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Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre

Siyuan Liu

Traditional Chinese theatre

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 Colin Mackerras Published online on: 04 Feb 2016

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 BCE dynasty (206 impersonating people oranimals. (baixi). Amongitsnumerousperformance formsweredanceswithsimplestoriesandactors from theearliesttimes.Thecourts ofthepre-imperialperiod(thatis,beforethirdcentury Ritual performances,possibly with actorsanddancerswearingcostumesmakeup,existed A chronologicalsurvey dance oracrobatics. China, certaintypesofperformingartsarenotedhereonly iftheyarepartofxiqu,suchas and thestaginginChinesexiquaresodifferentfromwestern opera.Despitearichhistoryin general termitgivesasomewhatfalseimpression,because the styleofsinging,spectacle There is,ofcourse,logicinthetranslationanditisused particular contextsbelow,butasa depend mostlyonmime,beingalmostcompletelysoundless. a conventionalizedchanting,butcomiccharactersoftenspeak totheaudienceandafewitems isundertakeneither throughsingingor the play’scharacters.Thebulkofdialogueinxiqu and liveactorsimpersonatingparticularpersonalities,withinterrelationshipsbetweenoramong Traditional Chinesetheatreistermed Definition traditions coveredseparately. 91.51 percentofatotalnearly1.4billionpeople,withsomeparticularlyimportantminority classes. ThischapterrestrictsitselftotheHanpeople,who(according2010census)were tions ofauthorities,ithasbeentightlyinterwovenwithsocietyandenjoyedbypeopleall China’s theatretraditionisamongtheoldestandmostvariedinworld.Despiteproscrip Introduction eas ign a oipratfrdaou,tetr iuisoften translatedas‘opera.’ Because singingwassoimportantfordialogue,thetermxiqu ) includedsomeknowntoemploy jestersabletoimpersonatedignitaries.DuringtheHan BCE –220 Traditional Chinesetheatre CE ), therewasakindofentertainment called‘hundredgamescircus’ xiqu nCiee ao etrso iuitemsareaplot in Chinese.Majorfeaturesofxiqu Colin Mackerras 2 31 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 role typesthatweretobecomeextremelyimportantinlaterChinesetheatre. These werecomicskitswithverysimplestories,dialogue,song,actingandthebeginningsof cal. TheTangdynastyspawnedanotherantecedenttodrama,called‘adjutantplays’( that hisactualaimwasmoretoteachBuddhistmusicthananythingwemightconsidertheatri to thisdayactorsaresometimescalled‘childrenofthePearGarden’,eventhoughitappears the mainwalledcityofhiscapitalChang’an(present-dayXi’an).Itachievedenoughfamethat of rulerstheTangdynasty(618–907),establishedamusicschoolinpeargardennorth Colin Mackerras been amateurliterarymenwhoformedthemselvesintowritingclubs.The survive, plusfragmentsofsomeothers.Theauthors’namesareunknown,buttheymayhave conquered thenorth,andgenredevelopedgreatlyinfollowingcenturies. were insoutheastChina(WenzhouZhejiangProvince)theyearsjustbeforeJurched however, wastheemergenceofaformtheatretermed varied andcomplex,thoughskitsfarcescontinuedtopredominate.Moreimportant, until 1368. the Jinin1234and1279reunitedChinaundertheirownrule,Yuandynastylasting to bethegreatestpowerofEurasiancontinentinthirteenthcentury,thenconquered Song survivedonlyinthesouth,meaningthatChinawasdivided.TheMongols,whoarose Jurched peopleseizedtheSongcapitalandestablishedadynastyinnorthcalledJin.The sophisticated arrayofliteratureandarts,includinglandscapepainting.However,in1126the The Songdynasty(960–1279)sawthegrowthofacommercializedurbancultureandhighly Song toYuandynasty:theriseoffull-fledgeddrama 32 E). Fifteenitems surviveinfullandthreepart. Hisyoungercontemporary WangShifuwas Over sixtydramasareattributed tohim,themostfamousbeing Hanqing whosecareer,centred inBeijing,spannedthesecondhalfofthirteenthcentury. itemsand even knowsomethingoftheirlives.Themostfamousand prolificisGuan main zaju and itwastherethattheemotional expressionwasatitshighestpoint. added. Onlyonecharacter,eitherthemainmaleor female,couldsingineachact or lessfixedatfour,sometimeswithaprologueand/orinterlude (termed the structureofthesedramaswasmuchstricterthannanxi. Thenumberofactswasmore spread tothesouth,replacing‘southerndrama’inaudience affection. body ofChinesedramaticliterature’(Shih1976:ix).Inthe courseoftimethevarietydrama saying specificallythatthe171orsoextantitems‘areearliest survivingandmostbrilliant these zajuandthecenturyorsofollowing1260as‘golden age’ofChinesedrama,one was calledthe centuries. was called‘joinedsongsystem’( pre-existing tunesforthewordstheywrote,ratherthansettingtomusic.Thismethod seven roletypes,thebasisofalmostalllaterChinesetheatricalgenres.Thedramatistsadopted stylized chanting,butmusicalaccompanimentconfinedtopercussioninstruments.Therewere stories, withclearinterrelationshipsamongthecharacters,dialoguebeingthroughsingingand Emperor Xuanzong(reigned712–56),alsocalledMinghuang,amongthemostprominent There wereover100ofthesesoutherndramas,butthecompletetextsonlyveryfew The adjutantplayssurvivedintotheSongperiod,theirroletypesandstoriesbecomingmore Though thestatusofdramatist wasnothigh,wecanattributespecificauthorstothe infollowingthelianqutimethod.However, The varietydramasweresimilartothenanxi During theYuandynasty,anotherformofdramadeveloped, thistimeinnorthChina.It zaju, or‘varietydrama’.Fromaliterarypointofview,manyspecialists regard lianquti), andremainedpredominantinsouthChinaformany nanxi (‘southern drama’).Theorigins Dou Eyuan nanxi (Injustice toDou xiezi had complex or ‘wedge’) canjunxi). - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 in Kunshan,very nearShanghai,mainlythrough theworkofWeiLiangfuand hisapproximate emotional expression. to changetherhythmandmetrefrequentlywithinsame act,enablingawiderrangeof opposite; inotherwords,tuneswerespeciallywrittenforpre-existing words.Thismadeitpossible didthe usedpre-existingtunesandrhythmfornewlywrittenlyrics,the banqiangti the lianquti familiarinthesouthandYuanzaju.Whereas system’). Thiswastheoppositeoflianquti opera wasthatitfollowedthemusicalsystemknownas beats isuniversalinclapperoperastyles.Anotherextremelyimportant characteristicoftheclapper has becomewidespreadenoughtobeacceptedandtheuseof theinstrumenttomarkaccented hardwood percussioninstrument,struckwithastick.Itisnot really ‘clapped’.Yetthetranslation later genresoftheatre,anditisaprocessthatcontinuestothisday. century (Sieber2003:xv),manyofthetextssurvived.Theywereadaptedandreadaptedfor