Opponents ofHitler in search offoreign support: the foreign contacts ofCarl Goerdeler, Ludwig Beck, Ernst von Weizsilcker and Adam von Trott zu Solz, 1937-1940 Andrea Mason Department ofHistory, McGiII University, Montréal August 2002 A thesis submitted to the Faculty ofGraduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements ofthe degree ofMaster ofArts © Andrea Mason, 2002 National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1+1 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisisitons et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 0-612-85867-7 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 0-612-85867-7 The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts from it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou aturement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Canada Abstract This thesis examines the attempts made by Carl Goerdeler, Ludwig Beck, Ernst von Weizsacker and Adam von Trott zu Solz to obtain the support ofthe British government in their effort to overthrow the Nazi regime between 1937 and 1940. The circumstances surrounding each mission are detailed, including the degree ofreadiness on the part ofthe German opposition for a coup d'état and the particular form ofsupport sought from the British to increase the chance ofsuccess in each case. Consideration is given to the factors which conditioned the British reaction to the resistance emissaries, including the British foreign policy imperatives ofthe moment, important events in European relations and the attitude and degree ofinfluence wielded by the statesmen to whom the German resistance emissaries addressed themselves. Résumé Cette thèse examine les tentatives de Carl Goerdeler, Ludwig Beck, Ernst von Weizsacker et Adam von Trott zu Solz d'obtenir, entre les années 1937 à 1940, le soutien du gouvernement britanniquç afm de renverser le régime nazi. Les circonstances de chaque mission sont exposées en détail, y compris la disposition de la résistance allemande à effectuer un coup d'état et le genre précis de soutien demandé aux Britanniques pour augmenter les chances de succès des missions respectives. Une attention particulière est prêtée aux facteurs qui ont influencé la réaction des Britanniques aux émissaires de la résistance, dont les lignes directrices de la politique étrangère britannique de l'époque, les événements fondamentaux des relations européennes, et les comportements des chefs d'état contactés par la résistance ainsi que leur influence. Acknowledgements This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Robert and Janet Mason, in gratitude for 25 years of unfailing support and encouragement. 1 am deeply indebted to Professor Peter Hoffinann for introducing me to the subject of the German Resistance, for his careful guidance and for his rigorous and patient supervision of my work. 1 would like to thank my grandparents, Douglas and Louise Hawes, whose belief in the value of education and great generosity have allowed me to pursue my studies. 1 would also like to thank my sister Cari for putting everything in perspective, my grandparents Ernest and Jessie Mason and my friend Jessica Lim for their kind support. 1 am grateful to Colleen Parish for aH the help that she has given me and to Professors John Hellman, Brian Lewis and Gershon Hundert for their instruction, advice and assistance during the last few years. 1 am obliged to Frau Lore Kordt for granting me access to the papers of Erich and Theodor Kordt at the Institut fiir Zeitgeschichte in Munich. And fmally, 1 owe an incalculable debt of gratitude to my fiancé Mateo for the innumerable ways in which he assisted in the completion of this work from beginning to end, from the suggestions for improvement to the dinners to the photocopy fiasco to the schedules to the enormous loads ofbooks ferried back and forth between home and the library. You have helped me immensely. With al! my love: thankyou. Table ofContents Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Historiography 1.1 lIistoriography ofAppeasement 6 1.2 Historiography ofGerman Resistance 15 Chapter 2: Approaches orthe German Resistance, May 1937-September 1938 2.1 Dr Carl Goerdeler 21 2.2 General Ludwig Beek 30 2.3 Ewald von Kleist-Sehmenzin 37 2.4 Ernst von Weizsacker 40 2.5 Theodor and Erich Kordt 42 2.6 Carl Goerdeler 48 Chapter 3: British Poticy, May 1937-September 1938 3.1 Appeasement 50 3.2 The Sudeten Crisis 57 