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The use of leisure and its relation to social stratification
Clarke, Alfred Carpenter, Ph.D.
Ohio State University, 1955
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
THE USE OF LEISURE AND ITS RELATION TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By ALFRED CARPENTER CLARKE, A.B., M.A.
The Ohio State University 1955
Approved hy:
7 Adviser Department of '.ologp'azicL Anthropology ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research, like any other, is a social product to which many persons, in one way or another, have contributed. The obligations incurred are too numerous to be fully acknowledged, although the footnotes point to part of this Indebtedness. The writer wishes to express his gratitude and sincere appreciation to Dr. John P. Cuber for his guidance in the development of this study. Valuable assistance in working out methodological aspects of the project was given by Dr. Raymond P. Sletto, and is hereby gratefully acknowledged. An expression of appreciation is due Dr. Florence G. Robbins, who read the dissertation and offered valuable suggestions. These acknowledgements would be altogether incomplete without an expression of deep appreciation to the writer’s wife, whose unbounded patience and able assistance with the arduous burdens of bringing the manuscript to completion have been sincerely appreciated.
A.C.C.
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS 1
Previous related studies ...... 3 The scope of the study ...... k II. THE STUDY DESIGN, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE 9 Design of the study ...... 9 The questionnaire and its rationale ...... 12 The sample and its logic ...... 13 Pattern of questionnaire returns ...... 15 Social characteristics of the sample ...... 17 Classification and statistical treatment of the data ...... 22 III. LEISURE ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESTIGE LEVELS 2k
Spectator sports ...... 2k Other spectator activities ...... 29 Organizational activities ...... 37 Home and family centered leisure activities . . kO Rank order of leisure activities ...... 5k IV. FORMS OF LEISURE AND ATTITUDES TOWARD LEISURE USE 56 Spectator activities ...... 56 Commercialized leisure ...... 58 Active vs. passive leisure ...... Diversity of leisure activities ...... Craftsmanship ...... 62 Amount of enjoyment derived from leisure-time activities ...... 65 Attitudes toward others use of leisure time . . 66 Use of an extra two hours a d a y ...... 68
V. OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND LEISURE USE 71 The frame of reference ...... 72 Procedure ...... 73 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 83 Summary of research procedure ...... 83 Summary of major findings ...... 8k Discussion ...... 88
ill LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Distribution of Initial Sample by Occupational Prestige Level 14 2. Questionnaire Returns by Occupational Prestige Level 15 3. Questionnaire Returns by Prestige Levels IV and V 16 4. Age Distribution of Respondents by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages 18 5. Marital Status of Respondents by Occupational Prestige, In Percentages 19 6. Educational Level.of Respondents, by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages 19 7. Income Distribution of Respondents by Occu pational Prestige, In Percentages 20 8. Religious Preference of Respondents by Occu pational Prestige, in Percentages 21 9. Place of Residence Where Respondents Lived Most of Their Lives, by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages 21 10. Attending a Football Game - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 25 11. Attending a Baseball Game - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages 25 12. Attending a Wrestling or Boxing Match - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 26 13. Attending an Auto Theater - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages 30 '14-. Playing Golf - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 33 15. Bowling - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 35
v LIST OP TABLES (Continued) TABLE PAGE 16. Hunting - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 36
17. Pishing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 36 18. Watching Television - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 41
19. Percentage of Respondents in Five Occu pational Prestige Levels Indicating Children Living at Home ^5 20. Out-of-Town Weekend Visiting, Including Overnight - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 47 21. Studying - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 51 2 2 . Reading Books for Pleasure - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 52
23. Frequency of Participation in,Home and Family Centered Leisure Activities in Relation to the Activity Occupying Most of the Respondent's Leisure Time - by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 53 24. Rank Order of Leisure Activities According to Frequency of Participation of Respondents in High and Low Prestige Categories 55
25. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Spectator Type Activities, by Prestige Levels 57 26. Percentage of Leisure Time Consumed by Commercialized Recreation, by Prestige Levels 58 27. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Active and Passive Types of Activities, by Prestige Levels 60 28. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Active and Passive Types of Activities in Relation to the Most Enjoyable Spare-Time Activity, by Prestige Levels 60
vl LIST OF TABLES (Continued) TABLE PAGE 29. Diversity of Leisure Activities by Prestige Levels 62 30. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Craftsmanlike Activities, by Prestige Levels 64* 31. Response to the Question, "What would you do with an extra two hours in your day?" by Prestige Levels, in Percentages 68
3 2 . Comparison of the Occupational Prestige Level of Sons in Relation to the Occupational Level of Their Fathers 72
3 3 . Comparison of Upward Mobile, Non-mobile and Downward Mobile Respondents for Selected Activities, in Percentages 74 34. Membership in Four or More Organizations - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Father's Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 76 35. Organizational Attendance; Thirty or More Times per Year - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation in Relation to Prestige Levels of Sons 76
3 6 . Attending Meetings Connected With Church Activities Five or More Times per Year - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 76 37. Playing Bridge Once a Month or Oftener - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers’ Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 77 3 8 . Reading Books for Pleasure, Once a Week or Oftener by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers’ Occu pation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 77
vil LIST OF TABLES (Continued) TABLE PAGE
39. Studying Daily - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 78 4*0. Watching Television Dally - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Father's Occupation In Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 78 41. Playing With Children Daily - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation In Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 78 1+2 . Fishing, Once a Month or Oftener During Season - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occu pation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons 79
43. Leisure Activities in Relation to Prestige Levels by Direction of Relationship and Degree of Significance 85
viii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Attending a Football or Baseball Game - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 24
2 . Attending a Wrestling or Boxing Match - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 27 3. Attending Movies and Auto Theater - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 30 4. Attending Concerts, Lectures, and Plays - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 31 5. Playing Golf - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 33
6 . Bowling - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 34 7. Hunting and Fishing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 37
8 . Participation in Formal Organizations - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 39 9. Watching Television - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 41 10, Listening to Radio and Phonograph Records - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 43 11, Doing "Odd Jobs" at Home, Playing With Children, Loafing, Relaxing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 44 12, Working on Car and Driving for Pleasure - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 46 13, Out-of-Town Weekend Visiting - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 47 14, Visiting Patterns - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels ,49 15, Card Playing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 50
ix LIST OF FIGURES (Continued) FIGURE PAGE 16. Reading and Studying ^ Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels 51 17. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Spectator Type Activities, by Prestige Levels 57 18. Percentage of Leisure Time Consumed by Commercialized Recreation, by Prestige Levels 59 19. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Craftsmanlike Activities, by Prestige Levels 64 20. Amount of Enjoyment Derived From Leisure-Time Activities, by Prestige Levels 66 21. Attitudes Toward Others Use of Leisure Time by Prestige Levels 67
x CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS
This is a study of the leisure behavior of individuals oooupylng different positions in the stratification system. It does not, therefore, represent an exhaustive Investigation of leisure-time activities per se. The study is primarily concerned with similarities and differences in leisure behavior associated with prestige levels. Initially, the writer had envisioned a study designed to measure the relationship between "style of living" and social stratification. However, in view of the multidimensional character of life-styles, it was decided to delimit the investigation to one important component of the life-style concept, that of leisure behavior. Another consideration influencing the selection of this component is that leisure apparently assumes special significance in our highly complex and Impersonal society. The amount of leisure has been increasing in recent years and seems destined to even more rapid increase in the near future. This constantly Increasing amount of leisure time is one of the outstanding aspects of present day life in American society. Although m o d e m life has been altered profoundly by the rapid extension of leisure time, there has been relatively little systematic study of leisure behavior.3- In fact, the
1 For a discussion of the historical reasons accounting for this fact see G.A. Lundberg, M. Komarovsky and M.A. Mclnery, Leisure: A Surburban Study. Columbia University Press, 1934, pp. 8-11. study of leisure-time activities,2 viewed as an aspect of social stratification, has "been almost entirely neglected in stratification research. Furthermore, much of the research in this area has been approached from a recreational, community, or welfare point of view. Many of these studies appeared in the middle thirties when the enforced leisure of the depression years stimulated communities to become increasingly concerned with the way in which its people spent their hours Waway from work." The point is not that studies of this variety are without merit, but rather that a more adequate understanding of these practical phases of recreation is dependent upon a fuller inquiry into the character and extent of leisure among different class-groups.
2 American leisure is obviously a broad subject with many facets and many definitions. In this study the term is used essentially in the same manner as conceptualized in the follow ing statement by Lundberg: Leisure is "the time we are free from the more obvious and formal duties which a paid Job or other obligatory occupation imposes upon us. In accepting this definition we are not overlooking the interdependence of work and leisure. Such terms are merely pragmatic ways of designating aspects, rather than separate parts, of life. It remains a fact, however, that nearly all people can and;do classify nearly all their activities according to these two categories in a way that is deeply meaningful to themselves . . . As such the categories are. . . useful for our purpose." Lundberg, et. al., op. pit., pp. 2-3. There are, however, other researchers who feel that leisure should also be considered as an attitude of mind rather than merely spare time. For a discussion of this point of view, see Reuel Denney and David Riesman, "Leisure In Urbanized America," in Paul K. Hatt and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., Reader In Urban Sociology. The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 1951, P. k-70. 3
Previous related studies. Before presenting the design of this investigation, brief reference will be made to other related studies. Beyond a few exploratory works suoh as the Lundberg, Komarovsky and Mclnery study, there is a paucity of empirically oriented research directed toward an understanding of the individual's position in the stratification system and the nature of his leisure activities.3 Veblen's classic analysis of the "leisure class," although not empirical in the sense that it involved the collection of"a body of data, did much to foster awareness of relationships between use of leisure and social status.^ His portrayal of the status- dominated leisure of an elite class in Western culture by introducing terms such as "conspicious consumption,11 "ostentatious display," and "pecuniary emulation," reflects the astuteness and orglnality of his observations. A number of community studies provide evidence indicative of systematic relationships between social status and leisure
3 See also Pltlrim Sorokin and Clarence Q. Berger, Time Budgets of Human Behavior, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1939; Loren S. Hadley, "A Study of the Leisure-Time Activities of Adults," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 19Al, ^ Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class. The MacmiIlian Company, New York, 1899. 4
styles.^ The Lynds noted a difference in the meaning of leisure for different social classes. Members of the "business class" in Middletown rather significantly refer to their activities at the office as the "business game" but working-class members do not refer to their work as the ^factory game." For the Middletown workingman, "leisure assumes a simple, direct, and Important place in [hisj scheme of things: it's when you live, and you get all of it you can - here, now, and all the time."? The provocative account by Lynes entitled, "Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow," although highly impressionistic, also implies that a distinct relationship exists between the individual's social position and his ways of spending "free time,"® The scope of the study. Recently many sociologists have exhibited a more sensitized awareness that some key sociological concepts need to be re-examined and perhaps reevaluated. The authors of a recent article, calling
5 Cf. R.S. and H.M. Lynd, Middletown in Transition. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York, 1937; August B. Hollingshead, Elmtown's Youth. John Wiley and Sons, New York, £9^9; W. Lloyd Warner, and Paul S, Lunt, The Social Llfq of a Modern Community. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1941; W. Lloyd Warner and Paul S. Lunt, The Social Status System of a Modem Community. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1942; John Useem, Pierre Tangent, and Ruth Useem, "Stratifi* cation in a Prairie Town," American Sociological Review. 7* 1942, pp. 331-42. 6 R.S. and H.M. Lynd, op. olt.. p. 243.
7 Ibid., p. 245. ® See Russell Lynes, "Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow," Harper1s Magazine. CXCVIII (February, 1949), pp. 19-28. 5 attention to major research needs in the field of social stratification, submit the following evaluation of previous work employing the "life-style11 concept. Much effort has gone into the problem of delineating strata or classes and describing - usually in a drastically typological manner - the typical "ways of life" of members of the several strata. Such descriptions emphasize manners, value complexes ("cultural profiles"), behavioral norms, family structure, and community roles. . . In fashioning aiid elaborating such accounts, the sociologists must always ask himself to what extent he is merely accepting stereotypical versions of reality vouchsafed by selected informants. While definite statistical support is at hand for some of the "class*differences suggested, in no class does so sharp a dis continuity in cultural characteristics appear as would be suggested by the theoretical c cleavage present in the typology. If such typologies are to be used, they must be regarded primarily as a source of hypotheses for the direction of research, and not as desirable end products of research, since they may obscure fully as much as they reveal.°
The need for further intensive investigation of social stratification and its correlates led the writer to question the degree to which leisure-time patterns of Individuals in different social strata are accurately portrayed by the findings of existent research. It is not anticipated, of course, that existent research in this area will be found to be categorically Incorrect. Many stated relationships between leisure and social status may be valid in certain
9 H.F. Kaufman, O.D. Duncan, N. Gross, and W.H. Sewell, "Problems of Theory and Method in the Study of Social Stratifi cation in Rural Society," Rural Sociology, 1 8 , 1953> P. 19. instances and jfco certain degrees. As a next step, it would seem necessary to define more precisely the limits within which these relationships are tenable. Moreover, perhaps certain alleged differences in this too-little-analyzed field of leisure dynamics are more apparent than real. What is rare today may become a mass activity tomorrow. It may well be that mass leisure has emerged so suddenly that we tend to interpret it by drawing on the stereotypes of an
earlier era.3*0 In this study, position in the social strata 11 will be defined in terms of occupational prestige, which has been regarded by virtually all students of social stratification as the most satisfactory and probably the most valid single
Denny and Riesman observe that "we take much the same view of modem leisure that people in Jefferson’s day took of Industry. But, whereas in Jefferson's day there were some hopeful ones, like the Englishman Samuel Ure, who looked to the coming of the machine with enthusiasm, the tone of most contemporary comment about the coming of leisure for all views It as a calamity." Reuel Denney and David Riesman, "Leisure in Urbanized America," in Paul K. Hatt and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., Reader in Urban Sociology. The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 1951. See also D. Riesman, N. Glazer, and R. Denney, The Lonely Crowd. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1950, pp. 315 ff. The problem of placing individuals in the stratifi cation system can, of course, be accomplished via several techniques. In this study an objective criterion, i.e., occupational prestige, was employed. For a discussion and critique of alternative approaches see Harold W. Pfautz, "The Current Literature on Social Stratification: Critique and Bibliography,"''American Journal of Sociology. 58, 1953» PP. 394-99. 7 12 Index of social status. Accordingly, the writer decided to conduct a study centering around the following questions: 1. Do systematic variations occur among different prestige levels in the frequency of participation in certain forms of leisure-time activity? 2. To what extent does the amount of satisfaction derived from spare-time activities vary with prestige level?
3 . Do systematic differences occur among occupational levels with regard to (h) active and passive types of leisure, (b) dependence upon commercial amuse ments, and (c) the proportion of time devoted to spectator activities? What would the respondents do with additional leisure time?
-*-2 North and Hatt comment on this index of social status when they note that "A man's job - occupying nearly one- third of his daily life - is more than just a means of livelihood or an outlet for his creative energy; it is a vital influence on his existence even beyond working hours. His social position, his economic welfare, and even his daily habits are all determined by the kind of job he holds." Cecil C. North and Paul K. Hatt, "Jobs and Occupations: A Popular Evaluation,11 in Logan Wilson and William L. Kolb, Sociological Analysis. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 19^9, p. Parsons also states that, "Broadly speaking there are two fundamental elements in the dominant American Scale of stratification. We determine status very largely on the basis of achievement within an occupational system which is in turn organized primarily in terms of universalistic criteria of performance and status within functionally specialized fields." Talcott Parsons, Essays in Sociological Theory Pure and Applied, The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 19^9, p. 17^. 8
5. How do they evaluate the manner in which other people use their leisure?
6 . Is there a significant relationship between use of leisure and patterns of occupational mobility? Research evidence bearing upon these questions is extremely limited in most cases* This study will be concerned, therefore, with a further refinement of the role of leisure behavior in the life-styles of individuals occupying different prestige levels in the stratification system. The following chapter is devoted to a description of the methodology and research techniques employed in this study. CHAPTER II THE STUDY DESIGN, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE
The Validity of research findings is dependent on the procedures used in collecting data and on the representativeness of the sample. This chapter will describe the methods used in obtaining data, explain the specific techniques employed, and present certain characteristics of the present sample.
Design of the study. The general design will compare the leisure patterns of seleoted samples of adult males with the relative prestige standing accorded their occupations.
The present study, therefore, includes two major foci: (1) it relates the use of leisure to the kind of occupation the individual holds, and (2) it studies adult males. The first condition provides a basis for analysis of leisure styles, a basis having relevance for the study of social stratification generally. The second condition increases the homogeneity of the sample so that significant differences in leisure among the strata studied can be more readily identified. Selection of an appropriate occupational prestige scale was required to test the relationships set forth in Chapter I. After reviewing various available instruments,1 the North-Hatt Occupational Prestige Scale was thought to possess the necessary qualifications for the task at hand. This scale was based on ratings of occupations by a cross-section of the American
Isee, for example, Paul K. Hatt, "Occupational and Sociological Stratification," American Journal of Sociology. 15, 1950, pp. 538-^3. 10 population interviewed by the National Opinion Research
Center. Interviewees were asked to evaluate ninety Jobs at all status levels on a five-point rating scale as
"excellent," "good," "average," "fair," or "poor." Prestige scores were then obtained by converting the percentage ratings on each Job into a single general score.
There were, of course, some occupations encountered in this study which do not appear in the North-Hatt scale.
Final ratings of all occupations not mentioned on the scale were the average of individual ratings made by five sociologists asked to compare and equate these occupational titles with those in the scale and to assign corresponding 2 prestige rating to them. ' Thus, through the use of this scale it was possible to translate the prestige level of each respondent into a comparable numerical score.
With a satisfactory instrument available, the next decision involved the definition of occupational "prestige levels." The term "prestige level," as used in this study, may be defined as a category of persons with occupations of somewhat similar prestige status. They do not, therefore, represent "social classes" in the sense of clearly distin guishable categories "set off from one another." It was necessary, for the purpose of analysis, to divide the con tinuum of scores into relatively higher and lower "prestige levels." It should be noted, however, that the limits of the categories used here were chosen by the investigator to
^ See Appendix E for the extended soale. 11 facilitate analysis of the data. The concept of "prestige level" may therefore be thought of as representing a
"statistical class" and, as such, is a highly useful tool 3 for social analysis.