written literature.Despite‘thenear-obsolescenceofearlyoperaticmusic’bytheseventeenth What isstrikinghowthisgenre,designedforperformance,enteredthecanonofChinese relation ofcharactersinadetailedstorythatmakesrealdrama’(DolbyMackerras1983:57). can unquestionablyseethatcombinationofacting,costume,stagecraft,andthecomplexinter typically describesas‘themostfamousChineseplaythroughtheages’(Dolby1976:48). known intheirowntimeas The mostfamousofformsevolving duringtheMingiskunqu,individualitemsusually Kunqu collectively knownas the southandevenspreadtoBeijinginnorth. in beingaccompaniedonlybypercussioninstruments.Thesestylesbecameverywidespread beginning inYiyang,JiangxiProvince,resembledthesoutherndramamanyways,including form duringtheMing,certainlybysixteenthcenturyandprobablyearlier.Agroupofstyles mass theatre,despisedbytheelite. to beconsideredlater,mostoftheregionalstyles,andcertainlyallsmall-scaleones,were area intothatofanotherthroughtheagencywanderingactingtroupes.Apartfrom in variousways,amongthemostimportantbeingabsorptionofelementsartone some consistencyalsointheiractingstylesandcostuming.Theyproliferatedintodifferentregions music, instrumentationandinotherways,butthestoriestendtobeverysimilar,thereis larger-scale urbangenresthatbecamewellknownthroughoutChina.Theydifferintheirdialect, of thembeganassmall-scalefolktheatreinthecountryside,butquiteafewdevelopedinto 1735–95). and culturereachinganapogeeintheeighteenthcenturyunderQianlongEmperor(reigned Qing (1644–1911)dynasty.TheyexpandedChina’sterritoryconsiderably,theirpoliticalpower the ManchusfromnortheastChinawereabletotakeoverwholecountryandestablish spectacular andculturallysophisticatedMingdynasty(1368–1644).Intheseventeenthcentury, With theoverthrowofMongols,ChinawasagaincontrolledbyHanpeople,in The riseandfloweringoftheregionaltheatreinMingQing the authorofmuchlonger The sameauthorityhaswrittenoftheYuandramaoverall:‘ForfirsttimeinChinawe Meanwhile, inthesixteenthcenturywefindnorthChina anewarrayoftheatrestyles Although the‘southerndrama’declinedgreatlyduringYuan,itwasreinventedinchanged developedintoover300differentstylesofregionaltheatre.Most During thisperiodthexiqu bangzi qiang chuanqi Xixiang ji(TheStoryoftheWestWing),whichonespecialist (usually translated‘clapperoperas’).Actually,the or ‘marveltales’.Thisoriginated inthesixteenthcentury banqiangti (literally ‘accented-beattune Traditional Chinesetheatre bangzi kunqu, is a 33 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 Colin Mackerras na al otoes ntehsoyo uq.Oneschoolbelieveddramashouldbebased in anearlycontroversythehistoryofkunqu. love storyMudanting(PeonyPavilion),completedin1598(Figure2.1).Tangwascaughtup Shakespeare’. Hissurvivingworksaremostlybasedondreams,themostimportantbeing English counterpart(hediedinthesameyear),TangXianzuisoftendescribedas‘China’s from JiangxiProvince.Becauseofhisdistinctionandbecausehewascontemporarywith era, itwasanelitetheatrethatspawnedasignificantwrittenliterature. while therhythmismainlyinfour-fourtime.Unlikeanyofothergenrespost-Yuan the musicissoftandgentle,withorchestrationdominatedbyside-blownflute( system,and music oftheirregionintoanew,integratedformdrama.Itfollowsthelianquti contemporary LiangChenyu(1520–94),whofashionedearliersoutherndramasandthefolk 34 (Photo byColinMackerras) Figure 2.1 The greatestandmostfamousdramatistoftheMingdynastywasTangXianzu(1550–1616), A scenefromPeonyPavilion . dizi), Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 erhuang momentum. Forthepopulartheatre themaindevelopmentwascombinationoftwostyles, declined, thegrowthofregionaltheatregathered In theeighteenthcentury,as kunqu The Pihuangsystem being girlsinprivatemansionstrainedtheatre. as performers.Mixedtroupesbecamerare,withmostactresses beingprostitutes,theexceptions to havetakenstricterholdatthattime,makingitverydifficult forwomentogoonthestage sexual immorality.Althoughthepracticeoffoot-bindingforwomen predatedtheMing,itappears of thesexesandwasveryrestrictiveanybehaviourthat authorities thoughtcouldleadto troupes muchcommonerthanall-female.Confucianideology demandedthepublicseparation stage andattractivenessascourtesans. functions. Also,thematerialonactressesinYuanpraises thembothfortheirskillsonthe businesses, withthewifeanddaughters-in-lawoftroupeleaderinvolvedinactingorother gender troupeswerecommon.Thereisevidenceevenoffunctioningasfamily and kunquwasapproachingextinctionbythetimeQingfell. and especiallythesouthfrom1850to1866,producedadevastatingeffectonthiselitetheatre inventiveness thathadearliercharacterizedit.TheTaipingRebellion,whichravagedChina there weresomegooditemsproducedduringtheQing,genreneverregained practice bytheendofMing. groups ofscenestobeplayedseparatelyfromthefulldrama.Thishadbecomenearlyuniversal of playslastingthreedaysandnights.Soitbecamecustomaryforindividualscenesor Pavilion, forinstance,isimmenselylong,havingfifty-fivescenesinitsfullform.Therearerecords was dismissedin1700. very favourabletoKong,aftertheplay’scompositionhecooledtowardsdramatist,who after allinpowerwhenhewrote.ThoughtheKangxiEmperor(reigned1661–1722)wasinitially defeated Ming,forallitscorruption,eventhoughhetriestobefairtheManchus,whowere unusual inthatitdramatizeseventswithinlivingmemoryandKongevenseemstomournthe that tellsalovestoryagainstthebackgroundofdefeatMingbyManchus.Itis of Confucius.HeisbestknownforhisTaohuashan this, ithasremainedamongthemostpopularofChinesedramas. performance withintwomonthsofanempress’sdeath,thusbreakingofficialtaboo.Despite Unfortunately, HongwasbanishedfromBeijingandtheitembannedin1689duetoits Xuanzong, mentionedabove,andhisloveforfavouriteconcubineYangGuifei. in 1688.TheonlyoneofHong’selevendramastosurvive,itdealswiththeTangEmperor best knownforhisdrama passion andspontaneity. school, whichthoughtthebasisofdramashouldbefeeling( on reason( more toshowjoy orvehemence.Belongingto the‘accented-beattunesystem’, amajorfeature wasreserved to expressgrief,remembranceand lyricism,whilexipi,whichcamefromthenorth, However, fromtheMingdynastyon,single-gendertroupes werethenorm,withall-male The Yuandrama‘favoredfemaleplayersandcross-dressing’(Li2003:40).Mixed- probablyreacheditsapogeewithTangXianzuanddeclinedthereafter.Although Kunqu styleusuallyhadmanyacts. In sharpcontrasttotheYuanzaju,operasinkunqu A contemporaryofHongSheng’swasKongShangren(1648–1718),whoadescendant A goodrepresentativeofQingdramatistswasHongSheng(1645–1704),fromZhejiang, and ,rsritadtepooino ulcmrlt.Tangrepresentedtheopposing li), restraintandthepromotionofpublicmorality. xipi, collectivelytermedpihuang . Erhuang,ofsouthernderivation, camedominantly TePlc fEenlYuh,wihwascompleted Changsheng dian(ThePalaceofEternalYouth),which (Peach BlossomFan)of1699,alongitem qing), withthefocusonhuman Traditional Chinesetheatre Peony 35 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 hr eeas ao iun genresinHubei,Hunan,Yunnanandothersouthernprovinces. There werealsomajorpihuang form probablyfairlysimilartotheitemsstillperformedinGuangdong,GuangxiandHongKong. Colin Mackerras famous genrewastheCantoneseopera( (Photo byAlexandraBonds) Figure 2.2 36 towards modernization calledtheMayFourthMovement. Fromthepointofview ofthischapter, The dateofstudentdemonstrations inBeijingon4May1919hasgivenitsnametoathrust the BoxerUprisingof1900and the1911RevolutionthatsawfallofQingmonarchy. of thenineteenthcenturycontributed toarevolutionaryprocessinChina.Specificeventsincluded Intensified Chinesereactionto increasing westerninfluence,evendominance,inthelatedecades The beginningsofreform:lateQingandtheRepublic huqin, withaclappertermed dramaswasthatmusicalaccompanimentdominatedbyatwo-stringfiddlecalled of pihuang that couldrepresentnotonlyBeijing,butallChina(Figure 2.2). enthusiastsregarded itasequivalenttoaformoftheatre or nationaltheatre,sincesomexiqu strong andpopularenoughthatinthetwentiethcenturyitwas onoccasioneventermed musical andactingcomponentsthathavecometomakeup the PekingOpera.Jingjubecame called ‘thefatherofPekingOpera’forhisleadershipinintegrating anddevelopingthevarious ( its maincreatorsweretroupesandactors.Amongtheformer, theFourGreatAnhuiTroupes eighteenth century,thenineteenthseeingmajordevelopment there. Ratherthangreatdramatists, often translatedasPekingOpera,establisheditselfinthe capitaltowardstheendof Sida huiban)werepre-eminent.TheactorofmaturemalerolesChengChanggeng issometimes enhl nnrhCia h otiprato h iun genres,namelythe Meanwhile innorthChina,themostimportantofpihuang rmsblnigt iun genrecametobefoundalloverChina.Inthesouthmost Dramas belongingtoapihuang A scenefromjingjuDabaoguo(DefendingtheState),showingroyalpalace. ban beating outtherhythm. yueju), whichbythe1730swasknowninapopular jingju, guoju Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 leaders. During theCulturalRevolution(1966–76), theformwasbannedand replacedbyJiang eleventh centuryandshowing womencontributingpatrioticallytothenation,evenasmilitary is thejingjuYangmennüjiang politicized totakeaccountofthe ChineseCommunistParty(CCP)line.Averygoodexample their heightunderthePeople’s Republicafter1949.Earlyitemsweredeliberatelyhighly Although originatingintheRepublican period,the‘newlywrittenhistoricaldramas’reached The People’sRepublicofChina Culture Movement. it ismostimportantforitsculturalcomponentandeffectsonimpulsesoftencalledtheNew were alsothemainsourceofChinesediasporaattime. Asia, NorthAmericaandelsewhere,becausetheareasofitsgreatestpopularityinChinaitself itspreadoverseastoSoutheast the saxophone,guitarandviolin.Aboveallotherformsofxiqu colony ofHongKong,itadoptedwesterninfluence,suchastheadditioninstrumentslike special forthetraditionalChinesetheatre.ThroughitspopularityincommercializedBritish careers andcontributiontothereformoftheatreinChinaareconsideredelsewhere. and withMeiLanfangtheyareknownasthe‘fourgreatfamousmaledan’( These wereChengYanqiu(1904–58),ShangXiaoyun(1900–76)andXunHuisheng(1900–68), by 1919. career considered inmuchmoredetailelsewhere,hadalreadybegunhishighlyreformistxiqu ofthesamename.MeiLanfang(1894–1961), Dingjun), madein1905fromthejingju and, mostimportantofall,wasthestarChina’sfirst-evermotionpicture, Empress DowagerCixi(1835–1908).Ontheotherhand,hefoundedhisownschoolofacting revolution andperformedforhighofficialsevenroyalty,beingthefavouriteactorof was theleadingactoroftime.Inmanywayshighlytraditionalist,hetooknointerestin new styles,contentandevenmodesofpresentation. tothepublic,whichwanted the BoxerUprisingnecessitatedanewsystemofpresentingjingju monarchy startedtotakeroot.InBeijing,thedestructionofmaintheatresresultingfrom detail elsewhere.Theideaofusingdramaasapropagandaweaponforreformandagainstthe (spoken drama),andforChina’sfirstproscenium-archtheatrein1908,bothconsideredmore to aclimaxwith like thetraditionalitems,newlywrittenhistoricaldramasfollowed themodernformofrising script-writers andcomposersdesignedthesedramastofillanafternoon orevening.Notepisodic (xinbian lishiju).Usingthemesfromtheimperialpastandmusicinstyle ofthexiqu,known important newgenreofxiquinthetwentiethcenturywas ‘newlywrittenhistoricaldrama’ followed later,buttheintroductionintoShanghaisignalled the transitiontourbantheatre. and performance.Thefeatureforwhichitbecamemostfamous, namelyall-femaletroupes, and othermusicalinstrumentstotheaccompanimentmorecomplexitiesmakeup Shaoxing areainthelateQing,itwasintroducedintoShanghai1916andthereaddedstringed Arising fromasmall-scalefolkform,accompaniedonlybyclapper,inZhejiangProvince’s Chinese, butwithadifferentfirstcharacterfromthehomophonethatmeansCantoneseopera). For theatre,thisperiodwasmostsignificantforthe1907birthofnewformcalled e iustylescontinuedtoevolve.ThemostfamouswastheShaoxingOpera( New xiqu Outside Beijing,theCantoneseopera(yueju)developedduringthesedecadesinwaysrather He andthreeothermaledandominatethehistoryofjingjuduringRepublicanperiod. The greatstarTanXinpei(1847–1917),whowasactuallyastudentofChengChenggang’s, Other thanthoseinvolvedintheatrereform(seeChinesesection inChapter22),themost denoument Newlywritten itemscanbelongtoanyoftheregionalstyles. . (Women GeneralsoftheYang Family),a1960worksetinthe Traditional Chinesetheatre sida mingdan).Their Dingjun shan(Mt yueju huaju 37 in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 which lendsanimportantcommercialincentivetothesurvivalofthisspectacularart. university. Meanwhile,traditionaltheatreitemshavebecomeapartofthetouristexperience, troupes havedonetheirbesttointroducethesetraditionalartsstudents,especiallythoseat UNESCO hassupportedkunqu,jingjuandCantoneseopera,whilerelevantprofessional finding itverydifficulttomakeendsmeet. been agreatdeclineinthepopularityoftraditionaltheatreamongyoungpeople,withtroupes present andinwesternpatternsthanhistory,eventhatofquiterecenttimes.Theresulthas Tastes arealsochangingrapidlyasChinamodernizes,makingpeoplemoreinterestedinthe in