DOCSLIB.ORG

Transformations in United States Policy Toward Syria Under Bashar

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Transformations in United States Policy Toward Syria Under Bashar Nova Southeastern University NSUWorks Department of Conflict Resolution Studies Theses CAHSS Theses and Dissertations and Dissertations 1-1-2017 Transformations in United States Policy toward Syria Under Bashar Al Assad A Unique Case Study of Three Presidential Administrations and a Projection of Future Policy Directions Mohammad Alkahtani Nova Southeastern University, [email protected] This document is a product of extensive research conducted at the Nova Southeastern University College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences. For more information on research and degree programs at the NSU College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences, please click here. Follow this and additional works at: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Share Feedback About This Item NSUWorks Citation Mohammad Alkahtani. 2017. Transformations in United States Policy toward Syria Under Bashar Al Assad A Unique Case Study of Three Presidential Administrations and a Projection of Future Policy Directions. Doctoral dissertation. Nova Southeastern University. Retrieved from NSUWorks, College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences – Department of Conflict Resolution Studies. (103) https://nsuworks.nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd/103. This Dissertation is brought to you by the CAHSS Theses and Dissertations at NSUWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Department of Conflict Resolution Studies Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of NSUWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Transformations in United States Policy toward Syria Under Bashar Al Assad A Unique Case Study of Three Presidential Administrations and a Projection of Future Policy Directions by Mohammad Alkahtani A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences of Nova Southeastern University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Nova Southeastern University 2017 Copyright © by Mohammad Ali Mohammad Alkahtani September 2017 Dedication To my father Ali Alkahtani and my mother Aisha; my parents are a constant reminder that there is great strength in kindness. You were a shining example of kindness and all that is best in humanity. You made me believe that there is hope for this world after all. You are my pride; constantly reminding me to believe and face the world expressing the noblest parts of me. Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge his dissertation to the committee members; Dr. Jason Campbell, Dr. Neil Katz, and Dr. Dustin Berna. I thank each of you for allowing me to engage in this thought experiment. I appreciate your guidance and patience during this process. I would also like to thank my fellow students and colleagues at Nova’s DCAR program, with whom I spent the last three years making this journey. Your passion and dedication to peace is not only inspirational, but also infectious. I want to extend a special thank you to my wife Norah. You, my love deserves recognition for more reasons than I could possibly list here, mostly for your patience with the process and me. Finally, I would like to thank the faculty and staff of the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at Nova Southeastern University for offering me a proper education and preparing me with the tools and skills, which I will need in my career. Through this three-year journey, I have been surrounded with love, support, encouragement, and guidance from faculty and friends whom I will cherish for the rest of my life. Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... v Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vi Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Background of the Topic ................................................................................................. 1 Key Stakeholders............................................................................................................. 9 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 10 Statement of Purpose ..................................................................................................... 13 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 16 Plan of the Study ........................................................................................................... 17 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ....................................................................................... 19 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 19 Theoretical Frameworks ................................................................................................ 19 Theories of International Relations ............................................................................... 21 Overview of the Section ............................................................................................ 21 The Realism Approach .................................................................................................. 22 Liberalism...................................................................................................................... 23 Democratic Peace Theory ............................................................................................. 25 Neoconservatism ........................................................................................................... 