Realizing that in any classification some violence is done to the phenomena, it was believed that five prestige levels would provide adequate opportunity for the major characteristics of the sample to manifest themselves. Accord ingly, logically defensible cutting points were established along the continuum of occupational scores dividing them into the following prestige levels:
North-Hatt Occupational Prestige Scores Prestige 82 - 96 I
75 - 81 II 67 - 74 III
55 - 66 IV 44 - 54 V
The chief factor underlying the choice of the Intervals was an effort to reflect major occupational groupings. Thus, the scores represented by Level I include, for the most part,
3 For a more detailed explanation concerning the conoept "statistical class" see, John F. Cuber and William F, Kenkel, Social Stratification in the United States. Appleton-Century- Crofts, Inc., New York, 195^ > pp. 13-l^V 12
professional persons. Level II encompasses largely managers, officials and proprietors, while Level III includes sales and clerical workers as well as white-collar employees generally. Skilled craftsmen and kindred workers comprise the major portion of Level IV, while service workers, semi-skilled and unskilled laborers make up most of the lower prestige category. Largely because of its geographic location and high degree of business and industrial diversification, Columbus, Ohio, appeared to be a suitable community for testing the proposed relat lonshlps • The quest1onnalre and its rationale. This study relies chiefly on the questionnaire method supplemented by some intensive Interviews during the preliminary construction of the instrument. The Items were drawn from published research, from case Interviews, and from suggestions of colleagues. The questionnaire included a section on frequency of participation In certain leisure activities, a set of questions concerning preferences and attitudes, several items pertaining to membership in voluntary organizations, and a section of relevant background items. In order that this study might be comparable with earlier ones, the response categories, whenever possible, were on a check-llst basis. A preliminary form of the instrument was pre-tested on 1G0 males randomly selected from the Columbus City Directory, This sample yielded a thirty-seven per cent return. Follow-up cards were not used. These returns were examined to discover ambiguous questions. The responses also provided several additional items and served further to indicate that pertinent items had been Included. After appropriate modifications were made, the final form was mimeographed. Copies of the prelimi nary and final questionnaires appear in Appendices A and B. The sample and its logic. With the pre-test complete, the next step Involved selecting a sample representative of the larger universe. There are, of course, several methods which would have produced a representative sample. The adult male population of metropolitan Columbus could have been sampled in a random manner. Obviously if this approach were used, the greatest proportion of prestige scores would be in the middle range of the scale. Relatively few cases would appear at the very high or very low prestige levels. Stratified or "purposive" sampling presented an alternative approach. For the requirements of this study it was thought best to combine both the random and stratified methods of sampling. Since this study seeks to delineate the nature of relationships, if any, existing between different prestige levels and leisure styles, rather than focusing on the strati fication system of a particular community, a sampling technique providing equal numbers of cases at several occupational levels was chosen. The findings of research based on a design of this type would appear to have broader applicability for the study of urban stratification than research based on more traditional sampling procedures. The objective was to obtain a random sample of 100 males at each pre-determined prestige level. At this point it was Un necessary to estimate how many cases would have to be selected at random In the City Directory to yield the specified sample size. The distribution of occupational scores of respondents who returned the pre-test questionnaire offered a rough basis for estimate. The lowest frequency of usable returns (four) appeared in the lowest prestige category. Therefore, If four cases occur out of every 100, then 3000 cases should produce approximately 120 returns in this category. In order to secure a sample of this magnitude, three cases were randomly selected from each page of the Columbus City Directory® This technique yielded a total of 3010 names. The name, address and occupation of each potential respondent was placed on a three-by-five card. The cards were then sorted by occupations into five prestige levels, yielding the distribution shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of Initial Sample by Occupational Prestige Level
Prestige Number of level oases
I 192 II 3^8 III 1113 IV 789 V 568 Total 3010
Since only 192 cases appeared at Level I, questionnaires were mailed to every person in this group. Two hundred and 15 fifty names were then randomly selected from the initial oases comprising Levels II, III and IV. In view of the less frequent returns from Level V evidenced in the pretest, three hundred questionnaires were mailed to a random sample of oases In this group, bringing the gross total to 1242. The mailing of the questionnaires was so timed that they would arrive at the respondents1 homes on Friday morning.**' A letter of explanation together with a stamped and addressed return envelope was included with each questionnaire. Pattern of questionnaire returns. The frequency of completed returns, as shown in Table 2, varied inversely with
Table 2. Questionnaire Returns by Occupational Prestige Level
Prestige Levels Sample Prooedure I II III IV V Total
Number In sampling 192 348 1113 789 568 3010 population Initial number of 192 250 250 250 300 1242 questionnaires sent Number lost through 12 16 24 29 41 122 faulty addresses Usable cases from Initial mailing: Number* 130 122 110 70 56 488 Per cent 72.7 53.1 49.5 33.1 23.2 -- * Partially completed questionnaires and cases Involving "retired" persons were not included in the final sample.
^ Research concerning mail questionnaires Indicates that the percentage of returns is usually higher when the question naire arrives later in the week. See, for example, George A. Lundberg, Social Research. Longmans, Green and Co., N.Y., 1947, pp. 202-03. 5 See Appendix C for a copy of the enclosed letter. 16 occupational prestige level. The operation of this factor helped to provide sufficient numbers at Levels I, II, and III. It also meant, however, that additional respondents were needed to Increase frequencies at Levels IV and V. A follow-up post card was mailed six days later and produced additional returns ranging from 15 per cent for Level I, to 9 per cent at Level V. An additional 125 names were then randomly drawn from the replacements in Level IV, and 250 names were selected from the cases remaining in Level V. Questionnaires were mailed to each person in these groups and follow-up cards were sent out six days later. Table 3 below shows the percentage of these returns.
Table 3 . Questionnaire Returns by Prestige Levels IV and V
Prestige Levels Additional Sample Procedure IV V Total
Additional number of questionnaires sent 125 250 375 Number lost through faulty addresses 15 3^ 59 Usable cases from second mailing: Number* 39 47 86 Per cent 37.2 24.0 —
♦Partially completed questionnaires and oases involving "retired" persons were not included in the final sample.
One of the difficulties encountered with a mailed question naire, particularly at the lower occupational levels, is that significantly fewer persons in these categories leave a forwarding address when they change residences. This condition 17 is further complicated by the high spatial mobility characteri zing many of these persons. When the specific occupational information contained in the returned questionnaires was evaluated, it was found, in some instances, that the initial prestige rating, based on a brief occupational description in the city directory, no longer applied. This necessitated a reassignment of some cases to either a higher or lower prestige category. Although the initial design oalled for limiting arbitrar ily the number of oases in each Level to 100, it was later thought best to utilize every completed questionnaire returned. Thus, the number of respondents vary from one Level to another and the total frequencies exceed 100 cases in each of the five prestige levels. Social characteristics of the sample. Before presenting the findings of this study a brief statement concerning the composition of the sample is desirable. Age. There is evidence which indicates that certain leisure activities are partially related to age. Thus wide discrepancies appearing among the Levels with respect to this faotor would tend to reduce the validity of the findings. An inspection of Table 4, on the following page, indicates that considerable similarity exists among the groups in regard to age. In general, the higher frequencies centered around the middle age categories for all groups. The heaviest age con centration in the first three prestige levels occurred in the same age category, (30 - 3*0 • Ogive curves were plotted for 18
Table 4. Age Distribution of [Respondents by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Age X II III IV v in years !fc= 128 102 133 109 102
2 0 - 2 4 .8 0.0 2.3 3.7 6.9 25 - 29 10 .9 10.8 8.3 19.2 7.8 3 0 - 3 4 1 6 .4 18.6 18.7 11.9 17.6 35 - 39 10.9 18.6 12.3 12.8 10.9 40 - 44 15.6 13.7 14.3 16.5 18.6 45 - 49 13.3 12.8 15.0 10.1 14.7 50 - 54 12.5 7.8 9.8 8.3 6.9 55 - 59 9.4 10.8 9.0 8.3 8.8 60 and over 10.2 6.9 10.3 9.2 7.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
4 each prestige level. These distributions reveal that the median ages of the persons in each prestige category were in the 40 to 45 year interval. It is evident that the age vari able is highly randomized throughout the groups studies, making them not significantly different in this respect. Marital status. Since leisure patterns are related to marital status, differences on this factor also might blur certain findings of this study. Table 5» on the following page, classifies respond ents according to their marital status. Again, the data reveal high similarity among the five samples. More than 90 per cent of the respondents in each sample were marriedj other marital statuses were characterized by small frequencies. Education. The marked degree of homogeneity, readily apparent in the previous distribution, disappears rapidly
4 See Appendix F. 19
Table 5« Marital Statue of Respondents by Occupational Prestige, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Marital I II III IV V Status N = 128 102 133 109 102
Married 93.8 91.3 9^.2 93*6 92.4 Single 3.9 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.9 Separated 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 Divorced 0.0 1.9 0.8 0.9 4.9 Widowed 1.5 3.9 0.7 3.7 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 when the educational level of the respondents Is examined, A direct relationship between education and occupational prestige is evident in Table 6. In the top level every person had attended college and a majority (68,7 per cent) had graduate training. This proportion decreased sharply with occupational prestige. Only four percent of those in the lowest prestige strata had attended college, and none had pursued graduate study.
Table 6, Educational Level of Respondents, by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Educational I IIIIIIV V level* N a 128 102 133 109 102
Grade school 0.0 1.9 7.6 21.0 32.3 High school 0.0 8.8 45.2 67,1 63.9 and/or trade school College 53.9 k 2.7 11.9 3.8 Graduate study 68.7 35.4 4.5 0.0 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
* Includes at least some training at the indicated level. 20
Iijoome, A similar relationship appeared when the data were classified according to income level. Table 7, below, shows that 15 per cent of those in the lowest prestige category earned less than $3000 per year. Approximately two-thirds of this group earned between $3000 and $5°00, Occupational
Table 7. Income Distribution of Respondents by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Income I II III IV V level N = 128 102 133 109 102
Jnder $3000 0,0 .9 3.2 4.6 14.8 ( ;3000 - !4999 8,6 13.7 28.7 66.1 68.7 i 15000 - i16999 30.5 36.3 39.9 26.5 13.8 j 7 0 0 0 - s 17,2 20.7 12.0 2.8 ( 8999 .9 19000 - !10,999 15 - 6 8.8 7.5 0.0 .9 i 111,000 or over 28.1 19.6 8.7 0.0 .9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 prestige varies direetly with income; twenty-eight per cent of the respondents in the top prestige level earned $11,000 or more per year.
Religious preference, A glance at Table 8 , on the following page, reveals that the major portion of each group were Protestants, Twenty-five per cent of the persons in the lowest occupational strata were Catholic, This percentage tends to decrease as occupational prestige increases, A reversal of this pattern occurs among the Jewish respondents. Table 8. Religious Preference of Respondents by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Religious I II III IV V Preference u S3 128 102 133 109 102
Protestant 82.8 84.4 71.4 77.9 75.5 Catholic 9.4 12.8 21.8 17.5 24.5 Jewish 5.5 0.9 3.G 0.9 0.0 Other 2.3 1.9 3.8 3.7 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100,0
Rural-urban background. Prom Table 9 it will be seen that a majority of the respondents spent most of their lives in metropolitian areas. Less than 20 per cent at each prestij
Table 9. Place of Residence Where Respondents Lived Most of Their Lives, by Occupational Prestige, in Percentages.
Prestige Levels Place of 1 II III I? V residence jj ss 128 102 133 109 102
On a farm 1.6 7.8 5.3 2.8 3.9 In the country, but not on a , 2.3 3.9 0.8 9.2 4.9 farm In a village of less than 3.9 1.9 4.5 4.6 2.9 2500 people In a small city 14.8 7.8 9.0 11.8 3.9 (2500 - 25,000) In a city of 6.3 11.9 9.0 12.9' 24,6 (25,000 - 100,000) In a large city (more than 71.1 66.7 71.4 59.7 59.8 100,000) Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 22 level lived in places of 2500 population or less. The data indicate greater similarities than differences in the background of the respondents as represented by the population of the community in which they spent most of their lives.
Classification and statistical treatment of the data.
Prior to the machine tabulation of replies, each questionnaire was examined for completeness and consistency. The processing of the questionnaires was greatly facilitated by preceding many of the items. The data were transferred to IBM cards, two cards being required for each case. Complete verification was made of all card punching operations.
Throughout the classification of the data, with one exception, the five initial prestige categories were kept sepa rated, Only in the analysis of mobility, Chapter V, were the several samples combined and treated as a single universe. In most instances, the Chi square test of significance, was applied to differences occurring among prestige levels and the frequenoy of participation in specific leisure activities. Other analytical methods employed are described as they appear in the analysis of the data. CHAPTER III
LEISURE ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESTIGE LEVELS
The activities of* a people can be classified from a great many points of view depending upon the purpose at hand. Perhaps one of the most objective methods of describing leisure-time activities is to analyze the frequencies with which individuals participate in them. This chapter, will focus on the degree to which participation in specific leisure activities is associated with different prestige levels.
The findings in this phase of the study are organized under four major topics: (1) Spectator activities, (2) Participant sports, (3) Organizational activities, and (40 Home and family-centered activities. These categories emerged after considerable experimentation with a number of classification systems. While other divisions could be made and even though, in some Instances, these categories are not mutually exclusive, nevertheless it was felt that they provide a meaningful framework for analysis of the data. The Chi square test, previously noted, was applied to the relationships between prestige level and frequency of participating in forty-seven specific leisure pursuits. The direction of these relationships was further examined by assigning arbitrary weights to the frequency categories in the following manner: Almost About once About 1 to 3 Less than Rarely dally a week times a month once a month or never 3 2 1 0 23 2h
Mean scores on all activities were computed for each prestige level. The results of this analysis will be presented in graphic form.
SPECTATOR SPORTS Attending football and baseball games. A significant relationship was found between the number of football and baseball games usually attended during the season and prestige level. An Inspection of Figure 1 reveals that attendance at football games varies directly with occupational prestige, while attendance at baseball games varies inversely with occupational status. Table 10, on the following page, shows
Figure 1. Attending a Football or Baseball Game - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency*
About once a week About 1 to 3 times a month Less than once a month Rarely or never I IIIIIIVV Prestige Levels
*0nly the extreme frequency categories will be indicated in the figures which follow in this chapter. 25
Table 10. Attending a Football Game - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II III IV V N= 128 102 133 109 102 Gnce a week 22.8 22.6 9.2 10.7 or oftener 17.3 One to three 23.4 11.0 times a month 24.5 14.3 2.9 Less than once 21.8 a month 17.9 24.5 23.9 17.6 Rarely or never 35.9 28.4 46.6 55.9 68.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 X2 * 58.16; d. f. = 12; P < .001
that more than twice as many persons in the higher than in the lower groups attended football games once a week during the football season. This pattern, however, reversed Itself when the data were classified according to the number of times the respondents attended baseball games. Here, attendance decreased as occupational status Increased. Perhaps part of this relationship reflects the close
Table 11. Attending a Baseball Game - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency II III IV V N= 128 102 133 109 102 Once a week 10.8 or oftener 3.9 3.9 3.8 8.3 One to three 10.8 10.5 times a month 4.7 13.7 11.7 Less than once 24.2 28.4 30.8 18.4 22.6 a month fiarely or never 67.2 56.9 54.9 59.6 54.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 X2 ■ 21.15; d.f. = 12; P <.05 26 linkage between the college training necessary for most high prestige occupations and the intercollegiate nature of tiiueh football activity. Varying degrees of alumni loyality may also account for some of these differences.
Attending boxing and wrestling matches. Frequency of attending boxing and wrestling matches, as well as attendance at stock car races, tends to vary inversely with prestige ratings. However, the differences among the groups studied were not statistically significant.
The extremely low attendance rates, especially for boxing and wrestling, revealed in Table 12 and Figure 2, are interesting in the light of the sizeable audiences usually present at these events. These findings would seem to indicate that a ma^or segment of such audiences is largely composed of avid fans who attend these events with regularity.
Table 12. Attending a Wrestling or Boxing Match - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I IX III IV V N= 128 102 133 109 102 Once a month 1.6 3.0 6.9 or oftener 2.3 3.7 Less than once a month 98. if J?.7.*P .JL7..7. 96.3 Total - 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0 100.0
X2 * 6.76; d.f. =4; P <.20 27
Figure 2 . Attending a Wrestling or Boxing Match - Frequency of Activity by Prestige^ Levels Frequency Almost daily
Wresf/jkfi ov_i£Xni Barely or — S-toek never II IIII IV V Prestige Levels
A discussion of spectator sports Involves at least a brief examination of certain factors apparently related to the part these activities play in the lives of many appreciative spectators. Increased leisure and a rising standard of living explain only a part of this pattern. Perhaps the following observations made by Bussell Lynes may largely explain the fascination which sports have for certain spectators. An example of the twentieth century dilettante par excellence is the baseball fan. If you compare his attitude toward his favorite pastime with that of a good art "lover," you find that they have a good deal in common. The fan (and the dilettante) is a highly skilled observer with a remarka ble sense of the past and present status of his favorite pastime. He understands the nuances of technique and can distinguish between first-rate and not quite first- rate performance with the connoisseurship that comes from long exercise of judgment and constant refinement of perception. He 28
may or may not be a practitioner himself. He. is confident in the expression of his Judgment, but he doesn't hesitate to change his mind If continued performance doesn't bear him out. . . He isn't interested in reputations for their own sake; he is interested in quality of performance.1
While it is obvious, of course, that all sports fans are not as perceptive as this sketch portrays them to be, it is suggested here that appreciative spectators of this type may well constitute a larger percentage of certain audiences than is presently suspected. Perhaps a further clue may be found in the phenomenon of hero-worship as it operates in American culture. Wecter has made an astute observation with respect to this variable. Hero-worship answers an urgent American need. The fan and the autograph hunter, now Imitated elsewhere, are as native to the United States as the catbird and the Catawba grape. To fix our relation with greatness by means of a signature in an album, a lock of hair, a photograph, or a baseball that has scored a home run; to haunt stage doors and entries to locker-rooms; to pursue our favorites with candid cameras and sound recorders, invading their meditations and their honeymoons - this passion has made us the premier nation of hero-worshippers. Others, of course, have like impulses. The phlegmatic Cockney collects Famous Cricketers from the coupons in cigarette packets; the Spaniard helps to carry off a great matador on his shoulder. But only in the United States has the greeter become a profession and the ovation a fine art.2
1 Hussell Lynes, "The Taste-makers,n Harper1s . 19^ > (June, 19^7), P. 4-81. 2 Dixon Wecter, The Hero in America. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, p. 350, The game of baseball and especially the baseball player Babe Ruth are perhaps obvious examples of the operation of the hero-worship complex as it functions in this culture* In addition to being widely acknowledged as the national sport, baseball has a formal shrine, built and maintained to perpetuate and immortalize the heros and relics of the game. Despite the popularity of various athletic contests, it should be pointed out that total admissions to all spectator sports (except horse racing) decreased from $2 billion to about $1,6 billion between 194*7 &&& 1 9 5 3 * while the population fourteen years of age and over increased by 7 per cent.3 This trend appears to be consistent with the relatively low frequencies observed for these activities when compared with other leisure pursuits examined in this study. Moreover, attendance at horse races was so infrequent among the groups analyzed in this research that statistical analysis of this item was not feasible. Here again, the repeated attendance of the avid fan would seem to explain the relatively large number of persons who attend many of these events.