thelate1970s,youngpeoplefoundolddramasunfamiliar,tediousandlackingaction. were banned,causinganinterruptioninthepopularmemory.Whentraditionwasrevived belonging totheregionalstyles.However,duringCulturalRevolution,alltraditionalthemes Colin Mackerras watching stageperformances. such asloveandprosperity;theycanbetakenoutoftheirdailyhumdrumexistencethough tain even immoral.However,theChineselovetowatchrepresentationsoflifeasaformenter regarded thewholenotionofartificiallyrepresentingamake-believeworldasinappropriateor participant inandcontributortoawell-orderedsociety’(Fei1999:x).Somesocietieshave the weightofopinionamongthinkersinimperialChinawastowelcometheatre‘asanimportant Though theatreoriginatesinritualandtosomeextentretainsitsrolereligiousceremonies, Ideology oftheatre:purpose,censorship drama his workinthechuanju however, theyrevivedstrongly,withmanyverygooditemsproduced.Anauthornotablefor Qing’s modeldramas( 38 Emperor, one of whosemaincharacteristics wasthathe‘lovedtheatre, music,andgrand Beijing areatotrypersuade ordinarypeopleoftheadvantagestheirrule.TheQianlong in theQingdynasty,Manchu emperorsorganizedtroupesofentertainerstoperformin the and imbibingthevaluesthattheatrical representationsofhistoricalfiguresinevitablyimpart. the theatrewasanexcellentway oflearningabouttheirownhistory,appreciatingitsimportance, reputations asbenign,heroic,tyrannicalorevil.Forordinary people, whowereusuallyilliterate, events theyarerepresentingonstage.Overthecenturiescertain charactershaveestablishedtheir China, andagreatmanytakeepisodesfromhistory,theycan promoteaparticularviewofthe in essence,aHanethicalsystem. because asManchustheywantedtoshowloyaltywhathad originallybeen,andremained than theMingintheiradvocacyofConfucianmoralvalues,including throughtheatre,perhaps filial piety,obediencetothestateandwomen’schastity.The Qingemperorswentevenfurther Confucian moralvirtuesintoaudiences.Early-Minglawsspecifically promotedvaluessuchas people. SomeConfucianistsanddramatistsspecificallyregarded theatreasawayofinstilling There havealsobeenotherpurposesintheatre,suchaspromoting goodmoralsamongthe A waytospreadamessage The twenty-firstcenturyhasseenafewattemptstorevivetraditionalChineseoperas. The CCPhasnormallypatronizedtraditionaltheatreenthusiastically,settinguptroupes The ideaofusingdramatopromote one’sownregimeisnotnewtothemodernera.Early A relatedpurposewastoteachpeopleabouttheirownhistory. SinceChineseplaysaresetin ment orrelaxation.Theyregardtheatreasawaytobeamusedanddreamofgoodthings, Bashan xiucai(TheScholarofBashan,1983)broughthimnationalfame. yangbanxi), whichareconsideredinmoredetailseparately.Inthe1980s, (Sichuan opera)isWeiMinglun(b.1940),whosenewlywrittenhistorical - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 with authorscareful nottooverstepalinethat isoccasionallyquiteunclear. the reformperiodsincelate 1970s,itcontinuestoaffect‘newlywrittenhistoricaldramas’, number ofmodelswereallowed performance.Althoughcensorshipeasedenormouslyduring other timeinChinesetheatrehistory. Notonlyweretraditionalitemsbanned,butasmall ways ‘unhealthy’.Duringthe Cultural Revolutioncensorshipwasprobablyworsethanat any People’s Republic’sMinistryof Culturebanneditemsitbelievedunpatriotic,lewd,orinother passages fromothers. was tobenational.Itinvolvedbanningparticulardramasand expurgating seditiousandoffensive – onethinksof and YangzhouareaofJiangsuProvinceasanwheresuch dramaswouldbeconcentrated some referencetothecurrentdynasty’(citedinYe2012:183). ThoughhenotedtheSuzhou example, storiesbasedoneventsduringthelateMingand theearlyQingmusthaveborne now occurredtomethatthescriptsofdramaarenotnecessarily withoutseditiouspassages.For despite hisloveoftheatre,extendedittodrama.Hisedict of December1780stated:‘Ithas began aliteraryinquisitionofbooksin1772andthelate 1770ssetupacommissionthat, Margin) anddramasbasedonitbecausetheywereaboutrebels againstauthority.Qianlong infringing therulesofsexualpropriety. an impact,wasactuallyforcedtoleavethecapitalbecauseauthoritiesregardedhisactingas Sichuanese actorWeiChangsheng(1744–1802),whoseentryintoBeijingin1779createdsuch rural, simplybecauseofficialcontrolwastighterinthecitiesthancountryside.The outside theboundsofpropriety.Also,urbanperformancesweresomewhateasiertocensorthan if anymemberoftheofficialclassesattendedhewaslikelytomakesurethattherenogoing eye ratherthanmeddling,givenhowcommonandpopulartheseperformanceswere.However, shows wereoftenratherraunchyandauthoritiesleftthemalone,preferringtoturnablind shows nolackofattemptsonthepartauthoritiestocensortheatre.Ruralpopularfolk Despite agenerallynon-condemnatoryattitudetowardstheatricalperformances,Chinesehistory Censorship theatre directlypropagatingCCPideology(seemoredetailinChapter22). Revolution, whichsawtheofficialadoptionofatheorybasedonclassstrugglethatadvocated during thePeople’sRepublic.ThisphenomenonreacheditsheightCultural did thisextensivelyforpatrioticpurposesduringtheWarAgainstJapan(1937–45)andagain to performentirelysecularoperasintemplesorontemplestages. that featuredthewayvirtuousMuliansavedhismotherfromhell,butitwasnoproblem performance, manyhavinginbuiltstages.Thecontentwassometimesreligious,suchasplays civilizations. Yetitisworthmentioningthattemplesweretraditionallythesitesoftheatrical it wastobecomecentralthetwentiethcentury. was anearlyattempttopoliticizedramainawaythathasthefeelingofmodernera,and immense influenceovertheminds,heartsandcharacterofordinarypeople.Liang’sargument nation necessitatedreformofdramaandthenovel.Hisreasonwasthattheseartformswielded his ownachievements,topeopleandforeigndelegations. celebrations’ (Elliott2009:167),wantedtousethetheatreglorifyhisempire,andespecially Censorship continuedandtosomeextentworsenedduring thetwentiethcentury.The During boththeMingandQing,edictswereissuedagainstnovel Probably nogrouphasdonemoretousetheatrepushapoliticallinethantheCCP.They The specificallyreligiouspurposeofdramaisprobablyweakerinChinathanseveralother In 1902thegreatreformistthinkerLiangQichao(1873–1929)proposedthatreviving Peach BlossomFanasafamousexampleofwhathehadinmind–theinquisition Traditional Chinesetheatre Shuihu zhuan(Water 39 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 able tosolvethe casesheconfronts. justice. Heispresentedasbenevolent aswelljust,anddetectivejudge,always historical figure,andbecamelionized inYuanandotherdramastraditionasanicon of theatre. Anespeciallypopular figure isJudgeBao.Actually,BaoZheng(999–1062)wasa