27 Conflict Theory ............................................................................................................. 29 Rational Choice Theory ................................................................................................ 31 Dynamical Systems Theory .......................................................................................... 33 Coalition Building Theory: A Conflict Resolution Strategy ......................................... 35 Historical Background and Overview of the Syrian Conflict ....................................... 40 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 40 Demographic Profile of Syria .................................................................................... 40 Historical Evolution of the Conflict .............................................................................. 43 The Rise of the Caliphate .............................................................................................. 48 Summary of the Section ................................................................................................ 54 i Three Administrations and Their Policies ..................................................................... 54 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 54 The Clinton Administration ....................................................................................... 55 The George W. Bush Administration ........................................................................ 71 The Obama Administration ....................................................................................... 92 Chemical Weapon Use and Two Cases: Iraq and Syria .............................................. 110 Summary of the Chapter ............................................................................................. 119 Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................. 124 Research Questions and Sub-questions ....................................................................... 124 Research Design .......................................................................................................... 124 Independent and Dependent Variables ........................................................................ 130 Data Collection and Analysis ...................................................................................... 130 Ethical Considerations................................................................................................. 134 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ................................................................ 134 Chapter 4: Comparison of Three Presidential Administrations ...................................... 136 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 136 Three Doctrines ........................................................................................................... 138 Summary of the Chapter ............................................................................................. 150 Chapter 5: Conflict Resolution Strategy ......................................................................... 152 Introduction ................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Iraq and International Terrorism
    Artur WEJKSZNER Institute of Political Science and Journalism Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznañ Iraq and international terrorism Introduction Terrorism, most generally understood as killing in order to achieve political gain, has accompanied humanity since the dawn of history.1 This simplified definition, which is only one of many, does not aim at explaining its essence. Over more than two centuries of attempts at fully explaining it, the idea has turned out to be very difficult to grasp and, to make matters worse, due to ideological reasons, has acquired contradic- tory connotations.2 To date several hundred definitions have been formulated, defini- tions which, in all cases, do not describe the phenomenon satisfactorily.3 For the sake of this article, however, it is worth making one more attempt. Terrorism is intimately con- nected with three matters: violence, terror and politics. If these elements are considered central to this phenomenon, then the definition proposed by Bruce Hoffman is fairly important and useful. According to his definition, terrorism is the conscious creation of terror and the use of violence or threats of violence when striving to attain political change. Terrorism is conceived purposefully so that it would have a long term psycho- logical impact, going considerably beyond the immediate victim. By means of public- ity, accomplished as a result of violence, terrorists hope to achieve influence and power in order to bring about changes at a local or international level.4 Across its existence, the phenomenon has gone through various evolutionary phases. One of the latest phases is the era of international terrorism. It is difficult to pre- 1 In Conor Gearty’s opinion we can read about terrorists in historical legends, among others in Flavius who wrote about the so called sykariuses (assassins with daggers).The precursors of terrorists were also assassins (an Ishmael Shiite sect), who murdered the leaders and participants of crusades to the Holy Land (C.
    [Show full text]
  • Key Actors and Abbreviations