OTHER SPECTATOR ACTIVITIES Motion picture and auto theater attendance. The amount of time spent attending movies (in an Indoor theater) Is apparently not related to occupational prestige.^ The similarities at each prestige level are presented graphically
3 D.A. Saunders and S. S. Parker, "$3° Billion For Fun," Fortune, (June, 19540, p. 118. 4* See Appendix F, Table 1. 30
Figure 3 . Attending Hovies and Auto Theater - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
Harely or never I II III IV V Prestige Levels in Figure 3. However, when the sample was categorized according to attendance at a drive-in auto theater, a significantly larger proportion of lower status individuals regularly attended these theaters th&n persons at any other status level. Table 3$', below, shows that approximately three times as many persons in Levels IV and V attended an auto theater one to three times a month as did persons at Levels I and II,
Table 1 3 . Attending an Auto Theater - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II III IV V 102 133 109 102 Once a week 9.2 8.8 or oftener 1.6 1.9 3.8 One to three 16.5 times a month 5.5 5.9 14.3 15.7 Less than once a month 22.7 16.7 21.7 17.4 22.6 Rarely or never 70.2 75.5 60.2 56.9 52.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 X2 * 32.2?; d.f. = 12; P <.01 31
Attending concerts, lectures and clays. Previous research in this area has suggested that such affairs as musical events, lectures, and theatrical plays are likely to attract with greater frequency persons occupying higher prestige positions in the social strata. Data gathered in the present study lends further support to previous studies concerned with this relationship. A consistent pattern of significant differences appears in Figure 4, below. In each instance the higher prestige groups are characterized by higher participation levels in these activities.
Figure 4. Attending Concerts, Lectures, and Plays - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency About once In 3 months
Less than once a year I IVIIIII V Prestige Levels
PARTICIPANT SPORTS
Coif. Among the various participant sports, golf represents perhaps the most pertinent example of how an activity Is being transformed from the exclusive possession of a few wealthy individuals to a popular pastime for many, representing diversified backgrounds In Income and social 32 status. Eecent Increases In the number of municipal golf courses, together with improved transportation facilities account for many of these changes. Steiner reports that in 1910 there were only twenty-four public golf courses in operation,-5 In 1928, 185 cities reported municipal courses; in 1944, 409 cities, some with
more than one. Today there are 5*056 golf courses In this country. It is estimated that the golfing population spends more than two and a half million dollars a year for equipment, c traveling costs, and hotel bills. Despite recent Increase in public golf courses with relatively low fees, data gathered in this study Indicate that gold Is still rather closely associated with the middle and the upper prestige groups. This relationship, however, appears to be curvilinear. An inspection of Figure 5* cm. the following page, reveals a gradual Increase in degree of participation as prestige level Increases - until the middle status group is reached. At this point the frequency of participation begins to decline along with prestige ratings. As may be seen in Table 14, 20.3 per cent of the persons in the middle group played golf once a month or oftener. This was true of 14.0 per cent of those in the highest group and of only 7.7 per cent of the persons at the lower prestige
5 Jesse Steiner, Americans at Play. McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., 1 9 3 3 , p. 1 9 9 . ^ F.W, Cozens and F.S. Stumpf, Sports in American Life. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1953* P. 1 6 3 . ~ 33
Figure 5* Playing Golf - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost dally
Rarely or never I II IIIIV V Prestige Levels level. Within the middle prestige category, the highest degree of participation occurred among those who classified themselves as "salesmen." This would appear to be consistent with the fact that golf offers an excellent opportunity for pursuing business relations under informal and pleasant surroundings. The instrumental use to which this activity may easily be put, suggests that membership in the "right" golf club could still be accepted as an important index of social status. Table 14. Playing Golf - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency IIIIII IV V N= 128 102 133 109 102 Once a month 14.0 20.3 4.6 or oftener 15.7 7.7 Less than once a month 10.2 10.8 5.3 4.6 1.9 Rarely or never 75.8 73.5 74.4 90.8 90.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X 2* 28.46; d.f. = 8 ; P < .001 34
Bowling. The number of games bowled per month by the respondents in this study is not significantly related to their occupational status. The similarities occurring at all levels is readily apparent in Figure 6. Perhaps the promotion of many business and industrial bowling leagues within the past decade accounts for some of the regularities observed.
Figure 6. Bowling - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Level Frequency Almost dally
Rarely or never I II III IV V Prestige Levels
However, the relatively low frequency of participation in this sport, as shown in Table 15* on the following page, contrasts markedly with accounts attesting the tremendous popularity which this particular type of commercial recreation allegedly envoys. Certain characteristics of the game are usually cited in these reports. The minimum amount of space required, particularly for a relatively vigorous sport, makes the construction of bowling alleys well adapted to congested urban areas. Bowling continues throughout all seasons, and being an indoor sport is not 35
Table 15. Bowling - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II III IV V N= 128 102 133 109 102 Once a month 12.5 10.8 17.8 18.3 12.7 or oftener Less than once 89.2 82.2 81.7 87.3 a month 87.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 ■ 7.02; d.f. 4; P >.10 dependent upon the weather. There Is no great outlay for equipment, since many alleys furnish shoes as well as the bowling ball. It is highly competitive; both operators and players agreeing that the "crash-bang" of the alley is an Indispensable part of the game.7 Again, It may well be that a substantial number of leisure activities appeal to a relatively small number of devotees who participate in, or attend, their favorite leisure pursuit with clock-like regu larity. Hunting and fishing. Hunting and fishing have often been referred to as the classic American sports. Since the earliest settlers, who indulged more for food than for fun, the enthusiasm for these leisure pursuits has remained. The more than eighteen million hunting and fishing licenses issued annually reflect the scope of this interest. Indeed,
? F.W. Cozens and F.S. Stumpf, Snorts in American Life. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1953* P. 192. 36
Table 16. Hunting - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency V In season I II III IV 1 R T 2 8 102 133 109 102 Once a week 9.8 13.7 or oftener 2.3 9.7 13.7 One to three 4.6 times a month 7.8 4.9 8.3 9.9 Less than once OO . 7.8 9.8 c_o 7.8 a month 8.3 Earely or never 82.1 75.6 73.6 73.4 68.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 12,17; d.,f. = 12; PC.50
Table 17. Fishing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Frequency Prestige Levels In season I II III IV V 128 102 133 109 102 Once a week 9.4 8.8 15.8 18.6 or oftener 18.3 One to three 5.5 12.7 19.6 6.5 20,6 times a month Less than once 24.2 21.6 15.0 17.4 17.7 a month Earely or never 60.9 56.9 49.6 57.8 43.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0 100,0
X2 = 34.13; a,,f. = 1 2 ; P <.001 37
Figure 7. Hunting and Fishing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
Barely or never I II III IV V Prestige Levels considering the extent of modem day industrialization, it is remarkable that vast protected areas devoted to rod-and-gun enthusiasts still remain. The evidence in this study indicates that the amount of time the urban male devotes to hunting is not significantly related to his occupational status. The amount of time he spends fishing, however, varies inversely with his occu pational status, and in this instance the relationship is statistically significant. Tables 16 and 17 and Figure 7 preeent the findings for these activities.
ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES Organized group affiliations seem to play an Increasingly important role in the life pattern of urban residents. The loss of traditional family functions has been accompanied by an Increase In the number and type of highly specialized formal organizations. Differential participation in some of these organizations may well have Important economic, political and social implications* The relationship between organized group affiliations and type of occupation has been the focus of several studies. The combined findings of these Investigations seem clearly to support the existence of a positive relationship between position in the stratification system and extent of participation in formal organizations. Those in higher status positions were more active and diverse in their participation than those In lower positions.® Several items relating to the character and extent of social participation were included in the present study.
Prom Figure 8 , on the following page, it is readily apparent that the findings of this study are in keeping with previous research reporting on this point. A consistent pattern of significant differences (P <. 001) is revealed by the data.^ In other words, regardless of whether we concentrate upon the frequency of attending conventions, fraternal organ izations or other club meetings, or participating in community service work, the higher prestige groups show
® Cf. Mirra Komarovsky, "The Voluntary Associations of Urban Dwellers," American Sociological Beview. 11, 19^ 6, pp. 686-698; Genevieve Khupfer, "Portrait of the Underdog," Public Opinion Quarterly. (Spring, 19^7)> PP. 103-11^; William G. Mather, Jr., "Income and Social Participation," American Sociological Review. 6 , 19^1, pp. 38O-3 8 3 : Leonard Relssman,' "Class, Leisure, and Social Participation," American Sociological Review. 1 9, 195^> PP. 76-8^.
9 See also Appendix F, Tables S', 7 ,; arid 8 . 39
Figure 8. Participation in Formal Organizations - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
UJqk, Barely or never I II III IV V Prestige Levels higher participation levels In each of these activities. The same pattern of differences is also reflected in differential rates of church attendance and participation in meetings connected with the church. Data were also collected concerning organizational leadership. If leadership is defined in terms of holding an office in a formal organization, the dominance of the higher prestige groups is again evident. The evidence presented in this section is of Interest primarily because of the pattern of differences it presents rather than the degree of difference existing among specific prestige levels. In general, the pi&ture that emerges is a consistent one of greater dominance, and therefore of greater potential community control, by individuals occupying the higher prestige levels. That is, persons in these positions belong to a significantly greater number of organizations 40 and more often holds offices In these organizations. The present study thereby lends further support to previous studies of these relationships. An additional point merits brief comment. The essential agreement of these findings with those of earlier investiga tions , employing different variables, e.g. Income, education, and composite status indicies, to determine social position, would appear to indicate that differences among these indicies of social status, in this respect at least, are not especially crucial.
HOME AMD FAMILY CENTERED LEISURE ACTIVITIES The traditional American family has undergone many changes in composition, degree of stability and In the role which it plays in the life pattern of its members. These changes were perhaps inevitable in view of other cultural changes which have profoundly altered the pattern of work and play in the United States. Increased specialization in the roles of husband, wife and children has tended to disrupt traditional family recreations. Hence, it is appropriate to consider a question frequently raised: What is the character and extent of leisure activities which are currently centered around home and family life? Watching television. Among the activities significantly related to prestige, none occupied a greater proportion of the respondents' leisure time, at each prestige level studied, 41
Table 18. Watching Television - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency III III IV V N = '128 102 133 109 102 Almost dally 69.5 75.5 84.8 84.4 85.3 About once 11.0 11.8 a week 12.6 13.7 11.3 Less than once 10.8 4.6 2.9 a week 17.9 3.9 Total 100 .'0 100.0 100.0 100.0 10Q .0 than the practice of watching television. A glance at Table 18 and Figure 9, will reveal that the frequency of television viewing varies inversely with occupational prestige. Those occupying lower status positions spent significantly more time watching TV than those in the higher prestige levels.-*-0
Figure 9. Watching Television - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
Earely or never X II III IV V Prestige Levels
3-0 A similar relationship was al&o found in a study by Leonard Reissman, entitled, "Glass, Leisure, and Social Participation," American Sociological Review. 19, 1954, p. 80 42
In spite of the relatively high frequency of this leisure pursuit, several respondents penciled a brief "value judge ment" on the margin of the questionnaire opposite their response to the TV item. Among the more frequent comments were: "I spend more time than I should on this," "Don't enjoy many of the programs, but theres nothing else to do," "Guess I've become addicted to TV!" These notes, incidently.y were not confined to persons in any one prestige category, but appeared more or less randomly throughout the sample. The only non-crltlcal remarks referred to the enjoyment usually derived from programs featuring sports events. This pattern was further revealed in response to the question: Which television program do you like the best? A large percentage of Individuals at each prestige level indicated a definite preference for televised sports. When comparisons were made between particular types of athletic events, strong preferences for boxing and football were evident. The following comments by Cozens and Stumpf perhaps account for many of these preferences. The Nova-Baer encounter in June, 1939* was the first televised boxing bout, and the floodlighted arena proved to be an excellent scene for the camera to cover. Viewers were furnished with thrills quite as stimulating as though they had occupied front-row seats. Boxing continues to enjoy tremendous popularity on television but is probably overshadowed by the professional wrestling matches. In fact, the enjoyment of these shows by a strangely heterogeneous group of the population is, to many, a truly strange and unexplained phenonenon of the present era. . . 43
Football has proved very successful as a television sport. It somehow invites audience participation In a way that is not true even for the spectator in the stands. At the stadium the spectator knows the game is separate; he is sandwiched in the crowd, and the players are out on the field. By way of television the contest is in the living room. The spectator in this case stands with the coach at the sidelines, right beside the white lines that run'over the grass.H
Radlo and record listening. The data, in this study, indicate that frequency of radio listening ranks second only to the time spent watching television. More than
50 per cent of the respondents at all levels devoted at least some time each day to listening to radio. This activity does not vary significantly with occupational level, although the evidence presented in Figure 10 does suggest that the amount of time devoted to radio listening tends to increase with occupational prestige ratings.
Figure 10. Listening to Hadlo and Phonograph Records - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
Rarely or never II III IV VI Prestige Levels
1 11 Cozens and F.S. Stumpf, Sports in American Life* The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1953 > pp. 151-52. 44 When the data were classified according to the amount of time spent listening to phonograph records a significant association appeared. The observed relationship is curvilinear, with the highest frequencies occurring at the extreme segments of the prestige continuum. There is also evidence which Indicates that musical preferences are
systematically related to prestige level.-*-2 Doing "odd Jobs" at home, nlavlng with children. loafing, relaxing. The frequent leisure-time practices of doing "odd Jobs" at home, loafing and relaxing were not
significantly related to occupational p r e s t i g e .^3 These relationships are presented in Figure 11. It will be noted that the amount of time devoted to gardening was equally
Figure 11. Doing "Odd Jobs" at Home, Playing With Children, Loafing, Relaxing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily ij • Le" a t h®22lS: i-nA r -----
Play/nfi “>tth c.hildre.'n
Rarely or never II III IV V Prestige Levels
-*-2 Karl F. Sehuessler, "Social Background and Musical Taste," American Sociological Review. 13, 194-8, pp. 3 3 0-335. 13 See Appendix F, Tables 8 through 1 2 . 45 distributed among the occupational groups. Inquiry was also made regarding the amount of leisure spent playing with children. This activity tends to vary Inversely with prestige ratings. The responses to this item, however, are largely dependent upon whether or not there were children at home, and to some extent upon their ages. Information obtained concerning the number of children living at home
(Table 1 9 ) shows that the largest percentage of families
Table 19. Percentage of Respondents- in Five Occupational Prestige Levels Indicating Children Living at Home
Prestige !Levels Category I II III IVV N= 128 102 13 3 109 102 Children at home: Yes 62.8 66.9 64.7 72.6 70.3 No 37.2 33.1 35.3 27.4 29.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 with children lining at home occurred among the lower prestige groups. This factor may partially explain the observed relationship. Information concerning the ages of children at home was not obtained. Working on oar and driving for pleasure. The auto mobile is sometimes referred to as the ”great leveler," eliminating as it does the age-old distinction between the person who rides and the one who walks. But Is the amount of time spent driving and riding in a car for pleasure, or working on it, randomly distributed among different occu pational categories? From Figure 1 2 , on the following page, i+6
Figure 12. Working on Car and Driving for Pleasure - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels
Frequency Almost dally
Rarely or never L— ^ ______I II III IV V Prestige Levels
it is readily apparent that there is a tendency for persons in the lower occupational groups to spend significantly more time than others in and around their automobiles. This relationship would seem to be in keeping with the Interests and skills of the relatively large proportion of mechanics and machinists noted in Prestige Categories IV and V. Out-of-town weekend visiting. Do persons at certain levels of the occupational strata visit out-of-town on week ends more frequently than individuals occupying other segments of the social strata? The frequencies in Figure 13, on the following page, indicate that weekend visiting which does not include staying overnight is not significantly associated with occupational differences. However, when the data were analyzed according to weekend visits which Included overnight lodging, a statistically significant relationship appeared.-^ This activity, which seemed to be more popular
1^ See Appendix F, Tables 15 and- 16. 47
Figure 13• Out-of-Town Weekend Visiting - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels
Frequency About once in 3 months
Less than once a year ------I II III IV V Prestige Levels among persons at the higher prestige levels, occurred most frequently at Level II (see Table 20). For example, more than one-third of the respondents at Level II spent a weekend out of town at least once every three months, while this practice occurred among only one^fifth of those at the lower occupational level. It is conceivable that the additional
Table 20. Out-of-Town Weekend Visiting, Including Overnight - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages Prestige Levels Frequency III IIIIVV N= 128 102 133 109 102 At least once 24.2 36.3 23.3 20.2 20.6 in three months At least, once 2 6 ,4 18.6 15.6 12.8 in six months 28.9 At least once 18.8 22.0 a year 19.6 21.3 21.7 Less than once a year 28.1 17.7 36.8 42.2 44.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 38.43; d.f. = 12; P < . 001 t 48 expense usually Incurred by an overnight trip explains some of the differences observed between the higher and lower groups concerning this variable. Visiting patterns. Previous studies have indicated that persons in the lower status levels tend to have fewer intimate friends than those in higher positions and engage in less visiting among their friends.15 Moreover, what friendship contacts there are among the lower prestige groups are apt to be confined to narrower areas. In Middletown, for example, more than half the close friends of those in the working-class, but less than a tenth of the friends of the business group, were reported to have met in the neighbor hood.1^ Some of the data in this study bear upon theBe relation ships. Significant differences were found between visiting patterns and.prestige level. In general, the higher status groups indicated they entertained more often at home and also attended parties at friends' homes more often than the lower groups. The results of this analysis are presented in Figure 14, on the following page. A curvilinear relationship appeared between occupational prestige and the frequency of visiting friends, with the most frequent amount of visiting occurring at the upper and lower segments of the prestige scale. Thus, evidence in this study, relative to the male,
15 See, e.g., E. Lynd and H. Lynd, Middletown in Transition. Harcourt. Brace and Co., New York, 1937* L.C. Michelon, "The New Leisure Class," American Journal of Sociology. 5 9 , 1 9 5 4 , pp. 371-378. 16 E. Lynd and H. Lynd, op. pit., p. 281. 49
Figure 14. Visiting Patterns - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
E\ilush, ton & -PvW.c rffakJBSS* feMv at a ho we. Earely or never II III IV Prestige Levels would seem to suggest that husbands in the lower prestige occupations are not as limited in their visiting patterns as are their wives. Eecent increases in the amount of leisure time also appear to have Important implications for visiting patterns among city residents. As L.P. Jacks has put' It:
Thanks to the telephone, motor-car, and such like inventions, our neighbors have it in their power to turn our leisure Into a series of Interruptions, and the more leisure they have the more active do they become in destroying ours. Nor are we less active in destroying theirs. We spend a great deal of our leisure in mutual botheratioh. In what ever conditions you place a man, the use he can make of his leisure will always be limited by the use that other people are making of theirs.17
Card playing. Preferences for certain card games are significantly related to differences in occupational prestige.