real justice. midsummer snow-fall.Althoughtheheroinediesunfairly, heaven canrestorethebalanceof and thenposthumouslyclearedthroughtheoccurrenceofunnatural phenomena,includinga to savehermother-in-lawfromtorture,confessesacrime shenevercommitted,isexecuted Colin Mackerras The maindistinctioninthecontentoftraditionalChinesetheatreisthatbetween The contentoftraditionalChinesetheatre 40 Guan Hanqing’s love storywithanultimatelyhappyending,although many vicissitudesalongtheway. or evennuns,isaverycommontheme.WangShifu’s wronged wifesometimesseeingherhusbandtakentolawand punished. typical oneintraditionalChinesetheatre.Thereareofcourse variantsonthetheme,with who desertshiswifeforoneofahighersocialstatusafterdoing wellintheexaminationsisa this doesnotpreventreconciliationbetweenthemandahappy ending.Thethemeoftheman the previouswifecomestocourtandexposesherhusband’sinhumanetreatmentofher,but marriage. Heacceptsher,disowninghispreviouswife.However,newwifediesofgrief, wife; hecomestopintheofficialexaminationsandisofferedprimeminister’sdaughter Graduate ZhangXie),perhapsfromtheearlythirteenthcentury.Ittellsofascholarwithpoor marriage. TheoldestextantdramascriptinChineseliteratureis story risingtoaclimaxandendingwithdenouement. much. WhattendstobelackinginthestoriesofChinesetraditionaldramasistightlystructured characterization ofeachfigureisstarkandsimple,lackingcomplexity,doesnotdevelop tend tobeepisodic.Eachchaptercanmadeintoashortplay,lastinglessthananhour.The jingju. Aninterestingpointtofollowfromthisisthatthenovelsandplaysbasedonthem latter themselvesbeingamajorsourceforregionaloperasandthesophisticatedgenressuchas will likelygettheirjustdesertsintheendformofpunishment. unsuccessfully withafatalflawisnotfeatureoftheChinesetradition.Badornegativecharacters Of course,thereareitemswithsadendings,buttragedyinthesenseofherostruggling relations betweenmenandwomen,butoveralltheyarelight-heartedcomic,endhappily. of HongShen’s affair betweentheTangEmperorXuanzongandhisconcubineYangGuifeithatisfocus specificallydated(1643to1645).Thelove Peach BlossomFan,eventsinmanyofthescenesare figures andthereissomeconnectionwithreality.Amongmanyexamples,Iciteonlytwo.In operas weresetinChinatheremoteorfairlydistantpast.Agreatmanydealwithhistorical female militaryheroes. of spears.Womenaremuchbetterrepresentedinthecivilitems,butthereseveralfamous great dealoffighting,representedbyactionssuchascomplexgymnasticsandskilfulcatching family life,marriageandloveaffairs.‘Military’itemsareaboutbattleswars,includea and Part ofthestoryisacourtcase. CourtroomdramasarecommoninYuanzajuandlater h unzj arevariousintheircontent. Loveinterest,featuringvirtuouswomen,courtesans The Yuanzaju Many early‘southernoperas’oftheSongwerelovestoriesorinvolvedissuesrelatingto Storytelling isaveryancientartinChina.Itthebasisofmanydramasandnovels, In general,theChinesepreferahappyending.Lightfolkplaysmayemphasizeproblemsin With theexceptionofplaysonstronglyBuddhistthemes,virtuallyallpre-twentieth-century wu (military), notbetweentragedyandcomedy.‘Civil’itemsareaboutdomesticmatters, The PalaceofEternalYouthactuallytookplace. Injustice toDouE is anexampleofanobleandself-sacrificingwomanwho, The StoryoftheWestWingisatypical Zhang Xiezhuangyuan wen (civil) (Top Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 lover; intheendhetopsofficialexaminationsandtheymarry. love inadream,diesoflove,butcomesbacktolifethroughthecourageanddevotionher Its mainproponentisDuLiniang,thedaughterofasternConfucianbureaucrat.Shefallsin example ofMingdynastydrama.Itillustratesverywellthethemeloveandhappyending. TangXianzu’s1598drama ‘military’. source ofplaysallgenres. the novelSanguoyanyi are theprotagonistsofmanyYuandramas,aswelllaterplays.Theybecamesource in the‘military’category.Thewarrior-heroesofThreeKingdomsperiodthirdcentury incomparably morelikelytopromote aconscioussocialorpoliticalthemethanitusedtodo. to besetinChinaapastage.However,althoughpurely aestheticitemsexist,theatreis some continuitybutmuchchange.Almostallitems,including thosenewlywritten,con ating. of itsthemes,jingjubecamemuchmoremale-centred,with the‘military’dramaspredomin- had cometorepresentathirstforincreasedequalitybeforethe law(Figure2.3).Bythenature and overcomingtyranny.Accordingtoonespecialist(Guo 2006: 135–67),JudgeBaodramas is notlovebutloyaltyversustreachery,couragecowardice, strategyversusdeception, novels, amongwhichthemainonewas dramas,itsmostimportantsourcewas developed jingjuincludedstoriesfromearlierkunqu strongly towardsheroicdramaanditemsinwhichwardominated. Thoughthecontentof the FourGreatAnhuiCompaniesandstarssuchasChengChanggengchangedemphasis female protagonists,belongingtothe‘civil’category.However,duringnineteenthcentury, is moreevidentthantenderness. individually toaudiences,mostofwhomwereilliterate.Characterizationisstark,andexcitement down thelongnovelsandearlierdramasintomuchshorterepisodesthatcouldbepresented andothersoutherndramas.Inaddition,theybroke more tothe‘military’thandidkunqu andclapperoperas,whichtendedmuch few ‘military’ones.Theconverseistrueofpihuang expressing ‘feeling(qing)’,asdiscussedabove. throughout theages. to putaConfucianinterpretationontheseunhappyevents,colouringChineseviewsofthem with theloversreunitedinmoon,thisdramaisoneofitemsthathavetendedstrongly her death,andtheemperorcommandstocommitsuicide.Althoughendingishappy, the outbreakofamajorrebellionin755.WhentheyfleetowardsSichuan,troopsdemand shows brilliantchoreography in feigningdrunkenness,while the miseryofYangGuifeiwhen stooddownforabanquetbyEmperorTangMinghuang, perhaps reflectsKong’ssupportforthe‘reason( world intheearlyQingdictatethattheyshouldseparate,whichobedientlydo.Thisending many vicissitudestheloversarefinallyreunited,onlytobetoldthatcircumstancesof and pushingfor reform. Sin) ismuchmoredirectindenouncing theevilsofprostitutionandlowstatuswomen In Kunqu, likeprecedinggenresoriginatinginthesouth,tendtofeature‘civil’dramaover Many Yuandramasareabouthighpoliticsandwarfare,featuringitemsdefinitelybelonging Mei Lanfangexemplifiesboth patterns. In thetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies,contentoftraditional Chinesetheatrehasshown The recordssuggestthatitemsperformedinBeijingthelateeighteenthcenturyhadmainly dramasareverylong,andthoughthegreatmajorityofscenes‘civil’,therea Kunqu On theotherhand,loveaffairinKongShangren’s The PalaceofEternalYouth (The RomanceoftheThreeKingdoms),whichwasitselftobeamajor the EmperorXuanzong’sbelovedYangGuifeiisblamedfor Peony Pavilion The RomanceoftheThreeKingdoms.maininterest Guifei zuijiu(TheDrunkenBeauty),which isabout li)’ schoolofthoughtintheatre,asagainstthat was mentionedaboveasanoutstanding Peach BlossomFan Niehai bolan(WavesinaSeaof Traditional Chinesetheatre ends sadly:after tinue 41 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 (Photo byAlexandra Bonds) Figure 2.3 Judge BaofromjingjuDalongpao (The BeatingoftheDragonRobe). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 centuries is GuoQihong’sSimaQian,aboutthefamoushistorianofthatnamefirstandsecond but onthepatriarchalsystemthatoppressedwomen. on Pan’sactions.ItwashighlycontroversialinplacingtheblamenotsomuchPanherself The itemtakestheformofalawcasewithpeoplefromaroundworldgivingtheirtestimony Jinlian, aSichuanoperabyWeiMinglun,aboutthewomanPanwhokillsherhusband. but stilltendstronglytoillustrateapoliticalorsocialtheme.Oneextraordinaryexampleis and virtuous. who triestodestroytheirhappinessisportrayedasevil,whilethesnakecharacterizedloving White Snake)aboutasnakewhoturnsintobeautifulwomanandmarriesscholar.Themonk more politicallycorrectslant.Agoodexampleisthejingjuandlovestory forms. andinthevariousregional There aredevelopmentsandchangesintheMingdynastykunqu hadroletypesthataredifferentbutessentiallysimilartoalllatergenresofChinesetheatre. zaju andtheYuan The useofroletypesinChinadatesbacktotheTangdynasty. Boththenanxi Role types extensive, andacurtainatthefront. from traditionalpatterns,withcomplexscenerytypicallyprojected onthestage,propertiesoften However, themodern‘newlyarrangedhistoricaldramas’of People’sRepublicdepartradically is acurtainattheback,butnotfront.Actorsenteron stagerightandexitontheleft. sides. Itisfairlybare,withacarpetandusuallytabletwochairsoftraditionalstyle.There separately consideredandomittedhere. strong emphasisonmakeupandcostume.Theimportantaspectsofmusiccostumeare approach totheatre,combiningsong,musicalaccompaniment,dance,gestureandmime,with the genresinshowinggreatdiversity,richnessandinventiveness.Theyindicateasynthetic We turnnexttosomeofthemainconventionsChinesetheatre,whicharesimilar Performance Mao ZedonginthecharacterizationofCaoCao. with intellectuals.Thisitembecamepoliticallysensitive,becausemanysawarepresentationof in thelifeoftyrantCao(155–220)andrepresentedrelationspoliticalmasters Xiu of allChinesetraditionalhistories.Anotherexcellentnewlywrittenitemis cause ofadefeatedgeneral,butovercamealldifficultiestowritewhatmanyconsiderthegreatest Historian). Thisitem,ajingju,showshowSimaQiansufferedcastrationforsupportingthe Laosheng arelargerthanlife. arecloseto life,butjing the characterofpersonrepresented. Sheng (jing) andclownchou).Thesecategoriesindicatetype ofvoiceaswellactingtechniquesand male characters’) arethemalewarriors,while xiaosheng Several otheritemsextolledfamousChineseofthepastinpoliticalways.Agoodillustration Quite newthemesarealsoverycommon,especiallythosewritteninthe1980sandsince, In thePeople’sRepublic,manyitemsrevisedtraditionalandstoriestogivethema njnj thereare four mainroletypes.Thesearemale( In jingju The stageonwhichtheperformancetakesplaceissquareandfacesaudiencethree Each ofthefourroletypesisdivided intosubcategories,andthesecanbeimmenselycomplex. (Cao CaoandYangXiu),aShanghaiworkdatingfrom1988,whichdealtwithanincident (literally ‘oldmalecharacters’) arematuremen,suchasstatesmen, BCE who compiledthefirstofChina’sstandardhistories,Shiji (young men),who singfalsetto,are sheng), female(danpaintedface Traditional Chinesetheatre Baishe zhuan(The wusheng Cao yuYang (Records ofthe (‘military Pan 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 Colin Mackerras of womenonthestage.InChina,thesemalefemaleimpersonatorswerecalled found inmanypartsoftheworld,usuallyassociatedwithsocialtaboosagainstappearance major phenomenoninthetraditionalChinesetheatre.BynomeansexclusivetoChina,itis male orfemale,almostalltheformer,boymanwhoperformedfemalerolesbecamea (Figure 2.4). orchoucategories positive charactersandbadorevilonesgenerallyconfinedtothejing usually anddan torepresentcharacter.Thereisoftenajudgementimplied,withsheng of jing Chinese theatre,withthetraditionrequiringpatternsandcolourinpaintingofface are thematriarchs,whilewudan demure anddignifiedwomen, figures suchasscholarlovers.Amongwomen,theqingyi 44 In 1860,theXianfeng Emperorhadactorsbrought fromthecityofBeijing incelebrationof eunuchs ofthecourt,butuntil 1827,somewerebroughtfromthesouthtoperformandteach. for hispersonalentertainment, butitwasgreatlyexpandedunderQianlong.Theactorswere aswell. drama, and,fromthesixteenth centuryon,kunqu and southern set upaeunuchagencytoorganize courttheatre.ItplayedboththeYuanzaju In1390,theMingemperorZhuYuanzhang(theHongwuEmperor,reigned1368–98) of zaju. themselves. ThecourtoftheMongolYuandynastypatronized dramaaswellthecomposition quite censoriousaboutthetheatreofcommonpeople, theywerefrequentlyenthusiasts levels ofsociety,fromimperialcourtstocommoners. the particularfestivalrequired.Thisinterrelationshipbetween theatreandsocietyappliedtoall Festivals wereoccasionsfortheatreperformances,whichcould expressjoyorwhateveremotions entreaties tothegodsforagoodharvestandinautumn was agoodwayofgivingthanks. earliest times,beentightlyinterwovenwithsociety.Inthespring, adramacouldmarkmaking It isobviousfromtheuseofperformancesinritualsancient Chinathattheatrehas,from The socialcontext Chinese roletypesareverystriking.Ofcoursethe on andaroundthenose. However, inmanyrecentstylestheclownisimmediatelyrecognizablethroughwhitepatch dynasty ‘southerndrama’,thechouwascharacterizedbyafacedaubedwithblackpowder. clown charactersaremale,butafewfemale.IntheearlymentionsofchouinSong are comic.Itislackofdignitythatcharacterizesthem.Theytalkdirectlytotheaudience.Most female roles.Afewnandanstillperform,butthenumberhasbecomevanishinglysmall. the trainingofnandanhasbeendiscouraged,becauseauthoritiesbelievewomenshouldplay most distinguishedandfamousactorinallChina’stheatrehistory.UnderthePeople’sRepublic, and markedanearlystageinjingju’sdevelopment.EvenmoreimportantwasMeiLanfang,the Beijing in1779madethecitymostimportantChina’stheatreforfirsttimecenturies whosefirstappearancein important actorsinChina’stheatricalhistorywasWeiChangsheng ‘male dan’)andbecameanimportantpartofthehistoryactinginChina.Onemost feature ofChinesemusicaltheatreis or awoman,butthereisnorealequivalenttocategoriessuchastenorbass.Indeed,one Because fromtheMingdynastyonwardspublicactingtroupeswereeitheroverwhelmingly Court theatrereacheditsheight duringtheQing.Kangxisetupaspecialagency,initially Beginning atthetopofsocietywefindthat,thoughemperors andthearistocracymightbe For audiencesusedtodivisionssuchassoprano,tenor,baritone,contraltoandbass,these Comic figuresaregenerallyclowns(chou)buttheconversedoesnothold,sinceallchou huadan are thefemalewarriors.Onwhole,masksquiterarein the lackofreallydeepvoice. (flower dan) aremorelight-heartedandoftenflirts, dan sings falsetto,whethertheartistisaman (literally ‘blackclothing’)arethe nandan (literally laodan Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 (Photo byAlexandra Bonds) Figure 2.4 wudan (femalewarrior). The characterLiuJindingfrom Zhulinji(TheRuseoftheBambooForest), ajingju Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 Colin Mackerras parts ofthetheatre,butfrom 1924 togetherwithmales. to theatre,buttheprocesshad begunbeforethen.InBeijing,femalesatfirstsatinseparate the kunqu.TheMayFourthMovement acceleratedthesocialchangethatallowedwomenaccess women andmen.Privateperformances inmansionssanknumberalongwiththedecline of watching performancestogether withthecommonpeopleandagainstaudiencesboth everywhere. prohibitions appeartohavebeenlessrigidlyenforcedinthe souththanthenorth,butapplied at theatreperformanceswasaprescriptionformoraldisaster andsexuallicence.These performances. Numerousgovernmentedictswarnedthatfor menandwomentomixtogether their socialequals. performances alongwiththepeople,asoccasionallyhappened, theycouldexpectcriticismfrom definitely populartheatre,anddespisedbytheeducatedelite. Ifeducatedmenattendedsuch open-air templeormarket-squareperformances.Thesefeatured regionaltheatrestylesthatwere parts ofthecountry,commonpeopleusuallygottheir theatricalentertainmentthrough and poor,buttherewereatleastsomefromtheeducatedelite.BothinBeijingother for teaandfoodappropriatetoaparty. the eliteoftenpreferredjingjuandcouldhirespecialsmalltheatreswheretherewereprovisions thatreceivedfavouratsuchprivateperformances.However,innineteenth-centuryBeijing kunqu seat themonthreesidesofasquarespacewithinwhichactorscouldperform.Itwasnormally enjoyment ortoentertainfriends.Amanfromaneliteclasswhoinvitedfriendsdinnermight social elitehadspeciallytrainedprivatetroupesandwouldputonperformancesforpersonal mansions oftherich.DuringMingandQingdynasties,manymemberseducatedor in Jehol. treated tosomespectaculardramaperformances,includingintheemperor’ssummerresidence George Macartney(1737–1806).Thoughhedidnotlikethemmuch,andhisembassywere foreign dignitary.Awell-knownspecificexamplewasthe1793embassyofBritishLord Another typeofoccasionthatcouldbehonouredbyadramaperformancewasthevisit of ritualdramas,infactacompletesetpalacerituals,forsucceedingemperorstofollow’. ‘protocol rites’(binli).Onewriter(Ye2012:2)statesthat‘Qianlongprovidedacompleteset could occasiondramaperformanceswerethe‘auspiciousrites’(jili),‘martialjunli)and they alsouseditforritualpurposes,especiallyQianlong.Amongthevarioustypesofthat Chinese theatre. means thatthecourtcouldtakesomecreditforthisdevelopment,whichwassoimportant is thatthepatronageoflateQingcourtcontributedtorisePekingOpera,which to favouranentertainmentassociatedwiththecommonpeopleofcity.Whatthisimplies Empress Dowagerintroducedfrom1884on.However,itwasquiteunprecedentedforthecourt came tocourtinhonourofXianfeng’sthirtiethbirthdaywerejingjuartists,asthosethe Tan Xinpei,whofrequentlyperformedatcourt. head ofastreamthatpersisteduntilvirtuallytheenddynasty.Herfavouriteactorwas Cixi broughtactorstocourtaspartofherownfiftiethbirthdaycelebrations,theywereatthe his thirtiethbirthday,butonlytemporarily.However,whenin1884theEmpressDowager 46 The twentiethcenturysawthebreakingdownofrules preventingtheelitefrom Another areaexemplifyingsocialrestrictivenesswasthatwomen werebarredfrompublic In themajorteahousetheatresofQingdynastyBeijing,audiencewasstratifiedintorich Moving downthesocialladder,wefindthattheatreperformancesalsotookplacein Although theQingemperorshaddramaperformedatcourtfortheirpersonalentertainment, The greatmajorityofcourtperformancesintheearlydayswerekunqu.actorsthat Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 time thataconsolidated systemexistedforthetraining ofactorsandartists.These schoolsmaintain has beenestablished.Although schoolsofthiskindwerenotunprecedented,itwasthe first remained imitationoftheteacher andlearninghisinstructionsbyheart. ing schoolsofthetwentiethcentury thanintheprevioussystem.Themainmethodoftraining punishments. However,thegeneral lifeconditionswereprobablysomewhatbetterinthetrain- renamed Fulianchengin1912.Disciplinewasveryrigidand includedseverebeatingsamong of severalprivatetrainingschoolsforactors,themostimportant beingtheXilianchengin1904, the complexsinging,musicalandactingarts.Theearlytwentieth centurysawtheestablishment future actorsandteachtheboysfromsouth,withmasters teachingindividualdisciples castration, apracticerestrictedamongactorstothoseatcourt. as actors.Itisimportanttonotethat,howevercruelthecontract system,theboysneversuffered their fathersoncontractinseveralsouthernprovincestobe taken northtoBeijingandtrained inthenineteenthcenturywasakindofslavesystemthatsaw thepurchaseofboysfrom jingju hire teacherstotraintheirhouse-slavesordosothemselves. Amajorfactorinthegrowthof eunuchs weredesignatedfortrainingintheofficialtheatrebureau.Privatehouseholderscould actingprofessionhavevariedwithtime.Inimperialtimes,court Ways ofentrytothekunqu Entry intotheactingprofession;training People’s Congress. and society.MeiLanfangChengYanqiuwereevenchosenasmembersoftheNational point ofpatronizingactorsandactresses,makingtheirprofessiononeimportanttonationalpolitics intensified theprocessalreadybegunwithChengChanggeng.ThePeople’sRepublicmadea is notquitedead,thesocialstatusofactorshasrisengreatly.StarslikeMeiLanfanggreatly of respect,especiallyinthecities. The reformsofthelateQingandsucceedingperiodalsohelpedtogiveactorasmallmodicum the Beijingstage.Thiscouldonlyexerciseabenigneffectonstatusofactoringeneral. theatre families.ThenineteenthcenturywastheagewhenstarslikeChengChanggenggraced inheriting theirfather’sskills.Someofthemostimportantstarstimecamefromthese or socialrespect. of actorsinthecountryside,andpeoplenofixedaddresscouldnotcountonanylegalprotection wandering troupeswerequitecommon,especiallyattimeswhenfestivalsrequiredtheservices