Encarnando a Los Espíritus En La Melanesia

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Encarnando a Los Espíritus En La Melanesia En c a r n a n d o a l o s Espíritus E n l a ME l a n E s i a : l a i n n o v a c i ó n c o M o continuidad E n E l n o r t E d E va n u a t u Carlos Mondragón CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS DE ASI A Y ÁFRI ca -EL COLEGIO DE MÉXI C O Introducción: Genealogía conceptual de los ritos de paso Al inicio del siglo XX el etnólogo y folclorista francés Ar- nold Van Gennep estableció una serie de categorías ana- líticas para lo que identificó como las etapas primordiales de “transición”, o “paso” (passage), mediante las cuales los individuos inscriben su incorporación a la colectividad de la cual son miembros. En su obra más influyente, Les rites de passage, Van Gennep definió estas etapas como momentos de transformación existencial que se destacan por la cele- bración de “ritos que acompañan todo cambio de lugar, estado, posición social y edad” [Van Gennep, 1909:3].1 Entre los procesos transformativos más significativos que contemplaba Van Gennep en su estudio, estaban los nacimientos, los eventos iniciáticos, los matrimonios y las ceremonias mortuorias (mismos que se han convertido en materia habitual de los estudios sobre el ritual). En línea con las inquietudes comparativistas de su época, 1. Esta cita original y las subsecuentes en francés son traducción del autor. CARLOS MONDRAGÓN Van Gennep propuso también el carácter universal de los ritos de paso, es- tableciendo con ello su trascendencia como herramienta hermenéutica para el análisis general de las formas religiosas (entendido aquí el concepto de “forma” en su sentido durkheimiano clásico, de tipo estructural y simbólico). Además de naturalizar e imprimir un carácter universal al fenómeno de los ritos de paso, Van Gennep les atribuyó una trama procesual distribuida en tres fases, a saber, la separación, el margen o limen, y la agregación. Estas fases daban cuenta de la transición mediante la cual el sujeto ritual se aparta de un estado social anterior para transitar por un intervalo de ambigüedad existencial que le conducirá hacia una nueva condición de estabilidad y posi- cionamiento socioestructural. Durante el transcurso del siglo XX el esquema tripartito de los ritos de paso (schéma de rites de passage) de Van Gennep se convirtió en modelo de refe- rencia obligado para el estudio antropológico del ritual. En consecuencia, sus presupuestos conceptuales y terminología figuran de manera prominente en la obra de pensadores como Marcel Mauss, A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, Louis Dumont, David Schneider, y, más recientemente, James Laidlaw y Caroline Humphrey. Sin embargo, fueron Claude Lévi-Strauss y Victor Turner quie- nes más explícitamente retomaron y ampliaron la herencia analítica de Van Gennep desde posicionamientos distintivos, pero arraigados ambos, grosso modo, en el estructuralismo y simbolismo de mediados del siglo XX . En vista de la gran vigencia que tienen los planteamientos teóricos de estos últimos dos autores en los enfoques de la antropología mexicana con respec- to del análisis de lo ritual y —especialmente, los rituales de paso—, conviene discutir brevemente sus planteamientos. Es imposible resumir en pocas líneas la erudición enciclopédica y el estilo idiosincrásico de Lévi-Strauss; sin embargo, cabe señalar que en su discusión sobre el pensamiento salvaje Lévi-Strauss intentó trascender categorías pre- establecidas para el análisis del mito, el rito y el lenguaje con una discusión sobre las “estructuras de relaciones” y la superestructura mítica dentro de las cuales se ordenan la práctica y el pensamiento rituales. A partir de una lec- tura saussuriana sobre la estructura fonémica, y su entusiasmo por los prin- cipios de Jakobson sobre relaciones sintagmáticas y paradigmáticas, Lévi- Strauss argumentó que el mito representa un fenómeno mediador a partir del cual se ordenan una serie de dualismos primordiales —tales como el día 120 RITOS DE PASO EN C ARNANDO A LOS E SPÍRITUS E N LA ME LAN E SIA y la noche, la vida y la muerte, lo crudo y lo cocido— que generan patrones complejos de producción simbólica. El análisis del ritual, en este contexto, quedó supeditado a un juego infinito de significaciones que, a su vez, suscita- ron la crítica hermenéutica de Clifford Geertz, Mary Douglas y Paul Ricoeur, quienes plantearon la necesidad de aterrizar regímenes de significado en la interpretación de la experiencia y las relaciones normativas de sistemas cul- turales específicos. Sin embargo, ni el estructuralismo lévistraussiano ni el giro hermenéutico cuestionaron la idea de que los ritos de paso fuesen un fenómeno socioculturalmente generalizado. En contraste con el estructuralismo simbólico de Lévi-Strauss y la her- meneusis (también de corte interpretativo simbólico) de Geertz y Douglas, Victor Turner buscó desarrollar la intuición durkheimiana de que el ritual y su representación apuntaban hacia una conexión íntimamente corporal —de carácter fenomenológico, tanto como simbólico— entre la función social y la creación de significados. Partiendo