17 L.P. Jacks, The Education of the Whole Man, cited in G.A. Lundberg, Leisure: A Surburban Study, Columbia University Press, 1934, p. 7. 50
Figure 15. Card Playing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
-pj ------
Barely or never IIIIII IV V Prestige Levels
Figure 15, above, shows that bridge is played more frequently among those in the higher status occupations, while poker and other card games, not including bridge, seem to be more popular among lower prestige groups. The essential agreement of these findings with those of earlier investigations,18 which employed different methods and used other samples, suggest considerable stability in these preference patterns. Beading and studying. As may be seen from an inspection of Table 21 and Figure 16 , on the following page, a highly significant correlation was found to exist between amount of time devoted to studying and the position of the individual In the occupational hierarchy. More than forty per cent of those at the top prestige level indicated they spent at least part of their leisure time studying each day. This percentage
See, e.g., B. Lynd and H. Lynd, op. cit., pp. 269-271, and L.C. Michelon, pp. cit., p. 377. Table 21. Studying - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II IIIIV V N= 128 102 133 109 102 Almost daily 42.2 29.4 15.0 7.3 8.9 About once 12.8 a week 27.3 27.5 17.3 16.5 One to three 14.8 15.8 10.1 7.8 times a month 13.7 Less than once 8.8 12.8 11.0 a month 5.5 12.7 Rarely or never 10.2 20.6 39.1 55.1 57.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X 2 = 123.74; d.f. = 16; P<.001 decreased markedly along with prestige ratings. In the lower occupational category only nine per cent spent some time studying as a dally activity. A similar inverse relationship was also apparent with regard to the time spent reading books for pleasure. This
Figure 16. Reading and Studying - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels Frequency Almost daily
Rarely or never I IIIIIIV V Prestige Levels 52
Table 22. Reading Books for Pleasure - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II III IV V 'ft= 128 102 133 109 102 Almost daily 28.9 24.5 19.6 16.5 16.7 About once 10.8 a week 26«6 17.7 20.3 14.7 One to three 6.0 12.8 times a month 12.5 14.7 14.7 Less than once a month 10.9 16.. 6 19.6 17.5 13.7 Rarely or never 21.1 26.5 3^.5 38.5 44.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 36.43; d.f . 16; P < .01
activity played a significantly larger role among the Informal, leisure activities of the higher occupational groups than among those in lower prestige positions. The observed re lationships between studying and reading are, of course, partially a function of the fact that higher prestige occupations frequently require extended study. These find ings may also indicate the degree to which certain leisure pursuits may become extensions of professional and business interests, as well as reflect differential levels of aspiration. Extent of home and family centered leisure. When the proportion of leisure centering around the home and the family is compared with the percentage of leisure spent elsewhere, an Interesting contrast is revealed. The notably large proportion of spare-time spent in or around the 53 home is clearly evident from Table 23. Those in the higher groups tended to center a somewhat greater amount of their leisure around home and family situations than did the lower groups. Less than one-third of the spare-time activities at Level V were spent "elsewhere." This proportion dropped
to 11.2 per cent at Level II. This evidence appears to
Table 2 3 . Frequency of Participation in Home and Family Centered Leisure Activities in Relation to the Activity Occupying Most of the Respondent's Leisure Time - by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Category I II III IV V N= 124 98 130 104 99 Home and family 79.8 88.8 7^.0 69.7 centered leisure 77.7 Elsewhere 20.2 11.2 22.3 26.0 30.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
indicate that the home and the family still play a more important role in contempory leisure patterns than is usually indicated in sociological writings which follow the familiar "defunctionalization of the family" theme. 54
RANK ORDER OP LEISURE ACTIVITIES
In an attempt to present the foregoing data in more composite form, each leisure activity was ranked according to the mean level of participation of respondents in high and low prestige categories,^ The results of this analysis are shown In Table 24, on the following page. It will be noted that in general the activities appear In similar order. However, there are sbme notable exceptions. The amount of leisure devoted to studying is considerably greater among the higher status groups. These persons also appear to spend proportionally more time reading for pleasure, attending fraternal organizations, parties and playing bridge, than do those In the lower positions. Both groups, however, spent more time watching television than they spent participating in any other single leisure pursuit. The general configuration presented in this table is, of course, in keeping with specific comparisons noted previously in this chapter.
19 For this analysis, mean scores of categories I and II were combined, and the new mean values represent the levels of participation for the "high" group. Similarly, the combined mean scores of categories IV and V served as the mean levels of participation for the "low" group. The middle category, group III, was not included In this analysis. 20 See Chapter VI for a composite tabulation of the degree to which each leisure activity is associated with the prestige levels studied. 55 Table 24. Rank Order of Leisure Activities According to Frequency of Participation of Respondents in High and Low Prestige Categories High Prestige Category Low Prestige Category Watching television 1 ■1 Watching television Listening to radio 2 Listening to radio Studying ,3 Doing odd jobs at home Playing with 4 Playing with children children Doing odd jobs 5 Driving car for at home pleasure Reading for pleasure 6 6 Visiting friends Visiting friends 7 7 Working on car
Driving car for 8 Entertaining at home pleasure Entertaining at home 9 9 Reading for pleasure Listening to phonograph records 10 10 Just loafing Attending fraternal u 11 Listening to phonograph organizations records ■ Attending a party 12 12 Playing card games, other than bridge or poker Just loafing 13 3 Studying Working on car 14 14 Spending time in tavern Attending movies 15 15 Attending a party Playing bridge 16 16 Attending movies Playing other card 17 17 Attending fraternal games organizations Bowling 18 Playing poker Spending time in 19 Bowling tavern Playing poker 20 Attending a wrestling or boxing match Attending a 21 Playing bridge wrestling or boxing match CHAPTER IV FORMS OF LEISURE AND ATTITUDES TOWARD LEISURE USE
The preceding chapter has been concerned with the degree to which leisure activities are associated with different prestige levels. At this point the focus will shift to an analysis of certain configurations of leisure behavior, including several attltudinal dimensions. Do systematic variations occur among the different occupational levels with
regard to (1 ) active and passive types of leisure, (2 ) com
mercial amusements, and (3 ) the proportion of time devoted to spectator activities? To what extent does satisfaction derived from spare-time activities vary with occupational level? What would the respondents do with added time? How do they evaluate the manner in which other people spend their leisure? We turn now to a consideration of these questions. Spectator activities. Although value-judgements regard ing good and bad qualities of certain forms of amusement differ considerably, the passive-spectator nature of certain leisure pursuits has probably received more widespread criticism than any other facet of contemporary leisure behavior. While few people dispute the merits of partlcl--: pation In physical activities, there are those who seem to think that "spectatoritis" has become a great American disease. Leaving aside, for the present, the question of relative merit of the two, the idea persists that most Americans spend most of their spare time in a spectator role. 57 Table 25. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Spectator Type Activities, by Prestige Levels
Prestige Levels Type of I II III IV V Leisure Activity N= 120 96 126 98 96 Spectator 2 5.7 22.9 41.3 36.1 23.9 Non-spectator 74-.3 77.1 58.7 63.9 76.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Information collected in this study, however, does not substantiate this observation. An analysis of the responses to the question, "What spare-time activity takes up most of your free time?", when classified according to "spectator" and "non-spectator" types,! revealed that spectator forms of leisure did not represent a major portion of the respondents' total leisure activities at any one of the
prestige levels studied. The data in Table 25 and Figure 17 show the nonlinear nature of this relationship. The largest proportion of time devoted to spectator activities, (4-1.3 per cent) occurred at the middle occupational level. This
Figure 1 7 . Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Spectator Type Activities, by Prestige Levels
1 For a list of the specific activities comprising the "spectator" category, see Appendix G. 59 Figure 18. Percentage of Leisure Time Consumed by Commercialized Recreation, by Prestige Levels
I II IIIIV V the amount of time consumed by commercialized types of recreation varies inversely with prestige level. As little
as 3.8 per cent of the total leisure of persons in Level I could be included in the commercial category. This amount
increased to 10.1 per cent for those in Level V, Even though commercialized recreation has become one of the nation's largest business enterprises, it would appear that it might occupy a proportionally larger role in the leisure activities of youth than it does in the leisure of the adult population. Active vs. passive leisure. A distinction is often made between “active" and "passive" types of leisure. Thus, the activities consuming most of the respondents' spare-time were classified into "predominantly active" and "predominantly passive" categories. As may be seen from an inspection of Table 27, on the following page, a greater proportion of passive activities appear at each prestige level. However, when the data were classified according to the activity the respondents' found most enjoyable, the number of passive activities decreased somewhat at each level. Table 28 58 percentage decreased markedly as the upper and lower segments of the prestige continuum were approached. Only approximately
25 per cent of the respondents’ leisure at Levels I and V could he categorized as 11 spectatori^s." These findings appear to cast serious doubts on the validity of current conceptions concerning the allegedly ominous portions of time currently consumed by this type of activity. Commercialized leisure. Another source of criticism frequently leveled at the American leisure scene is the charge that it is largely dominated by commercialized amusements. Hollywood movies, night clubs and dance halls are sometimes defined as Inviting menaces which threaten "basic values of the society." However, the empirical basis for this obser vation seems to be indeed limited. The surprisingly small proportion of the respondents’ total leisure time occupied by commercial recreation^ is clearly revealed in Table 26 and Figure 18, on the following page. It will be noted that
Table 26. Percentage of Leisure Time Consumed by Commercialized Recreation, by Prestige Levels Prestige Levels Type of Activity I II III IV V N* 124 98 130 104 99 Commercial 3.8 4.2 7.7 7.9 lQvl Non-commercial 96.2 95.8 92.3 92.1 89.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
2 See Appendix G for a list of the specific activities classified as commercial recreation. Table 27. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Active and Passive Types of Activities, by Prestige Levels
Prestige Levels Type of Activity 1 n m IV V ______N= 120 96 126 98 96 Predominantly 36.7 31.1 ^2.9 40.8 46.9 active Pre dominantly passive 63.3 68.9 57.1 59.2 53.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
presents the results of this analysis.
While the concepts "active'1 and "passive" are often used in portraying leisure styles, as well as other activities, it should be pointed out that these terms may obscure as much as they reveal. For this reason, considerable caution should be exercised when drawing conclusions from the above data.
The types of leisure pursuits usually categorized as
"active" include such forms of participation as bowling,
Table 28. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Active and Passive Types of Activities in Relation to the Most Enjoyable Spare-Time Activity, by Prestige Levels
Prestige Levels Type of Activity I II III IV V W 124 ' 102 128 105 98 Predominantly 37.3 43.1 5^.2 42.9 51.1 active Predominantly 45.8 passive 62.7 56.9 57.1 48.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 61 swimming, and. dancing, while the term "passive" refers to such activities as attending movies, reading, and watching television. This distinction begins to lose some of its meaning when one observes "that much leisure which appears to be active may be merely muscular: its lactic acid content is high, but there may be little other content, or contentment."^•
Diversity of leisure activities. It was noted in the proceeding chapter that those in higher status positions were more active and diverse in their organizational participation than those in lower positions. A question which occurs at this point is: To what extent are the total leisure activities of the upper rather than the lower group also characterized by a greater degree of diversity? The particular activities specified by each respondent, in answer to the following questions, were tabulated.
1. What spare-time activity do you like the best?
2 . What leisure activity takes up most of your free time?
3. What would you do with an extra two hours in your day?
Table 29 , on the following page, shows the number of different leisure pursuits occurring at each occupational level. For this analysis, each occupational sample was
3 David Rlesman. Individualism Reconsidered. The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 195^, p. 20%] ~ 62
Table 29, Diversity of Leisure Activities by Prestige Levels
Npmber of Prestige Levels activities IVV listed in I II III response to: N= 100 100 100 100 100 Question: 1 43 38 36 35 31 2 33 30 36 28 25 3 27 25 23 23 19
reduced to 100 cases. This was accomplished by randomly
eliminating the excess cases, and then deleting the respective
responses from the final tabulation.
Although small differences appear among contiguous levels,
a systematic pattern is revealed. As prestige level increases,
the range of leisure activities also Increases; and as occu pational level decreases, the amount of variety decreases.
These frequencies would seem to indicate a greater diversity and a wider range of leisure activities for the higher prestige group.
Craftamanshlp. In his provocative book, The Lonely
Crowd, David Riesman advances the hypothesis that competence
in craftsmanship during leisure hours may have developed new meanings in contempory American society.
The man whose daily work is glad handing can often rediscover both his child hood and his inner-dlrected residues by serious craftsmanship. An advertising man, involved all day in personalizing, may spend his weekends in the craftsmanllke silences of a boatyard or in sailboat racing. . , 63
. But the craft-skill is valued more than ever before for its own sake, as in the case of the Sunday painter. . . Certainly many people now have the leisure and encouragement to pursue crafts who never did before.^ For some, however, fanatical devotion to a craft or hobby may reflect a reaction against the uniformities of mass pro duction. Riesman cites the creative imagination often employed by automotive hobbyists - especially the hot-rodder - as a case in point.
Among these groups there exists an active and critical attitude toward the Detroit car as it is now built, or as it was built until recently. Here, astonishingly enough, the top commercial product of the country, the Detroit car, far from driving out amateur performance, has only stimulated, perhaps even provoked it.5
Commenting further on the revival of craftsmanship,
Riesman observes:
There is a widespread trend today to warn Americans against relaxing in the featherbed of plenty, in the pulpy recreations of popular culture, in the delights of bar and coke bar, and so on. In these warnings any leisure that looks easy is suspect, and craftsmanship does not look easy.6
Some of the data collected in this study bear upon the above observations, and perhaps in some measure support them.
Craftsmanlike activities, which appeared throughout the list
4 Ibid., p. 3 3 4 . 5 Ibid., p. 335. 6 Ibid., p. 3 3 6 . 64
Table 30. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Graftsmanlike Activities, by Prestige Levels Prestige Levels Type of I II III IV V Activity N= 124 98 130 104 99 Craftsmanlike activities 19.9 21.4 21.9 23.2 30.3 Other types of 81.1 activities 78.6 78.1 76.8 69.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Figure 19. Percentage of Leisure Time Devoted to Craftsmanlike Activities, by Prestige Levels
19.9 2.1-9
I III IVII of leisure pursuits consuming most of the respondents* spare time, were separately tabulated. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 30 and Figure 19* These data suggest that craft interest varies inversely with prestige level. However, a striking feature is revealed when these frequencies are compared with the proportion of total leisure devoted to commercialized types of recreation, (See Table 26, page 58.) The proportion of time occupied by craftsmanlike activities is greater than the amount of time spent on commercial recreation. This relationship holds for each occupational level studied. It is difficult, of course, to know how much significance should be attached to these findings, because comparable data indicating the percentage of leisure devoted to these activities in previous years are not available. Therefore little can be said concerning a possible trend in this direction. Though it may well be that Increased Interest and new meanings in craft skills are reflected in the increased sales of home-workshop equipment, and in the phenomenal increase in "Do-It-Yourself" literature, as well as in the six billion-a-year business supplying the blue prints and materials.? Amount of enjoyment derived from leisure-time activities. A question was included to measure the amount of enjoyment the individual feels that he receives from his leisure pursuits.
As may be seen from an inspection of Figure 2 0 }on the following page, a majority of the respondents at each level indicated that they derived either "a great amount" or "a considerable amount" of enjoyment from their spare-time activities. The proportion of persons expressing these feelings tended to increase as prestige ratings increased. Conversely, the percentage who indicated they obtained only "a fair amount" of enjoyment, or "not very much," decreased as occupational ratings Increased. These findings suggest that the degree of enjoyment derived from leisure activities appears to vary Inversely with occupational prestige level. It is, therefore,
^ Time, "The Shoulder Trade," August 2, 195^> PP. 62-68, Figure 20* Amount of Enjoyment Derived From Leisure-Time Activities, by Prestige Levels A fair Prestige amount A considerable A great Levels or less amount amount I
IX
III
IV
V oi 1 ■■■■"■ to i 20■■I1" 3° r "-I 4° "r 1 r- fo , &e i 9<5. /oai
a matter of wide conjecture as to what the underlying vari ables may be which account for these differences. Attitudes toward others use of leisure time. Another question included in this research was designed to measure the respondents’ attitudes toward the use to which others put their leisure time. Figure 21, on the following page, shows the discrepancy existing between these evaluations and prestige ratings. Proportionately fewer persons in the upper levels (I and
II) felt that most people today were making 11 good use" of their leisure. Furthermore, a somewhat larger percentage of the higher than the lower groups indicated that most persons were putting their leisure-time to "poor use," It should be noted, however, that the largest proportion of Individuals who were unable to decide between these alter natives, and thus replied "neither good nor poor use," also appeared in Levels I and II. Approximately fifty per cent of the respondents in the middle and lower levels felt that most other persons were making "good use" of their spare time.
Figure 21, Attitudes Toward Others Use of Leisure Time by Prestige Levels
Prestige Levels Poor use Neither good nor poor use Good use I
II
III
IV
V o to 2.0 30 40 £0 60 TO 80 90 too It is perhaps significant that a rather large proportion of persons In each group chose the rather vague response "neither good nor poor use" as the best way to describe their feelings in this matter. These responses may reflect in some measure a degree of ambivalence characterizing the attitudes many hold toward the proper use of lelsiire. Underlying values may be in conflict. On the one hand, there is the point of view which says, in effect, that leisure is leisure, and it Is perfectly all right to do nothing, either to Improve your
self or to Justify your existence to society. On the other 68
Table 31. Response to the Question, "What would you do with an extra two hours In your day?" by Prestige Levels, in Percentages Prestige Levels Activity I II III IVV N= 128 102 133 109 102 Relax, rest, loaf 11.6 14.4 16.5 21.2 28.4 Sleep 13.1 16.7 10.2 10.7 11.3 Read ■ 15.3 12.8 9.3 5.6 11.8 Study 12.6 5.9 5.5 5.6 1.0 Work at job 19.8 13.8 14.0 8.3 9.1 Work around house 8.5 7.9 12.3 18.4 15.7 Spend time with family, 11.8 play with children 4.3 7.3 7.5 4.9 Watch television 0.0 1.9 2.5 5.6 6.9 Other leisure activities 7.1 4.1 10.8 6.1 3.2 Don't know 2.3 5.8 8.3 6.4 3.9 No answer 5.4 4.9 3.3 4.6 3.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
hand, there is the familiar view which stresses the idea that leisure is to be used constructively for some purpose, not for mere idleness.^
Use of an extra two hours a day. It was thought that additional insight into the use of leisure among different socio-economic groups would be attained by analyzing responses to the question: What would you do with an extra two hours in your day? Observation of these choices revealed that they could be readily classified into ten categories. The findings
are summarized in Table 3 1 .
