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1 Development Education in Japan: A Comparative Analysis of the Contexts for its Emergence, and Its Introduction into the Japanese School System Yuri Ishii Thesis Submitted to the University of London For the Degree of Ph.D 1995 University of London Institute of Education Comparative Education: Culture Communication and Societies 2 Abstract This thesis is in two Parts. Part One consists of Chapters One to Four. Chapter One establishes a definition of the term 'Development Education' as it will be used in this thesis. Chapter Two is a comparative analysis of the socio-political contexts within which Development Education is normally created, and introduced into schools. Chapter Three analyzes the social context of Japan and notes the emergence of Development Education in the 1980s. Chapter Four contrasts governmental intervention in the introduction of Development Education in some countries with the absence of such intervention in Japan. Part Two consists of Chapters Five to Nine. Chapter Five moves the focus to Development Education in the Japanese school system and examines the lack of progress in inserting Development Education into the Japanese national curriculum. Chapter Six contrasts this situation with the example of Life Environment Studies, which were introduced into the postwar Japanese curriculum. In Chapter Seven, the thesis reviews four small scale experiments with Development Education in schools in Japan and Chapter Eight asks why, with the same National Curriculum, Development Education was introduced in these schools and not in others. Finally, Chapter Nine summarizes and concludes the thesis. Thus within the two Parts of the thesis, there are three main themes. The first theme is a comparative investigation of the socio-economic and political contexts which increase the possibilities for the introduction of Development Education in schools. The comparative investigation includes Japan. The second theme is concerned with the difficulties of changing school curriculum in Japan itself. The third theme is the investigation of the micro-politics at school level which may make possible the introduction of Development Education in Japanese schools. 3 Acknowledgements Over the course of four years, spent on writing this thesis, I have become indebted to many individuals. To my supervisor, Dr. Robert Cowen, above all, I am grateful for his continuous support regarding every aspect of my study in London. His warm encouragement and insight into Japanese education and culture have guided me successfully throughout this long, often difficul t work. My thanks also go to Dr. Roy Gardner, especially for his advice on where to begin researching Development Education in England. To Mr. Scott Sinclair, Mr. Kazunori Akaishi, Prof. Akira Nakano, Prof. Kazuko Otsu, Mr. Yasuhiro Shigeta, Mrs. Kaori Usui, Mr. Yuji Yamanishi and Mr. Shinichiro Yoshida, I am grateful for their valuable suggestions on this study and assistance in getting access to Development Educators. Of Miss Yoshika Umabe, special mention must be made. She found from piles of files old and crucial documents on Development Education in Japan. I also wish to thank teachers who generously spared their time for interviews and offered me documents on their practice and schools. Finally, to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Ishii, my brother Yoichi and sister Hiromi, I express my gratitude. They were always encouraging me to complete this study. 4 Table of Contents page Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Introduction 12 Part One Chapter One: Development Education: The Term and the Concept 1. Introduction 16 2. An Overview of the History of Development Education 16 1) The 1960s: Eve of the genesis of Development Education 17 2) After the 1970s: The legitimation and diversification of 19 Development Education 3. Definitions of Development Education 22 1) Diversity caused by different emphases 22 2) Diversity created by chronological evolution 32 4. Conclusion and a Definition for This Thesis 33 Endnotes for Chapter One Chapter Two: Socio-economic and Political Contexts for the Emergence of Development Education 1. Introduction 39 2. Economic Context 40 5 page 3. The Context of Foreign Policies 45 4. The Relationship with Developing Countries 54 5. Domestic Policy 60 6. Influx of People from Other Countries 65 7. Conclusion 68 Endnotes for Chapter Two Chapter Three: Socio-Economic and Political Contexts in Japan 1. Introduction 82 2. Japan's Economic Growth 82 1) The economy in modern Japan until the 1960s 83 2) Japan's economy in the 1970s 85 3) Japan's economy in the 1980s and onwards 87 3. Japan's Foreign Policy 89 1) Low position and desire for equal status with 89 the Western powers in the pre-World War II period 2) Japan's position and diplomatic policy in the postwar 91 period 3) Japan's position in world politics in the 1970s 94 4) Foreign policy change after the late 1970s 94 5) Change from passive pacifism to active involvement 96 with peace keeping 4. The Relationship with Developing Countries 97 1) Prewar relationship