with prostitution,eithermaleorfemale.Anotherreasonfortheirlowsocialimagewasthat beguiling decentpeoplebypresentingunrealimagesandofsexualimmoralitythroughassociation puritanical Confucianismtighteneditsgripoversocietyandfamilylife.Actorswereaccusedof attracted someadmiration.ThesituationworsenedwhentheMingdynastycametopowerand society. were variationsaccordingtoperiodintheextentwhichactorsheldcontemptby and dwarfsonthegroundsthattheywerecommonerswhobeguiledtheirlords.Still,there social status.Confuciusissaidtohavedemandedcapitalpunishmentforagroupofjesters,singers All throughChinesehistory,theperformingprofessionwasadisreputableoneholdinglow The actor Under thePeople’sRepublica formalsystemoftrainingschoolsfortraditionaltheatreactors troupeshadtrainingschoolsattachedtothem,thefunctionofwhichwasprovide Jingju In thetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies,thoughcontemptforperformingprofession However, thenineteenthcenturysawriseofmajortheatrefamiliesinBeijing,withsons A comparativelygoodperiodforactorswastheYuandynasty,whenperformingfamilies Traditional Chinesetheatre 47 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 Colin Mackerras who masteredthe artofplayingtheroleswomen. Althoughthiscross-gender performance and mademajorcontributionto Chineseculture.Amongactorsadistinctivegroupwasthemales history. significant roleinthelivesof the peopleandwasmainwaytheylearntabouttheirown a regularcompanionforfestivals andfestivities,forthanksgivingtothegods.Itplayed a performances couldinfluencethepeople’sviewsandbehaviour. Thepopulartheatrewasalso of view. an eyeoutforperformancestheybelievedsubversivepolitically oroffensivefromamoralpoint In particular,censorshiphasbeenverycommonthroughout theages.Authoritiesoftenkept theatre forpoliticalormoralpurposes.Sometriedtopromote their ownrulethroughthetheatre. themselves attheatricalperformances.Ontheotherhand,various regimesattemptedtousethe Mei Lanfang,aperformeroffemaleimpersonatorroles. the mostfamousdomesticallyandinternationallyofallChinese performersofanyperiod,was arts intoanintegratedwhole.Inthemoderneramostdistinguished ofalljingjuactors,and Peking Opera’forhisworkindevelopingtheactingstylesandmouldingvarioustheatrical Cheng Changgeng,aperformerofoldmaleroles,whoissometimescalled‘thefatherthe which theybelonged.Beforethemodernera,probablymostfamousofChineseactorswas or musicalcomposersbutthroughthefamousactorswhoperformedthemandtroupesto operas isthattheyareratherlowinsocialstatus.Theyknownnotthroughtheirdramatists from thelateeighteenthandthroughnineteenthcentury.Onefeatureoftheseregional to thelocallybased.Amongthesemostimportantandfamousisjingju,whichevolved western opera.Forinstance,contentisdividedintowen From theabove,followingappeartobemaincharacteristicsofChinesetraditionaltheatre. Summary andconclusion illiterate. Entryisopenbothtoboysandgirls,competitionkeen. strict standardsofperformance,butalsoensuregeneralknowledgesothatactorsarenolonger 48 ‘military’ onesonwarandheroism.Thestoriescomefromoldnovels,dramaslongpoems. and comedy,with‘civil’itemsputtingthefocusonlove,marriagedomesticaffairs, century; amongkunqu, Shifu’s latter TangXianzu.Amongspecificitems,themostfamousvarietydramaisprobablyWang the formerbeingGuanHanqing(flourishedsecondhalfofthirteenthcentury)andfor Both varietydramaandkunquhavespawnedsomeveryfamousdramatists,thebestknownfor recognized intheliterarycanoniskunqu,ahighlyelitegenredatingfromsixteenthcentury. form, butithasdefinitelyenteredtheChineseliterarycanon.Anothertypeoftheatretobecome drama) oftheperiodrunningfromabout1260to1360.Thereisnosurvivingmusicforthis the particulartypeofcharacterandstressaesthetic,makingnoattempttoberealistic. egories. Gestures,actions,makeupandcostumesarecomplex.Theyfollowtheconventionsof Eachoftheseissubdividedintovariouscat (clown), nottenor,soprano,baritoneandbass. Actors wereonthewholeavery lowgroupwithinsociety.Yetmanywerealsorealartists This emphasizesthetightconnectionbetweensocietyandtheatre. Authoritiesbelievedthat Chinese ideologieswerequiteopentodrama,raisingno objection topeopleenjoying The typesofpopular(non-elite)traditionalChinesetheatrearenumerousandtendstrongly The classificationsnormalfortraditionalChinesetheatrearequitedifferentfromthoseof The typesofcharacteraredividedinto The oldestformforwhichthereisasubstantialsurvivingcorpusofworksthezaju(variety The StoryoftheWestWing Peony Pavilion whichdatesprobably fromaroundtheturnoffourteenth , by TangXianzuispre-eminent. sheng (male), dan (civil) andwu (female), jing (military), nottragedy (painted face)and chou - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:52 23 Sep 2021; For: 9781315641058, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315641058.ch2 of theGods),lasthisgreatcycle Chinese traditionaltheatre. to lookidealforthepart.AlthoughacceptableinWagner,thiswouldnotbepossible Brünnhildes abletomeetthemusicaldemandshavebeentoooverweightornotbeautifulenough the leadsopranoBrünnhildesingsmusicofextremebeauty,grandeuranddepth.Butsome Brandon, JamesR.(ed.)(1993)TheCambridgeGuidetoAsianTheatre Bibliography looked fullysuitablefortheroletheyaresinging.Atendof (1813–83), thedemandsonsingersaresuchthatduringsomeerasartistshavenotnecessarily is notnecessarilyagiveninthehistoryofopera.Forinstance,operasRichardWagner have goodcommandoverotherartssuchascostuming,makeupandgesture.Thisintegration The goodactorneedsnotonlytobeablesingandactproperly,butlookthepart of allChineseactorsanyperiod:MeiLanfang. the mostfamousaspectsofChinesetheatrebutalsospawnedgreatestand profession withinsociety,italsogaverisetoahighlyaestheticartthatnotonlybecameoneof became associatedwithhomosexualityandwasafactormakingforthelowstatusofacting Fei, FayeChunfang(ed.andtrans)(1999) Elliott, Mark(2009) Dolby, William(1976)AHistoryofChineseDrama,London:PaulElek. Guo Jingrui(2006)TheFeaturesandSignificanceofJingju –––– (ed.) (1983) –––– (ed.) –––– (1975) Mackerras, Colin(1972)TheRiseofthePekingOpera,1770–1870,SocialAspectsTheatreinManchu Li, SiuLeung(2003)Cross-DressinginChineseOpera,HongKong:KongUniversityPress. Li Ruru(2010)TheSoulofBeijingOpera:TheatricalCreativityandContinuityintheChangingWorld,Hong Leiter, SamuelL.(ed.)(2007)EncyclopediaofAsianTheatre,2vols,Westport,CT:Greenwood. Hsu Tao-Ching(1985)TheChineseConceptionoftheTheatre,Seattle:UniversityWashingtonPress. 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