8 For a thoughtful discussion of this problem, see David Riesman, "Some Observations on Changes in Leisure Attitudes, " Chapter 13, Individualism Reconsidered, The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 1954, pp. 202-218. 69 An Inspection of the data indicates that the respondents in the higher and lower groups would use this extra time in quite different ways. For example, the modal response category for the highest status group Indicates that these persons would use the time to work at their Jobs, while the highest proportion of those at the other extreme of the prestige continuum replied they would use the extra two hours to rest, loaf or relax. Thus, for a somewhat greater proportion of the higher than the lower prestige groups, an extra amount of leisure would seem to serve as an extension of the main activities of life. This tendency is further revealed by comparing the proportion of persons in the upper and lower samples who would use the extra time for study. The number of those who exhibit this characteristic vary directly with occupational status. Further analysis of the responses reveals that the amount of time which would be spent "working around the house" also tends to vary inversely with prestige level. The percentage of persons who stated they would watch television decreases as occupational level increases. Interestingly, no one in the higher group would use this time to watch TV, Many of the above responses would seem to support the conclusion that a substantially greater proportion of the higher than the lower prestige groups would use this hypothetical Increase in leisure time largely as a means of further promoting their business and professional interests. While many interpretations of this pattern are perhaps
feasible, it would appear that differential levels of
aspirations might account for some of these responses.
Perhaps other differences reflect the fact that certain
occupations place widely different demands and expectations
upon the role incumbent. It may well be that through the
process of attaining higher occupational status, it becomes
increasingly difficult to dissociate business practices
from leisure pursuits. The end results of this process
would seem to be most clearly demonstrated in those cases
where the practice of a man's profession may become so
important to him,, aside from pecuniary considerations, that
it becomes his avocation as well as his vocation. CHAPTER V
OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND LEISURE USE
The research design of this study also permitted an analysis of the relationship between use of leisure and patterns of occupational mobility. Since certain types of spare-time group affiliations can be utilized more effective ly than others as vocational assets, perhaps ocoupationally mobile and non-mobile persons spend their hours away from the job in a somewhat different manner. It is hypothesized that participation in organized or formal activities is highest among upwardly mobile persons, while participation in unorganized or informal activities is more frequent among non-mobile and downwardly mobile individuals. The latter include the more individualistic forms of leisure, suoh as watching television, reading and radio listening. By contrast, organized or formal activity is characterized pri marily by the fact that the individual participates as a member in a more or less formal social group. It is often assumed that membership in certain clubs and organizations is not utilized solely for the pleasure derived from such activity, but largely as a method for consolidating and facilitating one's other Interests. It is, of course, obvious that all leisure-time activities cannot be interpreted as serving this function, but it does appear probable that belonging to a country club, fraternal organization, the Chamber of Commerce, or similar groups, might be used
71 72 instrumentally by the mobility-oriented individual as a means for enhancing his status. The frame of reference and procedure. Each respondent was asked to indicate his own occupation and that of his father. This information provided a measure of inter-generation occu pational mobility. Occupations of the respondents* fathers were scored on the North-Hatt scale in the same manner as the respondents' occupations and were classified according to the five previously established prestige levels.**' Thus it was pos- 2 sible to determine the occupational origin of each informant. Table 32 shows the comparison between sons' and fathers' occupational prestige levels, as viewed from the position of the son. It will be noted that sons in a given occupational
Table 32, Comparison of the Occupational Prestige Level of Sons in Relation to the Occupational Level of their Fathers
Occupational Number of Fathers in Various Prestige Level Occupational Prestige Levels Total of son i-- n-- m -- w 1 I JL9 ^ \ 3 3 40 21 5 118 II 1 0 ^ ^ 2 7 17 8 98 III 4 2 8 ^ - ^ 3 4 12 127 IV 3 10 2 § ^ ^ 2 2 103 V 1 4 26 2 ^ - ^ 3 6 90
1 A logical objection to the use of the North-Hatt scale* the possibility that it does not correctly represent statuses of a generation ago, appears to be unfounded. Sank order cor relations between identical occupations in the Counts and North- Hatt scales and the Counts and Deeg-Paterson scales were found to be .98 and ,97, respectively. See M.E.Deeg and D.G.Paterson, "Changes in Social Status of Occupations," Occupations. 25,1947, pp.205-208. 2 The term "occupational origin" was defined as the prlnoi pal occupation of the respondent's father. 73 stratum have fathers who are in the same or a closely con tiguous stratum. With this distribution as a basis, it was possible to classify the respondents into three categories - thoBe whose occupational ratings were (1) higher than, (2) the same as, or (3) lower than that of their fathers,^ Thus an upwardly mobile person was defined as one whose occupational level exceeded that of his father*s position, and a non-mobile person as one whose prestige level was the same as that of his father, A downwardly mobile individual was identified as one whose prestige level was lower than that of his father*s major h, occupation. The respondents were then divided into these three cate gories and a number of leisure activities were selected to test the postulated relationship between mobility and leisure use. An attempt was made to obtain a reasonable balance be tween formal and Informal types of leisure pursuits. Table 3 3» on the following page, compares the higher participation levels for each of the activities selected for this analysis. Inspection of this table indicates that a relatively consistent
3 The terms "higher* and "lower" refer to an occupational seore which placed the respondent in a prestige category, one or more levels above or below that of his father*s position. For a description of the scores contained in each category, see Chapter II, pp. 11, ^ Occupational movement, of course, takes place not only from one generation to the .next but also from one point in time to another in one*s career. It Is Important, therefore, to know from what point in a person's career his occupational prestige is measured. In an attempt to find out whether or not respondents In these groups differed in this respect, their ages were tabu lated in relation to the mobility categories. This analysis re vealed that the age variable is highly randomized throughout each of these mobility types. 74
Table 33* Comparison of Upward Mobile, Non-mobile and Downward Mobile Respondents for Selected Activities, in Percentages
Upwardly Non- Downwardly Frequency of Participation* Mobile Mobile Mobile (N = 219) (N =180) (N = 137)
Formal Activities Organizational membership 32.7 14.9 10.0 (4 or more) Organizational attendance 30.1 20.5 11.8 (30 or more per year) Attending meetings connected with 24.4 20.6 14.3 church activities (5 or more per month) Playing Bridge (1 to 3 times a month 19.2 8.4 8.0 or oftener Attending musical events, lectures, plays (7 times 27.8 11.7 7.2 a year or oftener) Informal Activities Watching television 14.9 17.1 24.5 (20 hours a week or more) Playing with children 47.3 54.4 59.1 (Daily) Working on automobile 14.4 13.8 26.6 (Once a week or oftener) Fishing (Once a month or oftener 19.4 27.0 35.2 during season) Studying 31.1 15.9 12.‘9 (Dally) Book reading for pleasure 45.4 38.0 29.5 (Once a week or oftener)
*The percentages in this table are based upon the upper segment of each distribution. 75 pattern of differences in participation and direction of mobility is present. That is, the upwardly mobile group tended to show higher participation levels in most of the organized or formal activities, while the non-mobile and downwardly mobile groups spent proportionally more time par ticipating in unorganized or informal leisure pursuits. In only two instances was this pattern reversed. Vertically mobile persons devoted more time to studying and reading books for pleasure than did those in the other categories. Although these activities are not consistent in terms of the formal vs. Informal dichotomy, they appear plausible when viewed as pos sible means of increasing vocational competence. At least in some instances, there would seem to be mobility implications in deciding to spend a part of one's leisure time studying each day. Perhaps a more accurate conception of mobility can be developed by relating this variable to occupational prestige as well as leisure use. In other words, if prestige level were held constant, would systematic variations still occur between mobility types and leisure pursuits? This possibility was tested by classifying the data into the five Initial levels and then further dividing them according to the mobility categories. Results of this analysis are presented in the tables which follow. 76
Table 3A. Membership in Pour or More Organizations - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers* Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons Son’s Occupational Preoentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels* to Father* s I IIIIIIVV N= 118 98 127 103 90 Higher 58.0 28.7 20.8 9.7 — Same 4-2.2 16.6 3 6.6 5.0 5.2 Lower — 20.0 21.8 4.5 3.7 *The percentages in this table represent only the "higher participation levels" for the activity listed and are based upon the upper segment of each distribution. For this reason, column totals are not presented.
Table 35* Organizational Attendance; Thirty or More Times per Year - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers* Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons
S on's Occupat1onal Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father's I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90 Higher 44.5 40.0 19.6 19.8 .... Same 42.1 33.2 26.6 15.0 13.8 Lower — 30.0 15.0 4.5 9.3
Table 36. Attending Meetings Connected With Church Activities Five or More Times per Year - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers* Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons Son*s Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father's I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90 Higher 29.3 21.0 21.8 20.0 — Same 31.6 13.9 30.6 14.5 11.2 to o o Lower . 18.6 14.7. 8.3 77
Table 37. Playing Bridge Once a Month or Oftener - by Sons in Oooupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers* Occupation In Eelation to Prestige Level of Sons
Son* s Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father*s . I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90
Higher 34.3 28.8 18.7 4.5 M B MM Same 21.1 8.3 10.2 5.0 5.6 Lower — 10.0 6.5 4.6 1.9
Table 3 8 . Reading Books for Pleasure, Once a Week or Oftener by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons
Son* s Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father's I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90
Higher 73.6 50.0 45*5 37.5 — Same 51.4 44.1 37.4 27.1 30.5 Lower — 30.0 32.6 27.2 24.0
The pervasive influence of mobility upon leisure behavior is revealed by the distributions in these tables. In general, participation in formal activities, as well as reading and studying, is highest at each •prestige level among sons who are above their fathers* occupational level, and is lowest among sons who are below their fathers* occupational strata (see Tables 34 - 39). The reverse of this relationship occurs, for the most part, when the data are classified in terms of informal leisure activities (see Tables 40 - 4-2). 78
Table 39. Studying Daily - by Sons,in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers1 Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons
Son's Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father's I II III IV V N = 118 98 12? 103 90
Higher 43.4 34.6 23.0 7.5 — Same 42.1 2 7.7 12.9 7.3 11.1 Lower m m mm 10.0 13.0 4.5 5.5
Table 40. Matching Television Daily - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons Son's Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father's I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90 Higher 52.6 76.8 78.1 79.5 Same 71.9 72.0 89.8 82.0 94.2 Lower ■■■■ 80.0 90.2 95.3 77.7
Table 41. Playing With Children Dally - by Sons in Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers' Occupation in Relation to Prestige Level of Sons
Son's Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father’s I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90
Higher 52.5 49.9 43.4 45.4 — Same 57.9 47.1 59.2 52.2 55.5 Lower — 6o.o 54.9 57.5 55.4 79
Table 42. Fishing, Onoe a Month or Oftener During Season - by Sons In Occupations Higher, Similar to, or Lower than Fathers* Occupation In Relation to Prestige Level of Sons
Son*s Occupational Percentages of Sons Prestige Relative at Various Prestige Levels to Father*s I II III IV V N = 118 98 127 103 90
Higher 16,3 18,3 27.2 28.3 — Same 10.6 28.7 30.6 32.0 36.1 Lower m m 31.0 39.9 38.7 41.1
These findings closely parallel those in Table 42 which compared mobility and leisure use before the control for occupational prestige was added. Participation in voluntary organization?, for example, appears not only directly related to prestige level, but is also directly associated with verti cal mobility. An interesting variation occurs, however, at Level III among sons in the same stratum as their fathers*
(see Tables 34, 35 and 3 6 )• In this particular instance, the extent of group membership and participation is highest among non-mobile rather than upwardly mobile persons at the middle occupational level. It is recognized that these patterns of preference ex hibited by the respondents according to the direction of their mobility cannot be considered as conclusive. Nevertheless, they show a marked degree of consistency. The contrast can be stated as follows: The upwardly mobile individual appears to put his leisure hours to much more instrumental use than do persons in other mobility categories. He studies and reads 80 more books, attends meetings connected with church activities more frequently, belongs to more clubs and organizations and
is more active in them. These activities may be termed in
strumental in the sense that they may not be ends in themselves, but rather means for the attainment of ends. Their appeal may
lie not merely in the intrinsic satisfaction derived from such
activity, but in the possibility of extending inoome-ylelding activities, and as such, appear to be more closely related to
the Individual's work than to his leisure. In short, there
seems to be little re-creating in the recreation of some of
these people.
By contrast, the person who is at the same or a lower
occupational level than his father, tends to use his leisure
in a less formal and organized manner. He is a member of fewer clubs and attends meetings less frequently, spends more time watching television, "putters" with his car more often, does more fishing, and plays with his children more frequently.
This evidence concerning the latter activity seems to suggest an inverse relationship between family values and occupational mobility.^ For the non-mobile person, leisure-time activities
seem to have a much more direct and uncomplicated function.
A further point concerning movement from one occupational
stratum to another, requires brief comment. The measuring
5 See Leonard Eeissman, "Levels of Aspiration and Social Class." American Sociological Review. 18, 1953, pp. 233-2^2. 81 technique used here does not take Into account the effect on mobility of changes in the occupational and technological organization of American society. It may well be that much of the recent intergenerational shifting in occupational posi tion can be attributed to expanding requirements for workers in commercial and industrial jobs, and the decline in preponder ance of agricultural and other types of work. Such changes in over-all opportunities are, of course, separate from changes in the distribution of opportunities among individuals coming from different social levels. Thus if the composition of the occupational structure had been held constant, it is probable that this would change the mobility classification of some of the respondents. It Is also recognized that a somewhat dif ferent pattern would have emerged If the data had been analyzed
In terms of career mobility rather than that of lnter-genera- tional movement.
The preceding relationships and their appropriate factors seem to suggest that a formal index of leisure styles can be constructed with the Items in this study as its core or founda tion. Perhaps with such an Index, or even a scale, a more precise measure of the relationship between leisure time and occupational prestige can be obtained. These factors, at least, may serve as the beginning of a search for additional aspects of leisure use that might constitute a valid and reliable measurement of social status and its relation to urban stratifi cation. 82
In the following chapter an attempt will be made to summarize the major findings of the study and to examine somewhat further certain aspects of the changing role of leisure in American society. CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study has been concerned with the leisure "behavior of individuals occupying different prestige levels in the stratification system. It was designed to test a number of largely unverified relationships in current sociological literature.
Summary of research procedure. In the current study, posi tion in the social strata was defined In terms of occupational prestige. Using the North-Hatt Occupational Prestige Scale, the prestige level of each respondent was translated into a comparable numerical score.
Since the present research sought to delineate the nature of the relationship existing between different prestige levels and leisure styles, rather than focusing on the stratification system of a particular community, a sampling technique pro viding similar numbers of oases at different occupational levels was chosen. A design of this type would appear to have broader applicability for the study of urban stratification in general, for combinations of this order enable research findings to transcend local configurations with greater ease.
Cutting points were established along the continuum of occupational scores dividing them into five prestige levels.
The key factor underlying the choice of these intervals was the nature of the occupations Involved, The basic plan of the sampling technique was to obtain a random sample of at least one hundred oases in each of the five prestige levels.'
8 3 84 The term "prestige level," then, as used in this study, was defined as a category of persons with occupations of some what Bimllar prestige status. They do not represent "social classes" in the sense of clearly distinguishable categories "set off from one another." The limits of the categories were determined by the investigator and were chosen in order to facilitate analysis of the data. Items for the questionnaire used in this research were drawn from published results of research, from case study in terviews, and from suggestions offered by several colleagues. The questionnaire included a section designed to measure frequency of participation in certain leisure activities, a set of questions concerning preference and attitude patterns, several items pertaining to membership in voluntary organiza tions, and a section concerning relevant background data. In an attempt to increase the homogeneity of the groups studied, the sample was limited to male adults.
Summary of ma.lor findings. Analyses of a representative sample of leisure activities indicated that systematic dif ferences exist between the leisure activities of adult males and the degree of prestige accorded their occupations. Dif ferential participation in specific leisure-time activities, In most instances, varied either directly or inversely with prestige level. Several relationships, however, were curvilin ear in nature. Table 43, on the following page, summarizes the extent to which specific activities are associated with different occupa tional levels. 85
Table ^3. Leisure Activities in Relation to Prestige Levels by Direction of Relationship and Degree of Significance
Direction of Relationship Level of Direot Inverse None Significance*
Attending lectures X .001 Fraternal organizations X .001 Attending concerts X .001 Attending parties X .001 Playing Bridge X .001 Community service work X .001 Watching football X .001 Reading for pleasure X .001 Studying X ,001 Visiting a museum X .001 Attending conventions X 4 .001 Attending a play X .001 Out-of-town visiting X ,001 Entertaining at home X .01 Attending movies X .05 Swimming X .20 Out-of-town visiting X .20 (not over-night) Listening to radio X .50 Cross-word puzzles X •50 Watching television X .001 Fishing X .001 Playing with children X .001 Playing cards X .001 Playing poker X .01 Attending auto theater X .01 Working on automobile X .01 Driving car for pleasure X .01 Spending time in tavern X .01 Watching baseball X .05 Attending a boxing match X .20 Working around home X .30 Loafing X .30 Attending auto races X .50 Hunting X .50 Bowling X .10 Attending fairs, etc. X .30 Working in garden X .90
* Probability of obtaining a Chi square as great or greater by chance variation. 86
In addition to these findings, evidence obtained in this research also Indicates that: 1. Spectator type leisure activities do not appear to represent a major proportion of the spare-time activities of male adults. The largest proportion of time devoted to these activities (^1.3 per cent) occurred at the middle occupational level. This percentage decreased markedly as the upper and lower segments of the prestige continuum were approached. 2. Moreover, the findings of this study Indicate that commercial forms of recreation seem to play a very minor role in adult leisure patterns. As little as four per cent of the total leisure of persons in the higher prestige group could be included in this category. This amount increased to ten per cent for those at the lower prestige level.
3 * A greater proportion of passive activities appeared at each occupational level studied. When the data were classi fied according to the activities the respondents’ found most enjoyable, the number of passive activities decreased somewhat at each level. 4*. The total leisure activities of the upper rather than the lower group were characterized by a wider range and a greater degree of diversity. 5. Graftsmanlike activities appeared to vary inversely with prestige level. 87
6 . A majority of the respondents at each level indicated that they derived either "a great amount" or a considerable amount'1 of enjoyment from their spare-time activities. The percentage who indicated they obtained only "a fair amount" or "not very much" increased as occupational ratings decreased.
7 . A somewhat larger percentage of the higher than the
% lower groups Indicated that most persons were putting their leisure time to "poor use." The proportion of those who felt that most persons were making "good use" of their leisure tended to increase as occupational level decreased.