and its termination 97 2) Postwar relationship with developing countries 98 6 page 5. Domestic Policy 102 1) Domestic policy during occupation period 102 2) Revival of the Conservative Government 103 3) Changes in the 1970s and the 1980s 105 4) Political climate change in the 1990s 106 6. Racial Diversity 107 1) Pre-World War II minority issue: Ainu people 107 2) Korean immigrants and their descendants 109 3) Racial diversity in the 1980s 111 7. Conclusion 113 Endnotes for Chapter Three Chapter Four: The Introduction of Development Education into Educational Systems 1. Introduction 132 2. Ministerial Intervention in the Promotion of Development Education 134 in Schools 1) Processes for national intervention 135 2) The introduction of Development Education in formal 137 education systems 3. Intervention by the Japanese Government 141 1) Intervention by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs 142 2) The Ministry of Education 143 3) The influence of the Ministry of Education's policy 149 4. Conclusion 150 7 page Endnotes for Chapter Four Part Two Chapter Five: The Introduction of Development Education into the Japanese National Curriculum: Theoretical Considerations 1. Introduction 159 2. Schoppa's Theory 159 3. The Attitude of the Ministry of Education 165 1) UNESCO activities and the Ministry of Education 165 2) The Ministry of Education's interpretation of Education for 167 International Understanding 3) The influence of the Ad-hoc Council on Education on the 169 national curriculum 4. The Attitude of the LDP 171 1) The attitudes of the education zoku 171 2) The internationalization of education by Nakasone 174 5. The Attitude of the Business World 177 1) Internationalization of education 178 2) Business views of economic development 180 6. Conflict Among Ministries 183 7. The JSP and Nikkyoso 184 8. Other Interest Groups 185 9. Conclusion 186 Endnotes for Chapter Five 8 page Chapter Six: The Introduction of Life Environment Studies into the School Curriculum L Introduction 199 2. The Pre "Immobilism" Period: Components of Life Environment 199 Studies 1) Life Environment Studies as defined by the Ministry 200 of Education 2) Disputes over social studies 201 3) Dusputes over moral education 203 4) Link with the kindergarten 205 5) Individual difference and the self-learning process 206 6) Child-centred, experience-based and inter-disciplinary 206 approach 3. The Adoption of Life Environment Studies 207 1) The idea of Life Environment Studies and attempts 208 to include it in the curriculum in the 1970s 2) Immobilism in 1976 210 3) Preparation for "mobilization" 211 4) Demands from the society and the failure of the 212 introduction of an interdisciplinary approach in the 1970s 5) Curriculum change in the 1980s and the introduction of 214 Life Environment Studies 6. The Implementation of Life Environment Studies 216 1) The revision of the national curriculum 217 2) Preparation of textbooks 217 3) Some more preparation before implementation 219 9 page 7. A Consequence of the Implementation 220 8. Conclusion 223 Endnotes for Chapter Six Chapter Seven: Case Studies: Development Education in Schools 1. Introduction 237 2. Planning the Field Work 237 1) Methods for the field work 238 2) Selecting schools 240 3) Approaching teachers 241 3. Field Work 244 1) Case 1. Nagai Junior High School 244 i. Overview 244 11. The beginning 245 iii. Expansion to school level 246 iv. Years as a research school 247 v. Current practice 248 vi. Summary 248 2) Case 2. Konishi Junior High School 250 1. Overview 251 11. The beginning 251 lll. Expansion to school level 252 IV. Years as a promotion school 252 10 page v. After the assignment 255 vi. Summary 256 3) Case 3. Ijima Junior High School 257 1. Overview 258 11. The beginning 258 iii. Expansion to school level 259 iv. Expansion beyond school level 261 v. Summary 261 4) Case 4. Heiwa Junior High School 262 i. Overview 263 11. Education at Heiwa Junior High School 264 lll. Development Education at Heiwa 266 iv. Summary 268 4. Conclusion 269 Endnotes for Chapter Seven Chapter Eight: The Analysis of Cases 1. Introduction 272 2. Patterns of Development Education in Japanese Schools 272 3. The Roles of Teachers and Students in a School 276 1) The motivation of inside advocates 276 2) Conditions for becoming an inside advocate 279 3) Combining supporters 283 11 page 4) Supporters 285 5) Legitimizers 288 6) Evaluator: Students 293 7) Teachers' roles at Heiwa 295 4. Climate 296 5. External Supports 302 6. Conclusion 304 Endnotes for Chapter Eight Chapter Nine: Conclusion 308 Appendix 320 Bibliography 326 12 Introduction The main focus of this thesis is the genesis of Development Education and its growth particularly in school education in Japan. There are various interpretations of what Development Education means. Among them, the thesis focuses on the type of education which was generated and introduced into schools in some European countries and Canada in the 1970s as a means of raising the awareness of people in these countries about developing countries and their problems.
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