., the Al Madinah Volcanic Field makes the selected site a The MadinahBulletin eruption, of Volcanology Saudi Arabia: Magma mixing representative example to demonstrate morphology, erup- and simultaneous extrusion of three basaltic chemical tion mechanism and cone growth. The proposed geosite types. , 1987, 49, 489-508 is also located in a larger volcanic system defined as a [7] Bord C., BertrandComptes H., Geochemistry Rendus De Of L Recent Academie Al- geotop that also represents the youngest volcanism op- kalineDes Sciences Volcanism Serie From II Saudi-Arabia - Relevance To erating in the territory of the Kingdom of Saudi Ara- Red-Sea Rifting. bia, all together providing an excellent opportunity for , 1995, 320, 31-38 any visitors to learn about Hawaiian lava fountaining, [8] Nasir S., The Lithosphere Beneath The Northwestern 193 Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

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