3.3 The Opposition After Munich 68 Chapter 4: October 1938-June 1939 4.1 Carl Goerdeler 71 4.2 Hitler's Provocations 75 4.3 British Poticy Between Munich and Prague 77 4.4 British Poticy After Prague 79 Chapter 5: June-September 1939 5.1 Adam von Trott zu Solz 83 5.2 Theodor and Erich Kordt 96 5.3 Anglo-Soviet Negotiations 100 Chapter 6: September 1939-May 1940 6.1 British Policy After the Outbreak ofWar 107 6.2 The Vatican Exchanges 110 Conclusion 117 jJibliography 120 1 Introduction From the time ofAdolfHitler's seizure ofpower in January 1933, there were individuals within the German state apparatus who opposed his rule and engaged in activities aimed at bringing about the end ofthe Nazi dictatorship. By the later 1930s, these individuals had coalesced to form a resistance movement1 whose objective was the overthrow ofthe Nazi state. Between 1937 and 1940, members ofthis resistance movement attempted on numerous different occasions to secure foreign support, especially that ofthe British government, in their bid to remove Hitler from power. The primary objective ofthe German opposition was the preservation ofpeace in Europe, an aim that stoOO counter to Hitler's decision to expand German territory by military conquest. Having determined that Hitler posed a serious threat to peace, order, stability and sound government both in Germany and in Europe, the German resisters resolved to remove him from power. They sought to obtain foreign co-operation, particularly that ofthe British government, to improve their chances ofeffecting a successful coup d'état. The motivations and goals which prompted the German resistance to seek the support of the British government varied between 1937 and 1940 according to the German domestic situation, the readiness ofthe opposition to launch a coup, the string ofcrises which then characterised international relations in Europe and the evolution ofBritish foreign policy. During the Sudeten crisis of1938, the emissaries ofthe German resistance tried to persuade the British government to adopt an uncompromising position vis à vis Hitler's territorial demands in 1 It should he notOO that under the conditions ofextreme oppression which existed in Nazi Germany, resistance to the régime may he definOO as any statement or action which indicatOO disagreement with or criticism ofthe policies and practices ofthe govemment. Resistance may have involved anyaction the objective ofwhich was to obstruct the aims ofthe régime. For the purpose ofthis study, however, 1will employ German resistance movement to mean those who actively engagOO in the attempt to bring down the state in an organised fashion. Examples ofdecrees introduced by the Nazis which were designOO to suppress aIl criticism ofthe state inc1ude Decree ofthe Reich President against Treason toward the German People andAgainst High Treasonous Machinations, datOO 28 February 1933. This decree made the communication ofstatements offact to foreign govemments punishable by imprisonment, regardless ofwhether the information reportOO was true or false and regardless ofwhether the particular foreign govemment was already aware ofthe information. Reichgesetzblatt J, 1933, 85-7. The Decree ofthe Reich Presidentfor Defence against Jnsidious Attacks against the Government ofthe National Resurgence, datOO 21 March 1933, made uttering a faetually untrue statement which could cause harm to state interests or to the stature ofthe government a crime punishable by three years to life in prison if the statement was intendOO to cause a disturbance among the German people. In certain cases, the punishment could he execution. Reichgesetzblatt J, 1933, 135. The Decree ofthe Reich Governmentfor the Constitution ofSpecial Courts, issuOO on 21 March 1933, provided for the establishment ofspecial courts (Sondergerichte). These special courts were investOO with the authority to arrest and imprison suspects for unlimitOO periods oftime. The special courts were authorised to maintain concentration camps. The judge in such a court could render a decision without hearing evidence. Reichgesetzblatt, J, 1933, 136. 2 the hope that such a stance would discourage the dictator and save the peace. Emissaries ofthe resistance movement continued to initiate contact after the Sudeten crisis, although with diminished hope ofpersuading the British government to stand frrm. After the outbreak ofwar in September 1939, the principal aim ofthe resisters