    Key actors and abbreviations The Assad regime and its allies ‘The regime’ Bashar al-Assad, Syrian President 2000– Hafez al-Assad, Syrian President 1971–2000 Asma al-Assad (née Akhras), Syria’s First Lady 2000– Maher al-Assad, brother of Bashar al-Assad, Commander of Republican Guard and 4th Armoured Division Anisa Makhlouf, mother of Bashar al-Assad Assif Shawkat, brother-in-law of Bashar al-Assad, head of military intelligence 2005–9, deputy minister of defence 2011–12 Rami Makhlouf, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, wealthy businessman Manaf Tlass, Republican Guard General, defected 2012 Farouk al-Sharaa, First Vice President of Syria 2006– Walid al-Muallem, Foreign Minister 2006– Bouthaina Shabaan, political and media adviser to the Syrian President 2008– Ba’ath – Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party, the ruling party of Syria since 1963 Mukhabarat – Set of notorious regime intelligence agencies Shabiha – Gangs of irregular pro-regime thugs NDF – National Defence Force, formed 2013 Russia Vladimir Putin, Russian President 2000–8, 2012–, Russian Prime Minister 2008–12 Dmitri Medvedev, Russian President 2008–12, Russian Prime Minister 2012–20 Sergei Lavrov, Foreign Minister 2004– Mikhail Bogdanov, Deputy Foreign Minister 2011– Iran Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran 1989– xii 5146.indd xii 19/06/20 5:00 PM KEY ACTORS AND ABBREVIATIONS xiii Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Iranian President 2005–13 Hassan Rouhani, Iranian President 2013– Ali Akbar Salehi, Foreign Minister 2010–13 Mohammad Javad Zarif, Foreign Minister 2013– Qassem Suleimani, Commander
    [Show full text]
  • UCLA Electronic Theses and Dissertations
    UCLA UCLA Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Transnational Rebellion: The Syrian Revolt of 1925-1927 Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/99q9f2k0 Author Bailony, Reem Publication Date 2015 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Transnational Rebellion: The Syrian Revolt of 1925-1927 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Reem Bailony 2015 © Copyright by Reem Bailony 2015 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Transnational Rebellion: The Syrian Revolt of 1925-1927 by Reem Bailony Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2015 Professor James L. Gelvin, Chair This dissertation explores the transnational dimensions of the Syrian Revolt of 1925-1927. By including the activities of Syrian migrants in Egypt, Europe and the Americas, this study moves away from state-centric histories of the anti-French rebellion. Though they lived far away from the battlefields of Syria and Lebanon, migrants championed, contested, debated, and imagined the rebellion from all corners of the mahjar (or diaspora). Skeptics and supporters organized petition campaigns, solicited financial aid for rebels and civilians alike, and partook in various meetings and conferences abroad. Syrians abroad also clandestinely coordinated with rebel leaders for the transfer of weapons and funds, as well as offered strategic advice based on the political climates in Paris and Geneva. Moreover, key émigré figures played a significant role in defining the revolt, determining its goals, and formulating its program. By situating the revolt in the broader internationalism of the 1920s, this study brings to life the hitherto neglected role migrants played in bridging the local and global, the national and international.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Rights Council Fact-Finding in S
    Marauhn: Sailing Close to the Wind: Human Rights Council Fact-Finding in S SAILING CLOSE TO THE WIND: HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL FACT-FINDING IN SITUATIONS OF ARMED CONFLICT-THE CASE OF SYRIA THILO MARAUHN* TABLE OF CONTENTS I. FROM GRAFFITI IN DARA'A TO CIVIL WAR IN SYRIA ............ 402 II. SECURITY COUNCIL INACTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS ...... ..... 408 COUNCIL ACTIVISM ........................................... 408 A. Governments' Responses to the Situation in Syria ............. 409 B. Inaction of the U.N. Security Council .............. 415 C. Actions Taken by the U.N. General Assembly and the U.N. Human Rights Council ................. ....... 421 III. THE RISK OF BEING ALL-INCLUSIVE: BLURRING THE LINES.........426 A. Does the Situation in Syria Amount to a Non-International Armed Conflict? ...................... ..... 426 B. The Application ofHuman Rights Law in a Non-International Armed Conflict........................434 C. Fact-finding in Human Rights Law vs Fact-Finding with Respect to the Law ofArmed Conflict....... ............ 444 D. Does Blurringthe Lines Weaken Compliance with the Applicable Law? ................................448 IV. THE BENEFITS OF SAILING CLOSE TO THE WIND .................. 452 V. IMPROVING COMPLIANCE WITH THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT .............................................. 455 CONCLUSION ....................................... ....... 458 * M.Phil. (Wales), Dr. jur.utr. (Heidelberg), Professor of Public Law, International and European Law, Faculty of Law, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany. The author is grateful to Charles H. B. Garraway, Colonel (ret.), United Kingdom; Nicolas Lang, Ambassador-at-Large for the Application of International Humanitarian Law, Switzerland; and Dr. Ignaz Stegmiller, Justus Liebig University, Germany for comments on earlier drafts. 401 Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2013 1 California Western International Law Journal, Vol.