8 . Ati examination of the responses to the question, "What would you do with an extra two hours in your day?" revealed that the respondents in the higher and lower groups would use this extra time in very different ways. The modal response category for the highest status group indicated that these persons would use the time to work at their jobs, while the highest proportion of those at the other extreme of the prestige continuum replied they would use the extra two hours to rest, loaf and relax. 9. Systematic differences were also found between use of leisure and patterns of occupational mobility. Participa tion in organized or formal activities was highest among upwardly mobile persons, while participation in unorganized or informal activities was more frequent among non-mobile and downwardly mobile individuals. A similar pattern was 88 revealed when occupational prestige level was held constant. These findings are, of course, regarded as tentative. Replicative and related research is needed for the formu lation of valid generalizations. The present study has been broad in scope and primarily exploratory in character. This has precluded more intensive investigation of specific aspects which the role of leisure plays in a highly complex society. This analysis has placed emphasis upon the frequency with which individuals participate in specific leisure pursuits, The above categories designate objectively and quantitatively how different people dispose of their leisure time. This approach, however, does not reveal the vast qualitative variations in the activities each category Includes. The relationship between leisure use and social psycho logical variables still represents an almost totally unexplored area. It is highly probable that different personality types use their leisure differently, and that even if they appear to use it in the same way, they draw different meanings from it. Attention should be directed toward an analysis of the motiva ting factors associated with differential participation. This suggests, moreover, that one of the major research problems in this area is the development of appropriate categories which will more adequately portray the dynamics of current leisure patterns. The relationship between leisure and work also requires comment. Is the distinction really as sharp as is often implied or are the concepts themselves misleading? Is there a trend toward a more "integrated" style of living in which work and leisure merge into each other, as they do in less complex societies where work and play are often inseparably interwoven? The merchant gossips with his customers and the village baker interrupts his labors to chat with the cabinet maker across the street, etc. In situations such as these, the members of the work group are usually close friends and neighbors as well as fellow workers. They share common interests, knowledge, and beliefs. By contrast, most descriptions of highly industrialized societies stress the fact that a complex division of labor necessarily Increases the number of persons who contribute to the completion of a given task. This condition tends to depersonalize the work situation since it gives to each member an isolated job that he does more or less by himself. While it is not implied that descriptions of this order are cate gorically Incorrect, they tend to minimize, if not completely overlook, the extent to which a substantial amount of leisure is still interwoven into the contemporary work scene. The
"eight-to-five" routine of many urban residents is replete with illustrations. Office employees wander to the washroom for a smoke and another round of conversation, businessmen loiter over their luncheon, and government workers (and others) "knock off" work several times a day for a cup of coffee with like-minded colleagues. Perhaps much of the 90 distinction between work and leisure lies in the perception of the observer. Since there is evidence in this study which strengthens the conclusions of earlier research, as well as findings which also suggest the emergence of new patterns, it would seem appropriate to examine somewhat further both aspects of the picture, A question which occurs at this point is: What accounts for the considerable degree of stability evidenced in many of the relationships which have been discovered between leisure and social status? On an a priori basis it might be assumed that Increasing amounts of leisure time, accompanied by rising Income levels, would tend to equalize the degree of partici pation in many spare-time activities among persons in different socio-economic groups. Perhaps a partial explanation may be found in the fact that individual preferences are strongly influenced by previous habits and by other factors that may have little connection with the amount of leisure-time available or the amount of money on hand. The pervasive role of former habits upon leisure behavior seems to be reflected in the proportion of total Income currently spent for recreation. Many economists have maintained that as income rises, the percentage spent on leisure should increase. This, however, has not happened.
In fact, leisure spending declined from 1^ per cent in 19^7
to approximately 12 per cent in 1953> despite a significant 91 rise in income levels. The tendency for leisure expenditures to lag "behind Income is again evident when the fluctuation of these items is noted over the past twenty-five years. Leisure spending did not climb as quickly as income in 193*0 nor did it fall as fast, after the 1929 crash. An interesting speculation occurs at this point, especially in view of the trend toward greater amounts of leisure time. If, in the long run, leisure spending increases faster than income, and the present high income level is maintained long enough for leisure habits to catch up with economic conditions, it would appear that the leisure market might eventually become the dynamic component of the American economy. Other evidence obtained in this research may indicate the emergence of new patterns. Perhaps competence in certain leisure pursuits, notably craftsmanship, has developed new meanings for many persons. Maybe the alleged domination of spare-time activities by commercial forms of recreation needs to be re-valuated. Furthermore, the stereotype of the man at leisure who is chiefly a watcher, seldom participating, may be a greater distortion than is presently suspected. Changes in the leisure role have not, as yet, received adequate scientific consideration. Moreover, public opinion
1 Dero A. Saunders and Sanford S. Parker, "$30 Billion for Fun," Fortune, (June 195*0, P. 115. has not always supported the desirability of leisure. The Puritan concept of play as an immoral waste of time and energy appears to have persisted in the United States longer than anywhere else. The point of view that leisure has a distinc tive place in the normal life of man, has only recently become socially acceptable. Traditionally, the accent has been upon active physical work and industrial productivity. The reasons for this emphasis are, of course, not difficult to understand. This society has emerged only recently from an era during which the production of material necessities was the predominate adult concern. Indeed, survival and the prevention of famine in some Instances, depended upon work from "sun-up •til sun-down." Today, highly efficient mass-productIon techniques have largely, if not totally, removed the necessity for much of this preoccupation. Yet, for many, the anxieties of an earlier age remain. It has been remarked that "the Industrial Revolution gave the Western World the option of having more leisure, more babies, or a higher standard of living - and it chose to trudge up the long sandy slope represented by the last of these."2 It would seem that as far as the United States is concerned, each of these "options" has been achieved to a substantial degree. In fact, the sheer quanity of spare-
2 Robert S. Lynd, Knowledge For What? Princeton University Press, Princeton, 19^8 , p. 8 9 . 93 «► time now available is so great that it is highly doubtful whether comparable situations can be found in other societies.
Furthermore, there is evidence which indicates that the amount of leisure is perhaps destined to even more rapid increase in the near future,3 This would seem to indicate that social scientists and others must eventually recognize that it is as important to understand the leisure-time aspects of
American society as it is to understand the economic, familial, religious, or political aspects.
3 “The American work week has been shrinking steadily - about three hours per decade - in the past 100 years," See David Seligman, "The Four-Day Week: How Soon?", Fortune, (July, 195?)* PP. 81-83. APPENDIX A
PRELIMINARY QUESTIONNAIRE
9^ 95
SKJDY OF LEISURE-TIME ACTIVITIES
We hope that, youi are willing to give a few minutes of your time to help a research project now being conducted at your state university* This is a study of how. men spend their free time - time *away front the jjob*8 Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated* The questions asked may he readily answered by simply recalling the ways in which yon spend your free time* All replies are confidential and it is not necessaxy to sign your name* Since we are limiting this study to the leisure—time activities of men* we would appreciate it if the wcmen who might receive this questionnaire^ would please check here 1~~1 and return the unanswered form to us*
DIRECTIONS* Below is a list of leisure-time activities* After each activity place an X in one of the columns to show how often you usually do these things* Do not emit any items* If you find any questions particularly difficult to answer, for any reason, star (*) that item and state the reason for the diffi culty* Be sure to place an X after every aotivity*
ABOUT LESS ABOUT I TO 3 THAN ACTIVITIES ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY DAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH OR NEVER
1* Watching television! »•••••••••
2 * listening to radio ••••••••••
3* Attending movies •••••••••*•
4* Working a cross-word puzzle ••«•*.
5* Entertaining at heme •• ......
6 * Attending a dance •••••••••••
7* Going to a night club: ••••*••.•
3* Working on car •••••••«••••
9* Shopping
10* Doing odd jobs at heme ••••••••
11* Flaying with children * ......
12. Caring for pets ••••......
13* Wishing for something interesting to do
14* Playing bridge or canasta •••••*•
15* Playing rummy or pinochle •••••*. ABOUT LESS ABOUT 1 TO 3 THAN ' ! ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY ACTIVITIES jDA(LY WEEK MONTH MONTH OR NEVE
16* Playing- poker ...... ___ - 1------
1?« Playing ch e s s...... ___
18* Playing solitaire • •••«•»••... ______------
19* Playing, pool or billiards ...... ___ ------
20* Attending a- wrestling match • ...... ------__
21. Attending a bcocing match • ••...•• _____ -■ — ■
22. Playing shuffle-board ______
23. Playing checkers ...... ______
24. JUst loafing ______— —
2 5 . Attending meetings of hobby clubs (such as gun club, model R.R. club) • • •
26. Attending fraternal organizations or other cluhi meetings ......
27 • Bowling ......
28* Holler skating...... ______------— w m m m m m m - - - 29* Hiking • •••......
50. Flying (for pleasure) ......
31* Doing calisthenics at heme ••••... _____ — — ----
3 2 * Exercise in a gymnasium ...... _____ — ------! ■
33* Spending time in: a cafe or tavern ....
34* Playing pin-ball machines ...... ______— - - . - ----
35* Visiting, over the telephone *..»•* • ___ r m ---- ...... -----ni|||
36. Driving or riding i m a oar for pleasure .
...... ______37* Walking for exercise — ---- — -
38. Singing in. a choir or other organized
musical group ......
• • • • 39* Playing in an orchestra or band * _____ wmmmm— m .
40. Flaying a musical instrument (not in a
band or orchestra) ...... ______ABOUT LESS ABOUT 1 TO 3 THAN ACTIVITIES ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY iOAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH OR NEVER
41* listening to phonograph; records • • • • . ______42. Chatting with friend(s) at a meeting plaoe .
43* Attending a. party at a friend *s heme • • ___ ----
44* Visiting friends at their home ■ . . • . _____
45* Attending large social functions (ball,, benefit bridge, etc.)...... _
46. Spend time in. a public library • • . • • _____ -- —
47* Attending night school •••*••••• _____ ... 48* Studying •••••••••<• ......
Writing in a. diary • •••••••••• ___ 49* ■ ■ ■
5 0 .literary writing - poetry, stories, etc.. ___ ---- _____
51* Beading boohs for pleasure ...... ___ . ___
52.Fainting or sketching •.•••••••• ______
(If there are other activities on which you spend much time please list them below*)
The leisure activities listed below are usually seasonal* Therefore* after each activity plaoe an. X in one of the columns to indicate how often you usually do these things during the regular season* A BOUT LESS ABOUT 1 TO 3 THAN 'ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY ACTIVITIES ; OAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH OR NEVER
Eishing: ...... 1. ... ■ —— — _ .
2. ------
3* ■ ■ ■■■
4* Attending a picnic ...... • . . —-- --— ■
5* Caring for a flower garden ...... _____ ------_
6* Caring for a vegetable garden • • ., .. .. ___ ABOUT LESS THAN ACTIVITIES ABOUT I TO 3 |ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY DAILY . WEEK MONTH MONTH OH NEVER 7 * Flaying golf
8* Flaying tennis • • • • • • • ••••• •
9* Attending, a tennis match ...... •
10* Attending a horse race * • » • •**••
11* Attending sj horse show • »•••••••
12* Attending & polo match • ••••••••
13* Attending a stock car r a c e ...... •
14* Attending a motorcycle or midget auto race
15* Attending a sports car race * . . * . * *
16* Attending a baseball game • •••••••
17* Attending a football game • •••••••
IS* Attending an auto theater • •*.*.••
19* Out-board motorboating. • •**•••••
20. Swimming * * * * * • ••*•••*•••
21* Sail-boating • ••••*......
22* Ice skating •
2 3 . Horseback riding • •••..*•••••
(If there are other activities on which you spend much time only daring certain seasons please list them below*)
The following activities are usually done less often* Therefore please check them oh a monthly .basis. After each activity plaoe an X in one of the columns to indicate how often you usually do these things* LESS ABOUT ABOUT ABOUT THAN ONCE IN ONCE IN ONCE A ONCE A ACTIVITIES 3 MONTHS 6 MONTHS YEAR YEAR 1*. Visiting a zoo «••*•••••••••
2* Attending fairs* exhibitions* etc* • • •
3* Visiting a museum or art gallery • » • • LESS 99 : A B O U T ABOUT A B C f b T THAN ACTIVITIES i O N C E I N ONCE IN O P & E A ONCE A ! 3 M O N T H S 6 MONTHS YEAR YEAR
4» Camping ...... 5. Attending a special lecture • ••*••• 6* Attending symphonies or concerts • • • • % Attending plays (theater)...... • • 8 . Community service work, United Appeals, etc. 9* Attending conventions, or other bag meetings- 10* Out-of-town weekend visiting, but not overnight 11* Out-of-town weekend visiting, including ovanight
1* Which THHEE spare-time activities do you like the best? Please list in order of importance* 1. 2.
25* What OWE spare-time activity takes up most of your free time?
3* If married, what is your wife’s main leisure-time activity?
4* Please list by name the organizations (such as lodges, unions, social clubs, professional groups, etc*) that you belong to at the PRESENT TIME. Also check how often on the average you attend their meetings by placing an X in one of the columns opposite each organization you list* frequency of Attendance Marne of Organization- Regularly Occasionally Rarely or Wever
If you have ever been an officer, sponsor or c omit tee member in any of the above organizations during the last FIVE years, please put a oheck mark before the name of that organization* 100
5» Cta the average f how many evenings a week do you spend at heme? evenings.
6. Do you usually get a vacation, from work once a year as a rule? Yes HO
7* What do you usually do on your vacation? •
8* How would you most like to spend your next vacation?
9* How many hours a week on the average do you spend on your job? hours
10. Do you own a oar? Yes NO
11. What would you do with an extra TWO hours in your day? ______
12. What magazines do you most enjoy reading? Please list the nesnes in order of your preference*
1* ______2* ■ ___
13* list the names of any books that you have read during the cast month?
14* What TWO kinds of music do you usually most enjoy? Please write a l in the space opposite the kind of music you enjoy most. and a 2 in the space opposite your second choice*
______Jazz ______Popular ' Ibik music _____ Sami«*classical Hillbilly Classical Western ___ Other (Please specify) ______
15* Suppose you were offered an opportunity to get ahead in a job, but this change would greatly reduce the amount of your spare time. How important would this be in. keeping you from making the change?
______Would keep me from making the change _ _ _ Might keep me from making the change ' Would be a serious consideration* but wouldn't keep me from making the change _____ Wouldn't matter at all l6. Within the past two years have you spent a week or longer on vacation during the winter in another state? (suoh as Florida or Arizona) Yea HO 101
17* Within the past two years have you spent a week or longer on vacation during the summer in another state? ■ Yes Mb
18* An accountant I know likes to spend his spare time in sports and re laxation* He knows that he could use this time to study law, which would get him ahead in his job* But he feels that the relaxation he gets. from sports is more important* He decides to give up the idea of becoming a lawyer* How would you feel about this decision? Would youi
Strongly Strongly approve .Approve Undecided Disapprove disapprove
19* Is there a television set at your residence which you have the privilege os using? .___ Yes ' Mb
20* Indicate by an X how frequently on the average you watch the following, televisioni programs*
Almost Barely always Occasionally or Meyer
1* Ibast of the Ibwn * * . • ______2* Show of Shows • **••* ' 3* Arthur Godfrey ...... ______. _ __ - —_ 4* Ozaie and Harriet * * • * ' ______■5* life of Rtley ••••*• —______6* I love Inoy • • • • • • • ______7* Mr. Peepers *..•*.* ______8* Studio One ***..**• ^ _____ 9* Pord Iheater ...... ______10 • Dragnet *•**«***• ______11* Boxing ...... ______12* Wrestling •.*.•••• ______, 13* ®renty Questions • * . • • ______14* Strike It Bich •*•**. ______15* What *s My Idne •*..*• ______16* Down You Go *«*..«» ...... 17 • G*E» Iheater **.**•• ______, 18* Voice of firestone . * . • ______19* Ifcis is Your life • • • • ______20. Qanibus «...•••*• _____ . 21* Bishop. Sheen ••*..•• ' . _____ 22* Meet the Press: •••••* . _____ 23 * See Zt Now *.*.*.*. _____ . • 24. Golumbus Ibwn Meeting * * ______
21* What is your favorite television program? ______102
Please read every question carefully and fill in the necessary information. Most answers can be given by a check mark or by placing a circle around a number*
1* Marital Status* (Check one) Married Single ' Separated____ Divorced ,___ Widowed____
2* Children* Yes _____ No _____ Ages . ___ , . _____
3* Children at heme* Yes _____ Nb _____
4* Race* White _____ Negro Other _____
5* Age* (Check one) 20-29___ 30-39___ 40-49___ 50-59.__ _ 60-69 70- and over
6 * What is your occupation? (Please be specificf as insurance salesman, railroad engineer, sheet metal worker* etc*) If retired or not employed, please state the main occupation youi have followed*
7* What is (was) the main, occupation of your father? (Please be specific)
8* Education* (Circle last year that you completed) . Grade School 1 2 3 4 5 678 • High School 12 3 4 College 12 3 4 Professional post-graduate study 1 2 3 4 Trade or business school 1 2 3 4
9* What is your religious preference? (Check one)
Catholic Protestant Jewish Other___
10. How often do you usually attend church? (Check one) Never, or almost never _____ Lass than once a month Once or twice a month Three times a month Pour or more times a month
11* Please check the space below which best describes your approximate annual income*
□ Under $3000 □ $3000-4999 □ $5000-7499 □$7500-$9999 □$10,000 or over 103
12* How many years have you lived in Columbus? years*
13. Where have you lived for the longest time? (Check one)
______On a farm _____ In the country, hut not on a farm In a village of less than 2500 fceople _____ In a small oity (2500 - 23,000) _____ In a city of 25,000 - 100,000 _____ In a large city (more than 100,000)
THANK YOU FOR Y0GR TIME AND COOPERATION* YOUR. ANSWERS WILL HELP GREATLY. YOU ARE INVITED TO MAKE ANY ADDITIONAL COMMENTS THAT YOU WISH. WHEN YOU; HAVE FINISHED, PLEASE PUT THIS IN THE RETURN ENVELOPE AND MAIL IT BACK.
PLEASE DO NOT SIGN YOUR NAME. THANES AGAIN
Bssearch Project No. APPENDIX B
PINAL REVISED QUESTIONNAIRE
104 105 STODY OF LEISURE-TIMS ACTIVITIES
We hope that you are willing to give a few minutes of your time to help a research project now being conducted at your state university. Ibis is a study of how men spend their free time - time "away from the job." Your coopeia tion will be greatly appreciated. The questions asked may be readily answered by simply recalling the ways in which you spend your free time. All replies are confidential and it is not necessary to sign your name. Since we are limiting this study to the leisure-time activities of men( we would appreciate it if the women who might receive this questionnaire would p.lease cheok here I 1 and return the unanswered foim to us.
DIRECTIONSt Below is a list of leisure-time activities* After each activity an X in one of the columns to show how often you usually do these things* Do not emit any items. Be sure to place an X after every: activity.
ABOUT LESS ■ABOUT I TO 3 THAN ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY ACTIVITIES OAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH OR NEVER
1. Watching television • •••••••»..
2. listening to radio^ * ...... *
3* Attending movies
4* Working a cross-word puzzle • ••••••
5 . Entertaining at h e m e ......
6* Working on oar .*.•*••*.«•«•
7im Shopping......
8* Doing odd jobs at hone *•••....*
9* Playing with children •
10. Caring for pets ..•••••••••••
11* Flaying bridge
12. Flaying poker
13* Flaying other card games **••••••
14« Attending a wrestling or baring match • .