del modelo tripartito de Van Gennep y las aportaciones de Gluckman para el estudio de los procesos sociales, Tur- ner desarrolló una sofisticada noción de las transiciones existenciales que reiteraba su relevancia para la construcción de las más variadas experiencias sociotemporales. De tal modo, produjo una obra rica en aportaciones para el estudio de la experiencia transformativa que implican los fenómenos como el nacimiento, la iniciación, los ritos mortuorios, los ritos calendáricos, el pere- grinaje y toda una gama de movimientos de tipo sociocultural. Sin embargo, aún reconociendo el rico legado etnográfico y reflexivo de Turner, en su obra observamos nuevamente la persistencia de la idea primordialista de los ritos de paso como categoría universal. El propósito de este breve recuento genealógico es registrar la persistencia del concepto de los ritos de paso a lo largo del siglo pasado. Sobre todo, he querido señalar que mientras este concepto dio paso a una profundización de los estudios sobre el ritual como fenómeno social generalizado, los presu- puestos conceptuales y principios epistémicos universalistas que manejaron Van Gennep y sus contemporáneos con respecto a la experiencia iniciática y la ritualidad han tendido a ser reproducidos y validados de manera relativa- mente acrítica por generaciones sucesivas de científicos sociales. De particular importancia para entender la continuidad de los fundamentos teórico-metodológicos que dan lugar a la presunción universalista de los ritos 121 CARLOS MONDRAGÓN de paso, es atender al añejo principio epistémico —arriba mencionado en el contexto de la obra de Lévi-Strauss, pero propio del canon filosófico occiden- tal desde la Antigüedad— del método de inferencia a partir de contrastes bina- rios. En concreto, me refiero al ejercicio reflexivo mediante el cual se generan series de dualidades encontradas para explicar estructuras y significados presu- miblemente subyacentes, y por ello esenciales o fundamentales, a la actividad y estructuras cognitivas de toda sociedad humana. Entre los dualismos más significativos que sostienen el concepto de ritualidad e iniciación en la obra de Van Gennep se encuentra el contraste entre individuo y sociedad, así como la distinción (adaptada con base en ideas durkheimianas) entre las esferas de lo sagrado y lo profano. La persistencia de estas series binarias, con todo lo que im- plican para la manera en que entendemos y describimos los fenómenos sociales, es importante cuanto que en la medida en que siguen siendo referencias constan- tes en la labor antropológica contemporánea. En efecto, el rol central que siguen jugando estos contrastes en nuestras formas de imaginar a la sociedad nos reitera la necesidad constante de hacer explícitas, y repensar críticamente, las presun- ciones universalistas de épocas anteriores, y subraya la necesaria búsqueda de nuevos lenguajes teóricos para la traducción y debate de temas medulares (tales como la religiosidad, el concepto de persona, y la noción misma de sociedad). En esta presentación, siguiendo el cauce de reflexión teórica representada por la corriente de la Nueva Etnografía de la Melanesia (The New Melanesian Ethnography),2 abordaré la problematización del binomio individuo-sociedad a partir de un estudio de caso etnográfico arraigado en las sociedades insula- res del Pacífico sudoccidental. El propósito de este ejercicio es la exploración de nuevas maneras de abordar el fenómeno de los ritos de paso desde pers- pectivas que desestabilizan los lugares comunes en torno al estudio del ritual, la iniciación, el concepto de persona y la noción de sociedad. Problemas con la idea de individuos en sociedad Como ya se ha comentado, una de las herencias más relevantes del ideario y contexto intelectual de Van Gennep se puede reconocer en la interpretación 2. Esta corriente fue bautizada de tal forma, en contraste con la corriente de la llamada Nueva Historia de la Melanesia, por Lisette Josephides [1991], quien comentaba el impacto que para los estudios mela- nesios había tenido la obra de Strathern, así como las respuestas críticas que suscitó entre prominentes oceanistas, tal como Nicholas Thomas, Margaret Jolly y Roger Kessing. 122 RITOS DE PASO EN C ARNANDO A LOS E SPÍRITUS E N LA ME LAN E SIA de la realidad a partir de oposiciones binarias como religión-magia, animismo- totemismo, sintagmático-paradigmático, y orden-desorden, categorías, todas, que emanan del método epistémico de contrastes duales, pero, sobre todo, que son interdependientes con la diferenciación ontológica entre individuo y sociedad. Al igual que sus contemporáneos, Van Gennep dio por sentada la división entre el individuo (en cuanto que persona) como sujeto autónomo, y la socie- dad, colectividad de individuos aglutinados con base en normas comunes de acción y pensamiento. La creación de una distancia ontológica entre persona y colectividad tiene consecuencias concretas, toda vez que implica la necesidad, lógicamente contrapuesta, de que el individuo se “incorpore” al cuerpo colec- tivo con el cual comparte un sentido de pertenencia.
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