    [Show full text]
  • PRISM Syrian Supplemental
    PRISM syria A JOURNAL OF THE CENTER FOR COMPLEX OPERATIONS About PRISM PRISM is published by the Center for Complex Operations. PRISM is a security studies journal chartered to inform members of U.S. Federal agencies, allies, and other partners Vol. 4, Syria Supplement on complex and integrated national security operations; reconstruction and state-building; 2014 relevant policy and strategy; lessons learned; and developments in training and education to transform America’s security and development Editor Michael Miklaucic Communications Contributing Editors Constructive comments and contributions are important to us. Direct Alexa Courtney communications to: David Kilcullen Nate Rosenblatt Editor, PRISM 260 Fifth Avenue (Building 64, Room 3605) Copy Editors Fort Lesley J. McNair Dale Erikson Washington, DC 20319 Rebecca Harper Sara Thannhauser Lesley Warner Telephone: Nathan White (202) 685-3442 FAX: (202) 685-3581 Editorial Assistant Email: [email protected] Ava Cacciolfi Production Supervisor Carib Mendez Contributions PRISM welcomes submission of scholarly, independent research from security policymakers Advisory Board and shapers, security analysts, academic specialists, and civilians from the United States Dr. Gordon Adams and abroad. Submit articles for consideration to the address above or by email to prism@ Dr. Pauline H. Baker ndu.edu with “Attention Submissions Editor” in the subject line. Ambassador Rick Barton Professor Alain Bauer This is the authoritative, official U.S. Department of Defense edition of PRISM. Dr. Joseph J. Collins (ex officio) Any copyrighted portions of this journal may not be reproduced or extracted Ambassador James F. Dobbins without permission of the copyright proprietors. PRISM should be acknowledged whenever material is quoted from or based on its content.
    [Show full text]
  • The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria Year of Origin
    MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD IN SYRIA Name: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria Year of Origin: 1945 Founder(s): Mustafa al-Sibai Place(s) of Operation: Syria Key Leaders: • Mohammad Hekmat Walid: Comptroller general [Image: Al Jazeera] • Hussam Ghadban: Deputy Comptroller general [Image not available] • Mohammad Hatem al-Tabshi: Head of Shura Council [Image not available] • Omar Mushaweh: Head of media and communications [Image; source: Fox News via Omar Mushaweh] • Mulham Droubi: Spokesman [Image; source: Syria Mubasher] • Zuhair Salem: Spokesman [Image; source: Twitter] • Mohammad Riad al-Shaqfeh: Former comptroller general [Image: AFP/Getty Images] • Mohammad Farouk Tayfour: Former deputy comptroller general [Image: please take from MB entity report] • Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni: Former comptroller general [Image: please take from MB entity report] • Issam al-Attar: Former comptroller general [Image: Bernd Arnold] Associated Organization(s): • Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin1 • Syrian Ikhwan2 The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood (i.e., the Syrian Brotherhood or the Brotherhood) was formed in 1945 as an affiliate of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood.3 The Syrian Brotherhood actively participated in Syrian politics until 1963, when the incoming pan-Arab Baath party began restricting the movement before ultimately banning the party in 1964.4 In 1964, Brotherhood member Marwan Hadid formed a violent offshoot—known as the Fighting Vanguard—whose members waged numerous terror attacks against the regime in the 1970s and early ’80s. In 1982, in order to quell a Brotherhood uprising in the city of Hama, then-Syrian President Hafez al- Assad dealt a near-fatal blow to the group, killing between 10,000 and 40,000 armed 1 Raphaël Lefèvre, Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 24.
    [Show full text]
  • Palestine Divided
    Update Briefing Middle East Briefing N°25 Ramallah/Gaza/Brussels, 17 December 2008 Palestine Divided I. OVERVIEW Hamas, by contrast, is looking to gain recognition and legitimacy, pry open the PLO and lessen pressure against the movement in the West Bank. Loath to con- The current reconciliation process between the Islamic cede control of Gaza, it is resolutely opposed to doing Resistance Movement (Hamas) and Palestinian National so without a guaranteed strategic quid pro quo. Liberation Movement (Fatah) is a continuation of their struggle through other means. The goals pursued by the The gap between the two movements has increased over two movements are domestic and regional legitimacy, time. What was possible two years or even one year together with consolidation of territorial control – not ago has become far more difficult today. In January national unity. This is understandable. At this stage, both 2006 President Abbas evinced some flexibility. That parties see greater cost than reward in a compromise quality is now in significantly shorter supply. Fatah’s that would entail loss of Gaza for one and an uncom- humiliating defeat in Gaza and Hamas’s bloody tac- fortable partnership coupled with an Islamist foothold tics have hardened the president’s and Fatah’s stance; in the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) for the moreover, despite slower than hoped for progress in other. Regionally, Syria – still under pressure from the West Bank and inconclusive political negotiations Washington and others in the Arab world – has little with Israel, the president and his colleagues believe incentive today to press Hamas to compromise, while their situation is improving.
    [Show full text]
  • The 2021 Syrian Presidential Election
    July 2021 The 2021 Syrian Presidential Election Political deadlock and Syrian Burnout Hadia Kawikji Introduction The legitimacy of any position is based on two main elements, first the manner in which the individual attained the position, and second is the ability of the individual to fulfill the related responsibilities. For the first point, Bashar al-Assad’s Presidency in Syria was attained through heredity within a ludicrous system following his father who seized the power via a military coup. Both father and son ruled Syria for the last half a century with de-facto legitimacy, through nominal referendums completely dominated by the Ba’ath party. This was instead of an election that reflects the Syrian people’s will. In terms of the ability to fulfill the responsibilities of the presidency, many indicators showcase the regime’s failures to the Syrians. The recent years have witnessed the collapse of the Syrian pound to unprecedented levels, along with the displacement of more than half of the Syrian population,1 and the rise of extreme poverty to 82%,2 with the fact that 37% of the Syrian territories are outside of the regime’s control. Additionally, the violation of the Syrian decision is evidenced by the control of the Lebanese “Hezbollah”, Iranian militias, and Russian troops controlling over roughly 85% of the Syrian borders, finally yet importantly, the Syrian regime’s inability to protect its territory is illustrated by the haphazard attacks by Israel on Syrian land at any given time. In March 2011, the majority of the Syrian people called for the removal of the Assad regime and the transition to a democratic country.
    [Show full text]
  • Iran's “Second” Islamic Revolution
    IRAN’S “SECOND” ISLAMIC REVOLUTION: ITS CHALLENGE TO THE WEST Brig.-Gen. (ret.) Dr. Shimon Shapira and Daniel Diker Iranian President Mahmoud The ideological engine powering the Iranian re- via what is known in the West as “Gog and Magog” Ahmadinejad delivers gime’s race for regional supremacy is among the events is driven by his spiritual fealty to the fun- a speech on the 18th more misunderstood – and ignored – aspects of damentalist Ayatollah Mohammad Mesbah Yazdi anniversary of the death Iran’s political and military activity in the Middle and the messianic Hojjatiyeh organization. These of the late revolutionary East. Particularly since the election of Mahmoud religious convictions have propelled the regime founder Ayatollah Khomeini, Ahmadinejad to the presidency in 2005, Iran’s revo- toward an end-of-days scenario that Khomeini had under his portrait, at his 3 mausoleum just outside lutionary leadership has thrust the Islamic Republic sought to avoid. Tehran, Iran, June 3, 2007. into the throes of what has been called a “Second 1 Hard-line Ahmadinejad said Islamic Revolution.” In its basic form, this revolu- Iran’s Second Islamic Revolution is distinguishing the world would witness the tion seeks a return to the principles of former Ira- itself from the original Islamic Revolution in other destruction of Israel soon, nian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini’s 1979 important ways: Iran is not only spreading its pow- the official Islamic Republic Islamic Revolution, which was based on: destroy- er in the region by reaching out to Shiite communi- News Agency reported. ing Israel – “the Little Satan” – as a symbol of the ties such as in Iraq and Lebanon, the regime is also United States, “the Great Satan;”2 exporting the actively cooperating with Sunni terror groups in an Islamic revolution domestically and against Arab effort to solicit support from the Sunni Arab street “apostate” governments in the region, and forc- over the heads of established Arab governments.