15* Visiting over the telephone
16 . Driving or riding in a car for pleasure • ABOUT LESS 106 ABOUT 1 TO 3 THAN ACTIVITIES ALMOST ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A RARELY DAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH O R N E V E R ' 1 1 1 17* Walking for exercise • •••••••.* i 18• Attending fraternal organizations or other olub meetings • • '...... ----
19* Bowling • ----
20. JUst loafing • •••••••• ......
21» Spending time in a cafe or tavern • ■ • • ----
22. Chatting with friends at a meeting place. ------23» listening to phonograph, records......
24* Attending a party at a friend's heme • •
25, Visiting friends at their heme • • . • • ------26• Studying •••••••• ......
27. Beading books for pleasure ..•••••
(If there are other activities on which you spend much time please list them below.)
The leisure activities listed below are usually seasonal. Therefore• after each activity place an X in one of the columns to indicate how often- L* ABOUT LESS ABOUT 1 TO 3 THAN : A L M O S T ONCE A TIMES A ONCE A ACTIVITIES DAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH
1. Fishing ......
2. Banting ......
3 . Attending, a picnic ......
4* Caring for a flower or vegetable garden •
3« Flaying golf ••••
6. Attending a baseball game • ... • • . . .
7* Attending a football game •••••••• 1 ABOUT LESS 107 ABOUT ! T O 3 THAN ALMOST O N C E A T I M E S A O N C E A RARELY ACTIVITIES DAILY WEEK MONTH MONTH O R N E V E R
8* Attending an auto theater • • ......
9* Attending a stock car race • ••*•■•
10. Swimming ......
Tie following activities are usually done less often* Therefore please check them on a monthly basis. After each activity place ah X in one of the columns to indicate how often you usually do these things* LESS ; i AT LEAST AT LEAST AT LEAST THAN ACTIVITIES ONCE IN ONCE IN ONCE A ONCE A 3 MONTHS 6 MONTHS YEAR YEAR
1* Visiting a zoo •••..*..•••••
2* Attending fairs, esdhibitions* etc* • • •
3* Visiting a museum or art gallery • • • •
4* Attending a special lecture *•*••••
5* Attending symphonies or concerts • • • •
6* Attending plays (theater.) ••••••.*
7* Community service work. United Appeals1 etc* .«••«•.•.»•*•
8* Attending conventions, or other big meetings •••••••••••••
9. Out-of-town weekend visiting* but not overnight .**.••.••••
10* Out-of-town, weekend visiting* including overnight •••* ......
1* What other things would you like to do in your leisure time that you are not doing now?
2* In general, how much enjoyment do you get from your spare-time activities?
_____ A great amount ______A considerable amount ______A fair amount _____ Hot very muehi _____ Practically none 108
3« Which THREE spare-time activities do you like the beat? Please list in order of importance•
I * ______;______2. _ _ 3- . ■ ______4* What ONE spare-time activity takea up moat of your free time?
5* Pleaae list by name the organizations (such as lodges, unions, social clubs, professional groups, etc,) that you belong to at the PRESENT TIME, Also check how often on the average you attend their meetings by placing an X in one of the columns apposite each organization you list.
Frequency of Attendance
Name of Organization Regularly Occasionally Rarely or Never
If you have ever been an officer, sponsor or canmittee member in any of the above organizations during the last FIVE years, please put a check mark before the name of that organization,
6, Taking all of these organizations and clubs together, about how many times did you attend meetings in 1953 ?
None 31 to 40 I to 10 41 to 50 II to 20 51 to 21 to 30 6l or more 109
7« About HOW MANY TIMES did you attend suoh affairs as musical events, lecturesv plays, etc, in 19537
Mbne 7 to 8 times _____ 1 to 2 times _ _ _ 9 times 3 to 4 times 11 to 12 times _____ 5 to 6 times _____ 13 or more
8, On the average, how many evenings a week do you spend at heme? ______evenings,
9* Bow many hours a week on the average do you spend on your job? hours,
10, What would you do with an extra TWO hours in your day? ______
11, How many of the past 7 evenings would you say were •dull* evenings? ______evenings,
12, How many times a year do you attend snorts events such as baseball, basketball, football games, races, etc,?
Mbne 13 to 16 __ 1 to 4 17 to 20 5 to 8 . 21 to 24 _____ 9 to 12 __ _ 25 or more
13, What magazines do you most enjoy reading? Please list the names in order of your preference,
1 , 2, 3 *
14* About how many books did you read for pleasure in 1953? ______books read,
15, About how many HOURS A. WEEK do you spend reading books and magazines for pleasure? ______hours a week
16, What 1W0 kinds of music do you usually most enjoy? Please write a-1 in the space opposite the ldnd of music you enjoy most, and a 2^ in the space opposite your second choice,
____ Jazz _____ Popular _____ Polk music _____ Semi-classical Hillbilly Classical _____ Western _____ Other (Please specify) ______110
17;. Suppose you were offered an opportunity to get ahead in a job. but this charge would mean that you would have to give up almost all of your spare time. Bow important would this be in keeping you frcm making the change?
______Would keep me from making the change Might keep me frcm making the change Would be a serious consideration* but wouldn't keep me from making the change Wouldn't matter at all
18. Withim the past two years have you spent a week or longer on vacation during the winter in another state? Yes No
19* Within the past two years have you spent a week or longer on vacation, during the summer in another state? _____ Yes _____ No
20. An accountant I know likes to spend his spare time in sports and relaxation. He knows that he could use this time to study law. which would get him ahead in his joh. But he feels that the relaxation he gets frcm sports is more important. Be decides to give up the idea of becoming a. lawyer. How would you feel about this decision? Would you*
Strongly Strongly approve Approve Undecided Disapprove disapprove
21. About how many times did you go to the movies in 1953? times
22. Is there a television set at your residence which you have the privilege of using? Yes NO
23* About how many HOUBS A WEEK do you spend watching television programs?
_Nbne 15 to 19 fcl to 4 20 to 24 , 5 to 9 25 or more , 10 to 14
24. Which THREE television, programs do you like the best? Please list in order of importance. *
3* -- 25i. Da general, do you think that MOST people today are putting their leisure time to* Very good use _____ Good use _____ Neither good nor poor use _____ Poor use Very poor use Ill
Please read every question carefully and fill ini the necessary information. Most answers can be given by a check mark or by placing a circle around a number*
1*. Marital Status* (Check one) Married , Single _____ Separated____ Divorced _____ Widowed
2* Children* Yes - Mb _____
3* Children at heme* Ye a Mb ______
4* Race* White ■ Negro ____. Other _
3* Age* (Check one) 20-24__ 23-29______30-34 33-39_ 40-44 45-49 _____ 50-54 55-59____ 60 and over
6* What is your occupation? (Please be specific* as insurance salesman* railroad engineer* sheet metal worker* etc.) If retired or not employed* please state the main occupation! you have followed*
7* What is (was) the main! occupation of your father? (Please be specific)
8* What is your religious preference? (check one)
Catholic Protestant Jewish Other
9* Bow many TIMES A MONTH do you usually attend meetings directly connected with the church? (Include church services* group meetings* committees* etc*) _____ times a month
10* Education* (Circle last year that you completed) Grade School I. 2345^78 High School 12 3 4 College 1 2 3 4 Professional post-graduate study 1 2 3 4 Trade or business school 1 2 3 4
11* Please oheok the space below which best describes your approximate annual income*
Under $3000 ,$3000-14999 $3000-^6999 $7000-$8999
' ■ ______$9000-$i0*999 $11*000 or over 112
12* Where have you lived for the longeat time? (Gheck one)
On a . f aim In. the country, but not on a faxm In a village of lesa than 2500 people in a small city (2500 - 25,000) In a city of 25,000 - 100,000 In a large city (more than 100,000)
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION. YOUR ANSWERS WILL HELP GREATLY; YOU ARE INVITED TO MAKE ANY ADDITIONAL COMMENTS THAT YOU WISH. WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED, PLEASE PUT THIS IN; THE RETURN ENVELOPE AND MAIL IT BACK.
PLEASE DO NOT SIGN YOUR NAME. THANKS AGAIN.
Research Project No. APPENDIX G
COVERING LETTER
113 114
THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Sociology Columbus 10, Ohio
December 3, 1953 Dear Sir: You will agree, I thirds:, that the way In which people spend their free time is becoming a more and more important part of American life. But which spare-time activities are most frequent and consume the most time? What are the spare-time activities that men like the best? This is what we are trying to find out. And this Is why we are asking your cooperation. Will you help us? Why did we ask you and not somebody else? One person was picked from every page of the Columbus City Directory. Your name was picked in this way. We do NOT want you to sign your name, but your answers are very Important. It will be helpful if you will take a few minutes of your time to fill out this questionnaire. When you have finished, please mail It back In the stamped envelope. Thank you very much,
Alfred C. Clarke Department of Sociology 152 Hagerty Hall The Ohio State University P.S. To get accurate results, an answer from EVERY person Is necessary. Thanks again for your cooperation. ACC APPENDIX D
POLLOW-UP POST CARD
115 116
Follow-up Post Card
Many of you have already mailed back the questionnaire I sent you last week. I wish to thank you again for your help. But the rush of everyday living affects even the best intentions. If you have not filled out the questionnaire, would you please take a few minutes and do it now. Then mail it back in the stamped envelope. An answer from every person is essential. Thanks, Alfred C. Clarke Department of Sociology The Ohio State University Columbus 10, Ohio APPENDIX E
.OCCUPATIONAL LISTINGS AND PRESTIGE SCORES
117 118
Occupational Listings and Prestige Scores
This list is based upon the North-Hatt Occupational Prestige Scale. Occupations not listed in the North-Hatt scale were obtained by interpolation, as explained in Chapter II.
Score Occupation
96 U.S. Supreme Court Justice 93 Physician 93 State Governor 92 Cabinet member in federal government 92 Diplomat in U.S. Foreign Service 90 Mayor of a large city 89 College professor 39 Scientist 89 U.S. Representative in Congress 88 Banker 88 Scientist, government 87 County Judge 87 Head of a department in state government 86 Architect 86 Chemist 86 Dentist 86 Lawyer 86 Minister 86 Nuclear physicist 86 Priest
85 Biochemist 85 Psychologist 84 Civil engineer 84 President of larger retail chain store 84 Veterinarian 83 Aeronautical engineer 83 Airline Pilot 83 Artist that paints pictures that are exhibited in galleries 83 Electrlal engineer 82 Owner of a factory that employs about 100 people 119
Occupation 82 Owner of a large wholesale business 82 Eesearch engineer 82 Sociologist 81 Accountant for a large business 81 Air Force Major 81 Biologist 81 Certified public accountant 81 Chief of a bureau, within a department, in state government 81 Executive in a large manufacturing plant 81 Musician in a symphony orchestra 81 President of a wholesale company 80 Auditor, bank 80 Author of novels 80 Captain in the regular army 80 Chief of police, city of 350,000 80 Cytologist 80 High school Superintendent 80 Manager of a large department store 80 Mechanical engineer 80 Metallurgist 80 Tax accountant for gas company 80 Vice-president of a large wholesale food company 79 Auditor, insurance company, state 79 Building contractor 79 Ceramic engineer 79 Economist 79 Stock broker 78 Accountant 78 Aircraft technician 78 Assistant research engineer (mechanical) 78 Ceramic Instructor (-makes and sells) 78 Co-owner of Insurance corporation 78 Department head of large company 78 Dietician 7 8 Executive (publicity director) for a large department store 78 Executive with the telephone company 78 Manager of a hotel 78 Nurse, registered 78 Owner of a small manufacturing plant 78 Public school teacher 120
Score Occupation 78 Statistician, department of agriculture 78 Surveying engineer 77 County Agricultural agent 77 General manager of a manufactoring plant that employs over 100 men 77 Horticulturist 77 Internal Revenue agent 77 Process engineer 77 Railroad engineer 77 Superintendent of Construction Company, Roads and Streets 76 Farm owner and operator 76 Museum librarian 76 Newspaper department manager 76 Nurse (hospital) 76 Personnel (testing etc.) 76 Secretary-treasurer of large company 76 Tree surgeon self-employed 75 Air Force Lieutenant 75 Bank Examiner 75 Chiropractor 75 Coordinator-management-labor 75 Dress designer 75 Manager of life insurance company 75 ©fflcial of an international labor union 75 Pharmacist 75 Plant manager of larger company 75 Railroad superintendent 75 T.V. engineer 75 Time study engineer 75 Tool engineer 74 Bank inspector 74 Cement contractor 74 Coordinator - Oil Company 74 Librarian 74 Loan officer in bank 74 Medical technologist 74 Newspaper columnist 74 Owiier-operator of a printing shop 74 Plant superintendent 74 Promotion manager 74 Radio announcer 121
Score Occupation 74 University student 73 Arborist for city 73 Dental technician 73 Department head of a department store 73 Electrician 73 Machine shop, owner 73 Owner-operator of a real estate agency 73 Sales engineer 73 Trained machinist 73 Welfare worker for a city government 72 Advertising promoter 72 Commercial photographer 72 Co-owner of a small store in city 72 District salesmanager for large company 72 Division manager of wholesale cooperative 72 Embalmer who owns his own undertaking establishment 72 Funeral director 72 Manager of chain retail grocery store 72 Manager of a department in larger company 72 Manager of large company 72 Motel business (partner) 72 Beal Estate broker 72 Sales promotion worker 72 Senior engineering aid 72 Superintendent in a factory 72 Undertaker 71 Branch manager for large company 71 Broker for motor freight company 71 Buyer for furniture store 71 Investigator, city tax division 71 Proprietor of sheet-metal business 71 Publicity man for large c’ompanles 71 Reporter on a daily newspaper 70 Advertising man with metropolitian paper 70 Advertising writer 70 Assistant department head of a department store 70 Bank cashier 70 Buyer for a department store for a single department 70 Buyer for a hardware store 70 Captain in city fire department 122
Score Occupation
70 Credit manager, Van and Storage Company- 70 District manager of heat regulation company- 70 Grocery store owner 70 Jr. executive, Advertising firm 70 Leader of a dance hand 70 Manager of a movie theater in downtown section of city 70 Manager of transportation and moving company 70 Manufacturer's broker 70 Master machinist 70 Office manager
70 Operating engineer for the city 70 Eecreational Director (X.M.C.A.) 70 Regional claims manager (life Insurance) 70 Sales manager 70 Sales manager-salesman who supervises 7-12 other salesmen 70 TV service manager (wholesale) 70 Wholesale druggist 69 Builder of homes (supervises work) 69 Distributor, oil business 69 Draftsman
69 Governess 69 Insurance underwriter 69 Lieutenant of police, (R.R.) 69 Manager of dry goods store 69 Manager of a small store in city 69 Sales engineer (gas heating) 68 Baker (owns shop) 68 Bookkeeper 68 Building Inspector 68 Department manager, large retail grocery 68 Display manager of single department of department store 68 Heating engineer 68 Insurance agent 68 Manager of dry cleaning store 68 Manager of garage 68 Manager of a service station 68 Office supervisor 68 Owner of a small-to-medium restaurant In the city 68 Owner-operator of a cleaning business (on store) 68 Parts manager, factory 123
Spore Occupation
68 Printer, Newspaper 68 Purchasing agent 68 Real Estate appraiser for commercial property 68 Rental agent 68 Sales representative 68 Salesman - retail, not Involving canvassing or or traveling 68 Salesman - wholesale, not involving traveling 68 State Highway patrolman 68 Tenant farmer - one who owns livestock and machinery and manages the farm 68 Traveling salesman for a wholesale concern
67 Airplane mechanic 67 Assistant manager of a restaurant 67 Bank teller 67 .Blueprint reader 67 Inspector in machine shop 67 Linotype operator-Printing shop 67 Main crew foreman, factory 67 Manager of a grill 67 Minor league baseball player 67 Office machine repairman
67 Owner-operator of an auto repair shop that employs three other people 67 Pattern maker (wood and metal) 67 Playground director 67 Plumber who owns his own shop 67 Policeman 67 Radio mechanic 67 Radio operator, airport tower 67 Railroad conductor 67 Refrigeration mechanic 67 Restaurant owner
67 Security officer 67 Shipping superintendent 67 Shop foreman, factory 67 Tailor 67 T,V, repairman 67 Natch repairman 66 Auto mechanic (in partnership) 66 Cabinet maker 66 Army sergeant 66 Assembly line foreman 12 k
Score Occupation
66 Cash register mechanic 66 Electrotyper 66 Expedltor, aviation company 66 Express messenger, supervisor on express train 66 Foreman, light company 66 Hardware dealer 66 Mail carrier 66 Nurse, practical 66 Owner-operator of a confectionary 66 Payroll clerk
66 Police officer (E.R.O) 66 Printing pressman 66 Railroad roundhouse foreman 66 Restaurant partner 66 Stenographer 66 Truck gardener 65 Actuarial clerk in an insurance company 65 Assistant parts manager, factory 65 Brlckmason 65 Carpenter 65 City fireman 65 Elevator mechanic 65 Inspector, factory 65 Owner of shoe repair shop 65 Player in a dance band 65 Postal clerk 65 Secretary 65 Washing machine repairman 6k Checker in metal-assembly line 6k Stockkeeper, municipal division of electricity
63 Automobile repairman 63 Barber who owns his own shop and employs one other man 63 Lineman, telephone company 63 Maintenance mechanic 63 Plumber 63 Railroad brakeman 62 Automotive spare parts specialist 62 Baker 62 Cashier 62 Chainman (surveying) 125
Score Occupation
62 Concessionaire 62 Coppersmith (R.R.) 62 Diesel operator 62 Dressmaker 62 Escalator Installer 62 Garage mechanic 62 Gas meter mechanic 62 General office worker; clerk 62 Inspector, refrigerator controls in plant 62 Local official of a labor union 62 Movie projector operator 62 Owner-operator of a lunch stand 62 Repairman - telephone company 62 Stationary engineer 62 Upholsterer 61 Credit clerk and investigator 60 Bookbinder 60 Bricklayer 60 Bricksetter 60 Casting-grlnder
60 Corporal in the regular army 60 Laboratory aide 60 Machine operator in a factory 60 Millwright 60 Painter 60 Plasterer 60 Press feeder - printing shop 60 Railroad flagman 60 Railroad steel car Inspector 60 Railroad switchman 60 Roofer 60 Route Salesman 60 Shoe repairman (cobbler) 60 Steel temperer 59 Assembler at aircraft plant . 59 Barber 59 Boards children at home 59 Bulldozer operator 59 Butcher 59 Crane operator 126
