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Policy Formation and Implementation of School Choice Reform in Japan: an Example of Local Adaptation of Educational Borrowing

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Policy Formation and Implementation of School Choice Reform in Japan: an Example of Local Adaptation of Educational Borrowing View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by GLIM IR Institution Repository Policy Formation and Implementation of School Choice Reform in Japan: An Example of Local Adaptation of Educational Borrowing Toshiyuki Omomo Gakushuin Women’s College Naoshi Kira Toyo University INTRODUCTION This study examined policy formation and implementation of school choice reform at the compulsory education level in Japan. Because of global trends in governance reform, a variety of education reform initiatives, such as standards-based reform, ac- countability reform, etc., have been implemented across diff erent countries including Japan over the past few decades, and school choice reform is one of them. Distinctive features of governance reform over these decades included the diversifi cation of pro- viders, competitions among them, and consumers’ freedom, or parents’ freedom in the case of education. School choice reform is related to these features. A. Conceptual Framework and Literature Review The conceptual framework of this study comes from Gita Steiner-Khamsi’s work -- The Global Politics of Educational Borrowing and Lending (2004). In the Introduc- tion, Steiner-Khamsi fi rst mentioned that there was a trend to emphasize an interna- tional perspective in studying “privatization, decentralization, choice, and standards in education” (p. 1) as these reform movements were spreading around the world based on transnational borrowing and lending. She, then, pointed out that there was “[a] common misconception among practitioners” about the role of comparative education researchers as those who fi nd best practices to transfer from one system to another, which she described as a “normative, ameliorative approach” toward comparative studies. In this context, Steiner-Khamsi stressed instead the importance of “under- stand[ing] in detail the impact of policy borrowing and lending on local educational ― 15 ― 711-0830-横-P014-032_大桃敏行様.indd 15 2018/01/16 15:27:57 学習院女子大学 紀要 第20号 reform” (pp. 1-2). In this light, the authors of this study present one example of educational borrow- ing by “describ[ing] how [educational policies] are locally adapted” (ibid., p. 1) through its focus on school choice reform based on policy borrowing in Japan. Existing litera- ture on policy borrowing and lending in Japan is limited and can be found in the liter- ature of comparative and international education. One rare example is Keita Takaya- ma’s work on policy borrowing and local adaptation in Japan (Takayama, 2012). In his work, Takayama attempted to assess the eff ects of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) conducted by the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) on the politics of Japanese education reform, and he exam- ined how domestic political actors, such as domestic media and the Ministry of Edu- cation, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (“the Ministry of Education” hereaf- ter), utilized PISA data for diff erent political purposes (1). Takayama’s work dealt with some of the impacts of testing policies of the international organization (OECD) on lo- cal politics of education, and as such it did not deal with policy borrowing and lending among countries per se. In contrast, the authors of this article presented an example of school choice reform based on policy borrowing and lending among countries. In terms of school choice in Japan, many research studies have been already con- ducted. For example, Masato Ogawa and his associates (2009) presented an evalu- ation study on education reform initiatives in Shinagawa Ward in Tokyo, including school choice, as it was the fi rst ward in Tokyo to implement school choice and other reform measures. Masaya Minei and Toshio Nakagawa (2005 and 2007) published books on school choice with a lot of data and descriptions of districts that implement- ed and stopped implementing school choice systems. Hiroshi Sanuki (2010) published a book that critically examined school choice reform in Japan. Also, Jun Yamashita (2016) examined the relation between parents’ school choice behavior and their socio- economic status as well as their attitude toward their children’s education. Ogawa (2009) briefl y pointed out in the preface of the book that there was a con- nection between neoliberal reform in the world and school choice reform in Shinaga- wa, but he did not pursue this issue in it. Minei (2007) referred to foreign infl uences on school choice reform in Japan to some extent, but mostly dealt with free school (1) The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) was created on January 6th, 2001 by merging the former Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture with the former Science and Technology Agency as part of the Central Government Reform. This article uses the term, “the Ministry of Education,” to refer to both the MEXT and the former Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture for the sake of convenience. ― 16 ― 711-0830-横-P014-032_大桃敏行様.indd 16 2018/01/16 15:27:58 Policy Formation and Implementation of School Choice Reform in Japan: An Example of Local Adaptation of Educational Borrowing choice and did not cover specially chartered small schools and community schools from the perspectives of policy borrowing and local adaptation. Also, Isao Kurosaki (2004) analyzed the debates on the relationship between U.S. charter schools and Jap- anese community schools in detail, but his work focused just on the policy forming process for establishing community schools. As mentioned above, school choice reform during these past few decades was relat- ed to the distinctive features of recent governance reform, and there are thus quite a few books and articles on school choice reform in Japan. However, there is no study yet that comprehensively examines school choice reform in Japan from the perspec- tives of global policy borrowing and lending. B. Research Questions and Methods In this context, the objective of this study is to understand policy formation and implementation processes of school choice reform in Japan from the 1980s to the pres- ent with an emphasis on how school choice reform, based on global policy borrowing, has been locally adapted in Japan. Specifi cally, three research questions underpinned this study: 1. How were school choice policies formed in Japan? 2. How have school choice policies been implemented? 3. How can local adaptation of school choice reform in Japan be interpreted? This study uses research methods primarily consisting of a review of documents on school choice policy formation at the national level, mostly relying on the data and documents from the Japanese Ministry of Education, the Administrative Reform Com- mittee, etc. as well as on policy implementation in several municipal boards of educa- tion that have continued or abandoned school choice policies. In addition, it includes an analysis of interviews with offi cials of municipal boards of education (2). FORMATION OF SCHOOL CHOICE POLICIES IN JAPAN In terms of the fi rst research question about formation of school choice policies in Japan, the answer is divided into three parts: choice among public schools; the com- munity school options, and specially chartered small schools. (2) The authors interviewed staff of the Hanno Board of Education in Saitama on December 18, 2014, and staff of the Suginami Board of Education in Tokyo on January 26, 2015. ― 17 ― 711-0830-横-P014-032_大桃敏行様.indd 17 2018/01/16 15:27:58 学習院女子大学 紀要 第20号 A. Discussions on the Systems of Magnet Schools and Vouchers in the U.S. and the Introduction of Public School Choice in Japan As Milton and Rose Friedman’s Free to Choose was translated and published in Japan in 1980, a societal debate on school choice reform started. For example, the “Kyoto Group for Thinking about the World” presented seven recommendations to reform school education in 1984, and one of them was “to drastically relax the school atten- dance zone regulations (to expand freedom of school choice)”(Kyoto Group, 1984, p. 18). In Japan, municipal boards of education have set up school attendance zones and have required parents to send their children to the school located in the zone where they live (Omomo, 2012, pp. 128-129). The Ad Hoc Council on Education, created un- der the Nakasone administration (1982-87) as his advisory panel in 1984, came to exert a massive impact on education reform. Freedom of school choice became a major issue. At a hearing held by the Council, a core member of the Kyoto Group, Hiroshi Kato, emphasized the importance of drastic deregulation. Kato was a professor at Keio University, and he had supervised the translation of Milton and Rose Friedman’s work, Tyranny of the Status Quo, in 1984. The Council examined the systems of magnet schools and vouchers in the U.S., along with school choice systems in the Netherlands and the U.K. in order to give children an appropriate educational opportunity in accordance with their parents’ preferences and to improve education by exposing public schools to competition among them (Ad Hoc Council on Education, 1987b, pp. 86-91). However, the propo- nents had to face offi cials of the Ministry of Education, who were strongly opposed to school choice and liberalization of school service providers, as well as council mem- bers who supported these offi cials. After the fi erce debate, although the report of the Ad Hoc Council on Education did not include the systems of magnet schools and vouchers, it proposed the gradual expansion of the opportunities of school choice by the fl exible operation of the school attendance zone system (Ad Hoc Council on Edu- cation, 1987a, the Third Report, pp. 207-208). Steiner-Khamsi (2004) pointed out that “[t]he likelihood for policy borrowing increas- es when incremental reforms fail” (p. 4). In fact, the 1980s in Japan was a period in which serious education problems such as bullying and violence toward teachers oc- curred, and radical reforms were demanded.
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