    [Show full text]
  • Won't You Be My Neighbor
    Won’t You Be My Neighbor: Syria, Iraq and the Changing Strategic Context in the Middle East S TEVEN SIMON Council on Foreign Relations March 2009 www.usip.org Date www.usip.org UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE – WORKING PAPER Won’t You Be My Neighbor UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE 1200 17th Street NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20036-3011 © 2009 by the United States Institute of Peace. The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Institute of Peace, which does not advocate specific policy positions. This is a working draft. Comments, questions, and permission to cite should be directed to the author ([email protected]) or [email protected]. This is a working draft. Comments, questions, and permission to cite should be directed to the author ([email protected]) or [email protected]. UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE – WORKING PAPER Won’t You Be My Neighbor About this Report Iraq's neighbors are playing a major role—both positive and negative—in the stabilization and reconstruction of post-Saddam Iraq. In an effort to prevent conflict across Iraq's borders and in order to promote positive international and regional engagement, USIP has initiated high-level, non-official dialogue between foreign policy and national security figures from Iraq, its neighbors and the United States. The Institute’s "Iraq and its Neighbors" project has also convened a group of leading specialists on the geopolitics of the region to assess the interests and influence of the countries surrounding Iraq and to explain the impact of these transformed relationships on U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Economic Sanctions Case 2011-2: EU, US V. Syrian Arab Republic (2011
    Case Studies in Economic Sanctions and Terrorism Case 2011-2 EU, US v. Syrian Arab Republic (2011– : human rights, democracy) Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Peterson Institute for International Economics Jeffrey J. Schott, Peterson Institute for International Economics Kimberly Ann Elliott, Peterson Institute for International Economics Julia Muir, Peterson Institute for International Economics July 2011 © Peterson Institute for International Economics. All rights reserved. See also: Cases 86-1 US v. Syria (1986– : Terrorism) Additional country case studies can be found in Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, May 2008 Summary Post‐2000 the United States has imposed three rounds of sanctions against Syria, in response to: (1) Syria’s support for terrorist groups and terrorist activities in Iraq; (2) its pursuit of missiles and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs; and (3) the occupation of Lebanon. In May 2004, President George W. Bush issued Executive Order 13338, implementing the provisions in the Syria Accountability Act, including a freeze of assets of specified individuals and a ban on munitions and dual use items, a ban on exports to Syria other than food and medicine, and a ban on Syrian aircraft landing in or overflying the United States. Sanctions also required US financial institutions to sever correspondent accounts with the Commercial Bank of Syria because of money laundering concerns. In April 2006, Executive Order 13399 was implemented, which designates the Commercial Bank of Syria, including its subsidiary, Syrian Lebanese Commercial Bank, as a financial institution of primary money laundering concern and orders US banks to sever all ties with the institution. In February 2008 the United States issued Executive Order 13460, which freezes the assets of additional individuals.
    [Show full text]
  • Caught Between Autocracy and Jihadism. Syriaʼs Christians Hope
    Introduction Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik German Institute for International and Security Affairs Comments Caught between Autocracy and Jihadism WP Syria’s Christians Hope for the Implementation of Geneva I Petra Becker S The discourse conducted by Syria’s Christians since March 2011 reveals that many of them have now turned their back on the protest movement, despite their initial sym- pathy and even involvement with it. These Christians have not turned away out of any deeply held convictions in support of the regime, but because they are worried by the militarisation and radicalisation of the revolution, and by the fact that after three years the opposition has still not shown itself to be a credible alternative to the regime. German and European policymakers should continue working towards a political solu- tion and avoid supporting any particular religious or ethnic groups at the expense of others, because apart from those in areas where foreign Jihadists operate, Christians in Syria are no more at risk than other Syrians. Christians are firmly rooted in Syrian soci- motivated violence. In various places, ety, and account for an estimated 8–10 there have been reports of local Muslim percent of the population. The three largest populations coming to the defence of of their eleven denominations are the Christians when they were attacked by Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox foreign Jihadists. and Greek Catholic communities. Apart Many Christians hope that the situation from the Armenians, the Assyrians and the will stabilise, allowing them to resume Chaldeans, Christians are among the oldest their lives as before. The Armenians are less inhabitants of the modern state of Syria.
    [Show full text]