Score Occupation
59 Glass worker 59 Machinist's helper (R.R.) 59 Shipping clerk, factory 59 Steam shovel operator 59 Welder 58 Clerk in a store 58 Equipment operator - army depot 58 PiBherman who owns his own boat 58 Manager of a poolroom 58 Metal plate worker 58 Mica layer in factory 58 Pipefitter 58 Seamstress 58 Streetcar motorman 58 Stock selector 57 City bus driver 57 Messenger for armored car company 56 Route salesman - driver 56 Seamstress 55 Maintenance man in factory 55 Railroad guard 54 Carpet layer 5^ Milk route man 5^ Private housekeeper 54 Restaurant cook 5^ Sheet metal worker 54 Truck driver 53 Housekeeper 53 Lumberjack 53 Stationary fireman 52 Building superlntendant 52 Pilling station attendant 52 Maintenance foreman of schools 52 Singer in a night club 51 Coal elevator operator 51 Stock clerk 50 Farm hand 50 Iceman 50 Laborer, construction 50 Saw sharpener Score Qcpupation
50 Steel mill worker 50 Stockhandler 50 Waitress 49 Coal miner 48 Taxi driver 48 Bakery worker 48 Maid 48 Maintenance worker in furnished apartments 48 Railroad section hand 48 Restaurant waiter 48 Warehouse worker 47 Dock worker 47 Domestic servant 47 Laborer, factory 47 Night watchman 46 Clothes presser in laundry 46 Laundress 45 Soda fountain clerk 44 Bartender 44 Custodian 44 Porter 43 Busboy Busgirl 40 Common laborer 40 Share cropper - one who owns no livestock equipment and does not manage the farm 39 Rag sorter 35 Garbage collector 34 Street sweeper 33 Dishwasher 33 Shoe shiner APPENDIX F
TABLES AND FIGURE NOT INCLUDED IN THE TEXT
128 129
Appendix Table 1. Attending Movies - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency . I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102
Once a week 7.0 1.9 6,0 6 . 4 7.8 or oftener One to three 10.9 13 .7 12.0 11.0 18.6 times a month Less than once 4-2.3 37.2 37.6 27.5 22.7 a month Rarely or never 39.8 4-7.2 4 4 . 4 55 . 1 50.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 23.23; d.f. = 1 2 ; P < . 0 5
Appendix Table 2. Visiting a Museum or Art Gallery - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III r v V Frequency N = 128 102 133 109 102
At least once 51 .5 36.2 24.1 15.6 20.6 a year Less than once 48 .5 63.8 75.9 8 4 . 4 79.4 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 50.05; d.f. = 4; P <.001 130
Appendix Table 3. Attending a Special Lecture - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N = 128 102 133 109 102
At least once 38.3 16.7 12.8 7*3 4.9 in three months At least once 22 .7 14.8 9.0 3.7 3.9 in six months At least once 17.9 29.4 20.3 9.2 12.7 a year Less than once 21.1 39.1 57.9 79.8 78.5 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 * 148.11; d.f. = 12; P < .001
Appendix Table 4. Attending Theatrical Plays - Frequency of Activit; by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N = 128 102 133 109 102
At least once 34.4 24.6 19.5 7.3 8.7 in six months At least once 18.8 25.6 15.8 21.1 12,8 a year Less than once 46.8 49.8 64.7 71.6 78.5 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100,0
X2 = 4 9 .3 0 ; d.f. = 8 ; P < .001 131
Appendix Table 5. Attending Symphonies or Concerts - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N -128 102 133 109 102
At least once 39.8 2 5.6 21.8 4.6 4.8 a year Less than once 60.2 74-. 4 78.2 95.4 95.2 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 62.70; d.f. = 4; P < .001
Appendix Table 6 . Attending Conventions or Other Large Meetings - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 log
At least once 4-2.2 37.5 21.8 5.5 7.5 in six months At least onoe 28.3 22.5 23.6 16.6 16.7 a year Less than onoe 29.5 40.0 54.6 77.9 75.8 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 132 Appendix Table 7* Attending Fraternal Organizations or Other Club Meetings - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102
Once a week 22.7 15.7 7.5 3.7 3.9 or oftener One to three 23.4 17.7 21.8 16.5 20.6 times a month Less than onoe 19.5 25.5 26.3 22.0 19.6 a month Barely or never 34.4 41.1 44.4- 57.8 55.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 II to X2 =. 4-3.84; d.f. H P < .001
Appendix Table 8. Community Service Work - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N = 128 102 133 109 102
At least onoe 15.6 6*9 4.5 6.4 1.9 in three months At least onoe 10.2 9.9 8.6 4.6 3.9 in six months At least onoe 25.0 26.5 16.5 15.6 14.7 a year Less than onoe 49.2 56.7 68.4 73.4 79.5 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = *14.17; d.f. =. 12; P < .001 133 Appendix Table 9. Playing with Children - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels J7 X’OljUO II III IV ¥ ^ T 2 B ~ " IQ‘2" ' 133 .. T0'9' . .. I0'S
Almost dally 5 2 . 3 52.9 4 4 . 4 5 1 . 4 52 .9 At least once 14 .9 13.6 27.0 20.2 26.5 a month Rarely or never 32.8 33.5 28.6 28 i 4 20.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 36*18; d.f. = 8 ; P < .001
Appendix Table 10. Doing "Odd Jobs" at Home - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102 Almost daily 17 . 1 26.5 27.3 24.8 32 . 4 About onoe 36 .7 39.2 34.6 4 5 . 4 42 .2 a week One to three . 25.0 15.7 20.6 1 3 .8 13.7 times a month Less than once 11 . 7 12.8 8.3 8.3 6.9 a month Rarely or never 9.5 5.8 9.2 7.7 4.8
Total 100,0 100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 134
Appendix Table 11. Just Loafing - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequency N -128 102 133 109 102
Almost daily 10.2 20.6 16.5 16.5 13.7 About once 20.3 14.7 21.1 19.3 22.6 a week One to three 5.5 10.8 9.0 10.1 2.9 times a month Less than once 10.9 9.8 9.0 10,1 6.9 a month Rarely or never 53.1 44.1 44.5 44.0 53*9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 17.04; d.f. = 16; P > .30
Appendix Table 12. Caring for Flower or Vegetable Garden - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102 Almost daily 23.4 21.6 19.6 22,9 20.6 About onoe 21.9 28.4 18.8 23.9 18.8 a week One to three 8.6 10.8 11.3 7.3 17.1 times a month Less than once 7.0 7.8 8.3 3.7 6.7 a month Rarely or never 39.1 31.4 42.0 42.2 36.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 9.07; d.f. = 16 ; P > .90 135 Appendix Table 13. Driving or Elding in a Car for Pleasure - Frequency of Activity "by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I Frequenoy II III 17 V N = 128 102 133 109 102 Almost daily 7.0 1.9 8.3 10.1 15.7 About once 25.0 27.4 33.8 32.1 38.2 a week One to three 17.2 20.6 27.1 22.0 13.7 times a month Less than onoe 25.8 2 6.5 15.0 18.4 17.7 a month Rarely or never 25.0 23.6 15.8 17.4 14.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0
X2 = 32.23; d.f. « 1 6 ; P < .01
Appendix Table 14. Working on Car - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III 17 7 Frequency N = 128 102 133 109 102
Onoe a week 9.> 12.8 16.5 28.4 25.5 or oftener One to three 20.3 22.6 29.3 24.8 28.4 times a month Less than once 3^ A 35.2 27.1 ' 28.4 19.6 a month Harely or never 35.9 29.4 27.1 18.4 26.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0
X2 = 31.65; d.f. = 12; P < .01 Appendix Table 15* Out-of-town Weekend Visiting, not Overnight - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequency N = 128 102 133 109 102
At least onoe 31.4- 2 7.5 32.3 28.4- 28.5 in three months At least once 17.9 19.6 15.3 10.1 10.8 in six months At least once 10.9 16.7 7.5 18.4- 10.8
a year - Less than once 39.8 33.2 4-2,9 4-3.1 4-9.9 a year Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 - 15.54-; d.f. = 12; P > .20
Appendix Table 16. Out-of-town Weekend Visiting, Including Overnight - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N *=128 102 133 109 102
At least onoe 24*. 2 36.3 23.3 20.2 20.6 in three months At least once 28.9 26.4- 18.6 15.6 12.8 in six months At least once 18.8 19.6 21.3 22.0 21.7 a year Less than onoe 28.1 17.7 36.8 4-2.2 4-4-. 9 a year Total 100;0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 38.4-3; d.f* = 12; P < .001 137
Appendix Table 17* Visiting Friends at Their Home - Frequenoy of Aotivity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102
Oneo a week 19.6 8.8 17.3 17.4 29.4 or oftener One to three 39.1 37.3 39.1 38.5 32.3 times a month Less than onoe 32.7 44.1 35.3 29.4 26.5 a month Barely or never 8.6 9.8 8.3 14.7 11.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 =: 22.34; d.f. = 12; P < .05
Appendix Table 18. Attending a Party at a Friend*s Home - Frequenoy of Aotivity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequency N = 128 102 133 109 102 Once a month 36.0 41.2 23.3 22.5 22.6 or oftener Less than onoe 49.2 38.2 49.6 42.2 34.3 a month Rarely or never 14.8 20.6 27.1 35.3 43.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 38.13; d.f. = 8 ; P < .001 138
. Ag^endlx:...... Table 19. Entertaining at Home - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequency N * 128 102 133 109 102
Once a week 15 * 6 12.8 13 *5 15*6 17.6 or oftener One to three 36*7 **6.1 **5.1 33*9 28.5 times a month Less than once **2*2 31*** 29*3 33.9 29*** a month Rarely or never 5*5 9*7 12*1 16.6 2*** 5 Total 100*0 100.0 100*0 100*0 100.0
X2 = 28.87; d.f. = 1 2 ; P < .01
T&2in& ? Playing Card (James Other than Bridge and Poker - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102 Onoe a week 7.0 11.7 10.6 16.5 23.5 or oftener One to three 8.6 13.7 18.1 19.3 1 **.7 times a month Less than once 17.9 25.5 30.1 21.1 12.8 a month Rarely or never 66*5 **9.1 **1*2 **3.1 **9.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 38*22; d«f• =. 12; P < .001 139
Appendix Table 21. Playing Bridge - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV V N =• 128 102 133 109 102
Once a month 17.3 8.8 7.6 4.7 1.8 or oftener Less than once 82.7 91.2 92.4 95.3 98.2 a month Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 23.76; d.f. = 4; P < .001
Appendix Table 22. Playing Poker - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N =128 102 133 109 102 Once a month 4.7 5.9 27.4 20.2 16.6 or oftener Less than once 95.3 94.1 72.6 79.8 83.4 a month Total 100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 -a- V H O Pn II X2 = 18.04; d.f. . 140
Listening to Badlo - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV V N = 128 102 133 109 102 Almost dally 57.8 52.9 5^.9 56.9 56.9 About onee 21.9 19.6 15.8 16.5 16.7 a week One to three 7*8 8.8 5.3 7*3 3.9 times a month Less than onoe 3.1 5.9 3.0 5.5 4.9 a month Barely or never 9.* 12.8 21.1 13.8 17.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0
x£ = 15.56; d.f. = 16; P < .50
i T a $ W e§t^x Listening to Phonograph Beoords - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N = 128 102 133 109 102 Almost dally 7.8 5.9 8.3 6.4 14.7 About onoe 15.6 10.8 13.5 13.8 11.8 a week One to three 19.5 13.7 8.3 6.4 8.7 times a month Less than onoe 23.4 22.5 21.1 13.8 17.7 a month Rarely or never 33.7 47.1 48.8 59.6 47.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 31.3^; d.f. = 16; P < .02 141
Appendix Table 25 . Spending Time at a Zoo - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, In Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequenoy I II III IV . V N = 128 102 133 109 102
At least once 8.6 4.9 5.3 8.3 14.7 in three months At least once 4.7 5.9 9.0 7.3 7.8 In six months At least once 34.4 48.1 42.9 46.8 47.1 a year Less than onoe 52.3 41.1 42.8 37.6 30.4 O VAST* Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0 V • A X 2 = 21.94; d.,f. =■ 1 2 ; V*
Appendix Table 26. Visiting Fairs, Exhibitions, etc. - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N -128 102 133 109 102
At least one® 3.9 6.9 6.8 3.7 5.9 in three months At least onoe 10.9 7.8 5.3 9.2 7.8 in six months At least onoe 51.6 56.8 51.8 57.7 67.7 a year Less than onoe 33.6 28.5 36.1 29.4 18.6 Q VAQTI Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X 2 = 14.84; d.f. = 12; P < .30 142
Appendix Table 27. Attending a Picnic - Frequency of Aotivity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequenoy N -128 102 133 109 102
Once a week 8.6 5.9 9.0 4.6 8.7 or oftener One to three 33.6 38.2 21.1 30.3 23.5 times a month Less than once 36.7 36.3 44. 4 42.2 44.3 a month Rarely or never 21.1 19.6 25.5 22.9 23.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 13.15? a.f. = 12; P > .30
Appendix Table 28, Swimming - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequency N = 128 102 133 109 102 Almost daily 9.4 3.9 3.0 4.6 2.9 About once 10.2 12.8 9.8 6.4 7.8 a week One to three 14.1 6.9 10.5 5.5 9.8 times a month Less than once 16.3 23.5 24.1 20.2 21.6 a month Rarely or never 50.0 52.9 52.6 63.3 57.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * X 2 = 19.86; d. f. = 16; P > .20 143
Appendix Table 29. Working a Cross-Word Puzzle - Frequency of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels I II III IV V Frequency *1 *\rs N = 128 102 133 109 JLU<£ Onoe a month 13.3 16.6 13.6 10.1 8.7 or oftener Less than onoe 86.7 83.4 86.4 89.9 91.3 a month Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
x 2 = 3.10} d.f. = 4; P > .50
Appendix Table 30. Attending a Stock Car Race1 - Frequency of Aotivity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels Frequency I II . Ill IV V N-128 102 133 109 102
Once a month .7 1.8 3.8 3.6 4.8 or oftener Less than onoe 99.3 98.2 96.2 96 A 95.2 a month Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 3.32} d.f. = 4} P > •50 144
Appendix Table 31. Spending Time in a Cafe or Tavern - Frequenoy of Activity by Prestige Levels, in Percentages
Prestige Levels II III. IV V Frequenoy X N - 1 2 8 102 133 109 102
Onoe a week 6.3 9.7 11.3 17.5 20.6 or oftener One to three 3.1 4.9 5.3 10.1 8.8 times a month Less than onoe 10.9 12.8 9.7 3.5 4.9 a month Rarely or never 79.7 72.6 73.7 68.9 65.7 Total 100. Q 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
X2 = 26.99; d.f. = 12; P < .01 145
Figure 22. Cumulative Age Distribution of Respondents by Occupational Prestige
loo
90
80
Per cent
3 0
IP
£ o 39
Age of Respondents APPENDIX G
LIST OP ACTIVITIES COMPRISING SPECTATOR AND COMMERCIAL CATEGORIES
146 Spectator Activities
Watching television Watching a motion picture Attending lectures, plays, and musical events Watching sports events, e.g., football, baseball, boxing, wrestling, basketball, auto races
Commercial Activities
Bowling Playing pool or billiards Attending a motion picture theater Attending sports events Spending time in a cafe or tavern Attending theatrical plays Attending musical events Attending a fair, zoo, exhibitions, etc. Dancing Attending a night club BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Hatt, Paul K., "Occupation and Social Stratification," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 55, PP. 538-5^. Hatt, Paul K., "Stratification in the Mass Society," American Sociological Review. Vol. 15, 1950, pp. 216-222. Hollingshead, August B . , Elmtown * s Youth. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1949. Hollingshead, August B., "Selected Characteristics of Classes in a Middle Western Community," American Sociological Review. Vol. 12, 1947, pp. 385-395. Huizinga, J., Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture, Roy Publishers. Kaufman, H., Duncan, 0., Gross, D., “and Sewell, W., "Problems of Theory and Method in the Study of Social Stratification in Rural Society," Rural Sociology. Vol. 18, 1953. Lehman, H., and Witty, P., "Further Study of the Social Status of Occupations," Journal of Educational Sociology. Vol. 5, PP. 101-112. Levy, W., "A Study of the Adult Use of Leisure Time and its Implications for Secondary Education," Unpublished M.A. Thesis, The Ohio State University Library, 1937. Lindeman, E., Leisure - A National Issue. Association Press, New York, 1939. Lipset, S., and Bendix, R., "Social Mobility and Occupational Career Patterns I: Stability of Jobholding," American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 57* 1952, pp. 366-374. Lipset, S., and Bendix, R., "Social Mobility and Occupational Career Patterns II: Social Mobility," American Joumal of Sociology. Vol. 57, 1952, pp. 494-504. Lundberg, G., et. al., Leisure: A Surburban Study. Columbia University Press, 1934. Lynd, R . , and Lynd, H., Middletown in Transition. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1937. Lynes, Russell, "Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow," Harpers Magazine, CXCVIII, 1949, PP. 19-28. MacDonald, M., McGuire, C.., and Havighurst, R. , "Leisure Activities and the Socioeconomic Status of Children," American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 5^, 19^9, PP. 505- 519. 151
McChuggage, M., "Recreation and Leisure-Time Activity," in Seba Eldridge, Development of Collective Enterprise, University of Kansas Press, 1943. Menninger, W., "Recreation and Mental Health.," Recreation, November, 1948. Michelon, L.C., "The New Leisure Class," American Journal of Sociology, 59, 1954, PP. 371-378. Mills, C. Wright, White Collar, Oxford University Press, New York, 1951. North, C., and Hatt, P., "Jobs and Occupations: A Popular Evaluation," in Wilson, L., and Kolb, W., Sociological Analysis, Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1949. Neumeyer, M., and Neumeyer E., Leisure and Recreation, Barnes and Company, 1938, Pfautz, H., "The Current Literature on Social Stratification," American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 58, 1953, P P . 391-418. Reisman, D,, Thorsteln Veblln: A Critical Interpretation, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953. Reisman, D., The Lonely Crowd, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1950, Chapter 15. Reisman, D., Individualism Reconsidered, The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 1954, Chapter 4. Reissman, L., ;-|!Levels of Aspiration and Social Class," American Sociological Review, Vol. 18, 1953, PP. 233- 242. Reissman, L., "Class, Leisure, and Social Participation," American Sociological Review, Vol. 19, 1954, PP. 78-85. Robbins, F., The Sociology of Play. Recreation and Leisure Time, Wm. C. Brown.Cd., Iowa, 1955. Rommey, G., Off the Job Living. A.S. Barnes and Co., New York, 194-5. Saunders, D. and Parker, S., "$30 Billion for Fun," Fortune, (July, 1954), pp. 115-119. Seligman, D., "The Four-Day Week: How Soon," Fortune, (July, 1954), pp. 81-83. 152
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AUTOBIOGRAPHY
I, Alfred Carpenter Clarke, was b o m In Milford,
Connecticut, June 26, 1921. I received my secondary school education in the public schools of the city of New Canaan, Connecticut, My undergraduate training was obtained at Marietta College, from which I received the degree Bachelor of Arts, Cum Laude, in 1948, Prom The Ohio State University, I received the degree Master of Arts in 1950, While in residence at The Ohio State University I held the positions of Assistant and Research Assistant during the years 1949 - 1950. In 1951 I was appointed Instructor In the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, I held this position while completing the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy.