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Lifelong Language Learning Special issue: Lifelong Language Learning }} A brief overview of lifelong learning in Japan...... 5 elcome! The Lifelong Language Learning }} When nontraditional meets traditional: SIG appreciates the opportunity to work Understanding nontraditional students W with the TLT staff in bringing you this through classroom discourse analysis. . .14 special issue focusing on issues related to learning }} Curriculum negotiation at NHK: Meeting the throughout one’s life. needs and demands of adult learners. . .22 The number of nontraditional language learners, Feature Article adult learners of all ages who are studying as part of their post-compulsory education, is increasing in }} Strategies for teacher motivation. . . . 27 Japan. This reflects the understanding that language learning can enhance work-related and personal Readers’ Forum opportunities, and promote a healthy lifestyle. }} Learning to speak English: Japanese junior We hope that the various articles in this issue will high school student views...... 33 be of interest and use to those readers who already }} TOEIC materials and preparation questions: teach nontraditional learners in their university, busi- Interview with an ETS representative. . .41 ness or community classes as well as to those who may have the opportunity to do so in the future. Resources The three articles included in this issue cover a }} M. y .Share ...... 47 range of topics related to lifelong learning. Anthony }} Book Reviews ...... 53 C. Ogden offers an overview of lifelong learning in }} Recently Received ...... 56 Japan, providing information about participation }} TLT Wired...... 57 rates, government policy, and challenges to be met. Brian Rugen shows that classroom discourse analy- JALT Focus sis can help teachers understand how nontraditional learners are positioned in the classroom, and how }}A J LT Notices...... 62 Continued over }} Showcase...... 64 }} Grassroots...... 65 JALT Publications Online }} Outreach...... 70
}} Online Access Info...... 1 }} Submissions Guidelines...... 2
TLT Coeditors: Jerry Talandis Jr. & Damian Rivers TLT Japanese-Language Editor: Mihoko Inamori
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 1 The Language Teacher » Foreword & Information
this positioning affects learning opportunities. Paul Marlowe introduces WriteCycle, on online Harry Harris explains how determining a sylla- collaborative writing system. bus through curriculum negotiation helps him to We sincerely hope that these and all our other meet the various needs of his adult learners. regular content supports your teaching practice The four My Share articles offer some practical in practical and inspirational ways. ideas for those teaching nontraditional learn- ers. Kim Bradford-Watts introduces a board うこそ！生涯語学学習研究部会（LLL SIG）はTLT game that helps adult learners who plan to go スタッフとともに、生涯学習に関するこの特集号 abroad practice travel-related dialogues. Doreen よをお届けできることを嬉しく思います。 Gaylord explains how to play a game to practice 日本では、従来とは異なる語学学習者、つまり義務教 the Conditional Imperative using themes of 育終了後の教育の一部として、語学を学習している成人 学習者の数が増加しています。これは、語学学習により、 interest to adults. Zane Ritchie describes the 仕事のチャンスや個人的な機会が増え、より健康的なライ basic principles of guided reading using pictures フスタイルを獲得することができるという理解を反映して books and how to adapt them to small classes います。 of older learners. Julia K. Harper shows how an 本号の論文が大学やビジネスの現場、また地域社会で information exchange activity can help learners 社会人学習者を教えている皆さんや、将来教えるかもし in multi-generational classes to understand each れない皆さんに有益で、興味深いものであってほしいと思 います。 other’s experiences and perspectives. 三本の論文は生涯学習に関連した幅の広いトピックを In our regular Feature, Joseph Falout out- 網羅しています。Anthony C. Ogdenは生涯学習参加率 lines processes by which teachers can regain や政府の政策、取り組むべき課題などを述べ、日本の生涯 and maintain their motivation. In Readers’ 学習を概観しています。Brian Rugenは、クラスのディスコ Forum, Douglas Rapley looks at the attitudes ース分析を通して、社会人学習者が教室でどのような位置 に置かれ、その位置が学習にどのような影響を与えている of Japanese Junior High School students in かを示しています。Harry Harrisは、社会人学習者の様々 regard to learning English speaking skills, and なニーズに応える為カリキュラムに関する交渉を通してい David James Wood interviews professional かにシラバスを作成するかを説明しています。 test writer Robert Woodhead about the TOEIC My Shareでは、社会人学習者を教えている教師の為の and TOEFL tests. In Book Reviews, Interchange 実際的なアイディアを四つ提示しています。Kim Bradford- Companion to the TOEIC® Test 1, 2 is reviewed by Wattsは、海外旅行を計画している社会人学習者に旅行 James McCrostie, while J. Allen Gray reviews 関連の会話を練習させる為のボードゲームを紹介しま す。Doreen Gaylordは、成人に興味深いテーマを使った Writing for Life: Paragraph to Essay. In Wired, J. conditional imperativeを練習するゲームのやり方を説明 します。Zane Ritchieは、絵本を使ったリーディングの基本 的な原則を示し、年齢の高い学習者の小さなクラスへの導 入の方法を説明します。Julia K. Harperは、お互いの経験 や総体的な見地を理解するために年齢の違うクラスでの Submitting material to 情報交換アクティビティがいかに役立つかを説明します。 通常のFeatureでは、Joseph Faloutが、教師が動機 The Language Teacher づけを取り戻し、それを維持するプロセスを概説しま す。Readers’ Forumでは、Douglas Rapleyが、英語のス Guidelines ピーキングスキルを学ぶ日本の中学生の学習態度を考察 The editors welcome submissions of materials します。David James Woodは、プロのテスト作成者であ るRobert WoodheadにTOEICとTOEFLについてインタビ concerned with all aspects of language educa- ューをしています。Book Reviewsでは、James McCrostie tion, particularly with relevance to Japan. が、Interchange Companion to the TOEIC® Test 1, 2 を、J. Allen Gray が、Writing for Life: Paragraph to Essayを論評 Submitting online します。Wiredでは、J. Paul Marloweが、オンライン協働ラ To submit articles online, please visit: イティングシステムのWriteCycleを紹介します。 特集記事やおなじみのコラムが皆さんの指導に実際に
2 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
Recent changes to the Japanese NPO laws now allow JALT to collect proxies for meetings and powers of attorney through electronic forms. This improvement will allow for faster communication, greater participation, and savings for JALT. In order to change JALT’s constitution to take advantage of this benefit, we need completed and signed proxy forms from ALL members. Enclosed with the September issue of The Language Teacher was a proxy form and envelope. No postage is necessary. Please take the time to circle “A” to amend the articles of JALT’s constitution, sign the form, and post it to the JALT Central Office as soon as possible. Thank you for your support, Tadashi Ishida JALT Auditor
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最近のNPO法の変更により、全国語学教育学会も総会において、電磁的方法を もって議決権を行使できる可能性があります。 この改善点は全国語学教育学会総会のためのより速い意思の伝達、より多数の 人の参加および費用の節約を可能にするでしょう。この恩恵を活かすためには全 国語学教育学会の定款を変更しなくてはなりません。それには、必要な個所をす べて記入し、署名（捺印）した全会員の皆様からの文書による議決権行使書が必 要になります。 ９月号のThe Language Teacherには、議決権行使書と返信用の封筒が同封さ れています。切手は必要ありません。全国語学教育学会の定款の関連条項を変更 するために、議決権行使書の中にあるA（賛成）を○で囲み、署名（捺印）して、で きるだけ早く全国語学教育学会事務局へご送付いただきたく、よろしくお願いしま す。 ご協力を感謝します。 石田正 全国語学教育学会監事 JALT2010 WINC Aichi Nagoya Nov 19–22
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jalt.org/conferences Special issue on lifelong language learning 5
A brief overview of lifelong learning in Japan
Keywords Anthony C. Ogden lifelong learning, lifelong education, social education, shougai gakushuu, University of Kentucky shakai kyouiku Bio data Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technol- Anthony C. Ogden is the director of ogy (MEXT) takes the position that education abroad at the University of lifelong learning, or shougai gakushuu, encompasses not only structured Kentucky. He completed his Ph.D. at learning through schooling and social Pennsylvania State University in Edu- education but also learning that takes cational Theory and Policy with a dual place through sports, cultural activities, title in Comparative and International hobbies, recreation, and volunteer Education. Anthony’s recent publications activities. This article presents an overview of lifelong learning in Japan, include The view from the veranda: Under- beginning with a brief historical outline standing today’s colonial student (Ogden, of its development, from the Act for 2008) and Ethnographic inquiry: Refram- Adult Education of 1949 to the cur- ing the learning core of education abroad rent national policy. Survey data on (Ogden, 2006). Both articles were published in Frontiers: The the extent of participation in lifelong learning opportunities is presented Interdisciplinary Journal of Education Abroad. He has a forthcom- and followed by a discussion of the ing publication in the Journal of Studies in International Education government’s current rationale and entitled, Initial development and validation of the global citizenship strategies for the promotion and ad- scale. Anthony lived in Japan for over eleven years, during vancement of lifelong learning in Japan. which time he served as the Director for the Tokyo Center of Societal factors challenging MEXT’s prioritization of lifelong learning are the Institute for the International Education of Students (IES) also discussed. and as a lecturer at Kanda University of International Studies
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 TLT » Special Issue • Lifelong Learning
pleasure. Lifelong learning (shougai gakushuu) After a discussion of the rationale for lifelong encompasses learning that takes place at all learning, several national strategies for the stages of life, whether formal learning at school promotion of lifelong learning will be discussed. or in daily life (Maruyama, 2009; Okamoto, The paper concludes with a brief discussion of 1996). Consequently, this includes all types of contemporary barriers to lifelong learning. social education activities (Gordon, 1998; Rausch, 2003). Lifelong learning has been the term most Historical Overview commonly used in Japan since the mid 1980s to describe adult education activities. The history of contemporary adult education in Japan stretches back to 1949, when the Act According to Japan’s Ministry of Educa- for Adult Education was enacted (Fuwa, 2001). tion, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology Emphasizing that learning occurs throughout (MEXT), lifelong learning comprises two main one’s lifespan, the law aimed to contribute to the aspects, “the concept to comprehensively review building of a democratic Japanese society and various systems including education in order to to extend the Fundamental Law of Education, create a lifelong learning society and the concept which was enacted in 1947 following World War of learning at all stages of life” (MEXT, 2009, p. II as a statement of the purposes and principles 1). MEXT takes the position that lifelong learn- of Japanese education (Gordon, 1998). The act ing encompasses not only structured learning defined the roles of the national, prefectural, through school and social education but also and municipal education bodies, encouraged learning that takes place through sports, cultural the establishment of adult education centers activities, hobbies, recreation, and volunteer ac- (kouminkan) in communities throughout Japan, tivities. Its official statement on lifelong learning and provided local governments with financial currently reads, “In order to create an enriching subsidies to do so (Fuwa, 2001; Maruyama, and dynamic society in the 21st century, it is 2009). There are now nearly 18,000 kouminkan vital to form a lifelong learning society in which located throughout the country (MEXT, 2009). people can freely choose learning opportunities at any time during their lives and in which The idea of lifelong education was not intro- proper recognition is accorded to those learning duced in Japan until the 1970s. It was identified achievements” (MEXT, 2009, p. 2). as a concept relevant for Japanese society follow- ing the publication of UNESCO’s Faure Report This paper offers an introduction to lifelong in 1972 (Faure, et al., 1972). Japan is said to have learning in Japan, beginning with a brief histori- been one of the few countries to make a serious cal overview of its development and the current attempt to implement the recommendations of national policy on lifelong learning. This will be that groundbreaking report (Wilson, 2001). It was followed with basic survey data on the extent of to be another ten years before the term lifelong participation in lifelong learning opportunities.
Figure 1. Historical timeline of lifelong learning in Japan
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support child-rearing in local communities, and Type of participation %age other activities such as audio-visual education and human rights education. Culture (literature, history, etc.) 6.2% Social issues (current social issues, 5.0% Improving the learning environment and international issues, the environment, enhancing learning opportunities etc.) MEXT is taking measures to improve the systems for promoting lifelong learning. This Foreign language 4.4% includes improving the learning infrastructure Child-rearing & education 3.0% on a national scale and providing support to local governments and the private sector for the Other 0.6% improvement of facilities such as public halls None in particular 54.7% and libraries as well as social correspondence education and culture centers. Don’t know 0.5%
Contemporary trends on lifelong learning Reasons for participating in lifelong participation learning In 1999, the Public Relations Office of the Cabinet When asked about the reasons for participating Office conducted a survey (MEXT, 2000) to in lifelong learning activities, the majority of measure the extent of lifelong learning in Japan, respondents said they did so because they enjoy focusing particularly on the type of activities learning and it enriches their lives (see Table 2). offered, patterns of participation, reasons for participating, and overall participation rates within the public sector (Yamaguchi, 2001). This Table 2. Reasons for participating in section shares some of those results. lifelong learning Reasons for participating %age Types of participation in lifelong learning Enrich my own life 52.4% Enjoying hobbies and interests, such as music, fine arts, flower arrangement, dance, and callig- Help maintain or improve my health 43.1% raphy were among the leading lifelong learning activities (see Table 1). Use in my daily life or local activities 25.1% Use in my job or to find a job 24.5% Table 1. Types of participation in lifelong learning Acquire further knowledge and skills 17.9% Use in volunteer work 11.9% Type of participation %age Acquire qualifications 11.5% Hobby & interest (flower arrange- 22.0% ment, calligraphy, etc.) Use to instruct other people with 9.8% learning or cultural activities Health & sport 21.7% Do not use 7.6% Knowledge and skills necessary for 9.4% work Other 0.1% Domestic skills (cooking, sewing, 8.0% Don’t know 0.7% dressmaking, etc.)
Knowledge & skills for volunteer 6.4% Every three years, the Lifelong Learning Policy activities (sign language, etc.) Bureau conducts a national survey on social education administration in Japan published 8 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
changes in the industrial structure. Recogniz- is placed on learning achievement at all stages of ing these global challenges, MEXT offers a life, regardless of whether the learning is accom- comprehensive rationale for the need to create a panied by formal academic credentials. lifelong learning society in Japan, which can be summarized in four points. Lifelong learning is needed to respond to the increased demand for learning Lifelong learning is needed to respond to activities for a maturing society social and economic change Wilson (2001) describes lifelong learning in In its report, What Japan Can Teach the United Japan as a lifeline for a maturing society. The States: Lifelong Learning in an Era of Change, the maturation of Japanese society as evidenced American Council on Education (ACE) identified by the aging of the population is reflected in two major societal shifts in Japan which have an increasing demand for learning activities. In been at the forefront of MEXT’s approach toward fact, Japan is aging more rapidly than any other the promotion of lifelong learning: disconnected industrialized country and by 2015, one in four young adults and workers in transition (Lakin, Japanese will be over age 65 (United Nations, 2007). The report states, “…because of the high 2007). MEXT recognizes this growing need for level of academic pressure, the excessive focus lifelong learning opportunities for older adults on academic credentials, and patterns of bully- and is funding courses on mental and physical ing in school settings, an increasing number of health, traditional arts, and community activism, young people have refused to attend school or to list but a few (Gordon, 1998; Kawachi, 2008; drop out” (Lakin, 2007, para. 4). MEXT is work- Young & Rosenberg, 2006). ing to re-engage these young adults by partner- ing with universities and regional businesses Lifelong learning is needed to revive and to provide lifelong learning opportunities. For improve the educational strengths of the example, MEXT introduced the High School home and the local community Equivalency Exam in 2005, which may be used for university entrance or as a credential for em- Due in part to declining fertility rates (Ogawa, ployment (Lake, 2007). With challenges brought 2005) and increased urban migration, MEXT on by rapid globalization, a prolonged economic states that Japanese people have begun to adopt downturn, and the disappearance of lifetime a privatized lifestyle. MEXT is concerned that jobs, there will likely be an increased demand cultural practices are being lost. As such, social for continuing education. MEXT is working to education programming is seen as a means enable workers in transition to receive train- through which to preserve Japanese culture. ing and pursue postsecondary opportunities Maehira (1994) stated over a decade ago that (Gordon, 1998; Maruyama, 2009; Rausch, 2003). lifelong learning could potentially help re- These factors, combined with the popularity integrate Japan’s minority populations, such as of English language education and Japanese the buraku population and Japanese-Koreans, youth’s interest in all things computer-related, through providing literacy classes and giving could conceivably stimulate demand for new official recognition to the already on-going night virtual or e-learning methods for EFL education schools that offer literacy classes (Wilson, 2001; (Dracopoulus, 2003). Young & Rosenberg, 2006). In response to this rationale for fostering a Lifelong learning is needed to remedy lifelong learning society in Japan, MEXT is work- the harmful effects of Japanese society’s ing at both national and local levels to expand preoccupation with academic credentials comprehensive lifelong learning opportunities. The three most visible national strategies include Japan’s intense focus on academic credentials the University of the Air, Educational Informa- has sometimes overshadowed the importance of tion Satellite Communications Network (EL- participation in lifelong learning (Lakin, 2007). NET) Open College and Manabi Pia, or Lifelong MEXT recognizes that there is a need to create a Learning Festivals. The University of the Air was social environment in which appropriate value 10 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 11 TLT » Special Issue • Lifelong Learning
up learning activities or not. This is perhaps ties for adults. International Journal of Lifelong especially relevant to EFL or other instruction Education, 20(1/2), 127-136. targeting adult learners. Gordon, B. (1998). Lifelong learning in Japan. Retrieved from
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versions of the Basic Act on Education. Okamoto, K. (1996). Nyumon Shougai Gakushu Retrieved from
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 13 14 Special issue on lifelong language learning
Keywords nontraditional students, classroom When discourse analysis, Japan, teacher research
Nontraditional students often have dif- nontraditional ferent learning styles and individual needs compared to their younger classmates. They are generally highly motivated and have a more fully developed set of life meets traditional: skills as well. In Japan, as the number of nontraditional students increases, one concern that needs to be addressed in- volves the learning conditions language Understanding teachers create for increasingly mixed classes of traditional and nontraditional students. This paper demonstrates how classroom discourse analysis, as a form nontraditional of teacher research, can address this concern. By studying the patterns of in- teraction with and between students, a teacher can gain a better understanding students through of how nontraditional students are po- sitioned in classroom contexts and how this positioning may afford or deny op- portunities for learning. First, I discuss classroom classroom discourse analysis and offer a few practical suggestions on how teach- ers can get started researching the pat- terns of interaction in their own class- discourse analysis rooms. Then, I present an example of my own teacher research on classroom interaction from an oral communica- tion class. The example illustrates how a classroom interaction between a nontra- Brian D. Rugen ditional student and teacher fails to affirm the L2 identity a nontraditional student Hawai‘i Pacific University fashions in the conversation. 社会人学生は、一般的に動機づけが高く、 成熟した生活スキルも持っているが、しばし Bio Data ば現役の学生とは異なった学習スタイルや ニーズを持っている。日本では、社会人学生 Brian D. Rugen is an Assistant Professor in 数が増加するにつれて、現役の学生と社会 Applied Linguistics at Hawaiʻi Pacific Uni- 人学生の混合クラスの増加により語学教師 が提供する学習環境の問題に取り組むこと versity. He is interested in language and が必要になっている。本論では、教室のディ social interaction, English for academic スコース分析により教師リサーチとしていか にこの問題に取り組んだかを論述する。学 purposes, multimodal discourse analysis, 生と教師、または学生同士のインタラクショ and second language teacher education. ンパターンを研究することによって、教師は 教室コンテクストで社会人学生がどういう He may be contacted at
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In this paper, I first discuss nontraditional nontraditional college student (Kasworm, 2005). students in Japan. Then I discuss classroom This paper addresses this limitation by suggest- discourse analysis and offer a few practical ing that classroom discourse analysis, conducted suggestions on how teachers can get started by practicing language teachers, can provide a on researching their own classroom discourse. useful framework for understanding the social Finally, I discuss an example of my own research interactions that mold the complex identities of on classroom discourse from an oral commu- nontraditional students. nication class. The example illustrates how a classroom conversation immediately following Analyzing classroom discourse and an instructional period fails to affirm the L2 teacher research identities a nontraditional student fashioned in the conversation. Traditionally, teachers and administrators have focused on what students are physically doing and producing in a classroom. Measurements Nontraditional students in Japan of learning have been based on grades, tests, The number of nontraditional students, or shakai- student work, and judgments about behavior. jin gakusei, is increasing in institutes of higher Social constructionist perspectives of learning, education in Japan. In July 2008, the Japanese on the other hand, assume that knowledge and journal Gendai no Koutoukyouiku (Contemporary meaning are constructed in social interactions Higher Education) devoted a special issue to through linguistic practices and discourses the topic of nontraditional students. In the field rather than solely in the meaning-making activ- of English language teacher education, Rugen ity of the mind. This perspective has informed a (2008) reports on the increase of nontraditional line of inquiry which focuses on the analysis of students in teacher preparation programs in classroom discourse, the language that teachers Japan. And at the graduate level, the Japanese and students use to communicate with each Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science other in the classroom. The purpose of classroom and Technology (MEXT) reports a steady in- discourse research is to help inform the peda- crease in the number of nontraditional students gogical choices teachers make by understanding across Japan. In 2008, for the first time ever, over the patterns of interactions in a classroom. When 20% of the total enrollment in graduate schools teachers develop an interactional awareness were nontraditional students (MEXT, 2008). through the analysis of classroom discourse, they Yamamoto (2001) describes how reforms in are in a better position to make the appropri- higher education are challenging traditional ate pedagogical choices to improve their own principles such as higher education being only classroom interactions and ultimately student for the young. For example, the concept of learning. lifelong learning is helping to establish institutes The social nature of language learning suggests of higher education in Japan as a legitimate place the importance of engaging the identities of for nontraditional students. Such reforms have at language learners in the classroom. Furthermore, least two implications. First, they help universi- the idea of learner investment has been identified ties make up for shrinking enrollments. And sec- as an important social condition in a language- ond, they stimulate efforts to improve teaching learning context (Peirce, 1995). This is especially and research in higher education. In other words, true for nontraditional students. For them, all nontraditional students may be less concerned new experiences are “symbolized and organized with a degree per se and more concerned with into some relationship to the self, or ignored the practical knowledge and skills gained from because there is no perceived relationship” their learning, which may ultimately lead to (Kidd, 1973, p. 127). Thus, when language learn- higher expectations and demands for quality ing is meaningful to nontraditional students’ teaching (Yamamoto, 2001). sense of who they are, voluntary participation Despite this, dominant frameworks for identity and investment in language learning becomes research have not considered the complex possible. In other words, what students learn is identities, shaped by life experiences, of the closely related to how they learn. Therefore, it 16 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
Example: Classroom Discourse Analysis this time that of the teaching of grammar with English language learning and teaching. Finally, Over the last two years, I have been systemati- in lines 26-60, Kenta tells another story about a cally analyzing my own classroom discourse neutral, if not negative, experience of studying in situations with mixed classes of traditional abroad at an adult English school (lines 26-60). and nontraditional students. The following is an He explains how he was the only Japanese stu- example of this research based on an excerpt of dent in an advanced class of immigrant students talk immediately following an oral communica- who spoke English very well, and, as a result, he tion class I taught (suggestion 3 above). lost confidence in his English. The excerpt is a conversation between three For Kenta, the positive experiences associated students and me. Kenta (pseudonym) is a with traditional methods of language education nontraditional student. Tomoki and Sachiko (grammar-translation methods) help define his (pseudonyms) are traditional students. The L2 identity in the interaction. It seems this L2 conversation starts with Kenta describing to me identity is based more on the positive experi- his experience of quitting his job as a manager ences gleaned from teaching grammar and/ of a chain restaurant in Tokyo and traveling to or helping with translation than with studying Los Angeles to study English before entering the abroad. university. Tomoki and Sachiko were lingering in the classroom and naturally joined the con- Second, for the other conversation participants versation. There are three points I would like to (Tomoki, Sachiko, and Brian), there does seem discuss from the excerpt, which is included in its to be a strong correlation between studying entirety in Appendix B. Appendix A includes the abroad and one’s level of English proficiency. In transcription conventions used. lines 62-73, the three co-construct this correlation when Brian asks Tomoki if he has ever studied First, it is interesting to note Kenta’s as- abroad. Tomoki explains that he has not, but that sociations with English language learning and his friend has, and, as a result, she “can speak teaching. Early in the excerpt, he tells a story very well” (line 67). This suggests a correlation about teaching English to an exchange student between the friend’s high level of proficiency working part-time at his restaurant. Consider and her opportunity to study abroad. the following exchange (Participants: K—Kenta, B—Brian, T—Tomoki, S—Sachiko): Despite Kenta’s own somewhat negative study abroad experience, the trajectory of the conversa- (4) K: […] And one of the, one of the staff, p- tion at this point suggests a correlation between (5) part-time staff, one of the part-time staff was, studying abroad and the successful English uh, exchange student, language learner. Thus, there may be a danger of (6) exchange student in- from China= neglecting to affirm the positive life experiences (7) B: =Oh yea? and identities that Kenta brings to the classroom (8) K: Yes. And one day I (1.0) I taught English and, as such, a danger of positioning Kenta as an to, to her. unsuccessful language learner. (9) All: Mmm This brings me to the third point I would like to discuss. Toward the end of the conversation, (10) K: Exactly, I translated some documents for it does seem as if Kenta becomes more complicit her. Documents for her and send, with this emerging trajectory regarding the (11) send to her. (0.5) And I, and I really enjoyed benefits of studying abroad. Consider the follow- that work. ing lines, which begin with Brian asking about Kenta’s wife: Note the association of translation (line 10) to (79) B: Can she speak English? English language learning and teaching. A few (80) K: Ah, yes, yes. lines later (lines 16-23), he tells another brief nar- (81) B: Really? rative about helping “unknown users of English” with their English grammar on an online discus- (82) K: Mm, yea. maybe better than me. [(hh) sion board. Again, there is a telling association, (83) T/S: [Ahh. (hh). 18 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
(84) B: No, no: your English is great. language classes as complex ecological systems (85) S: Ne: {Yea}. where such awareness can foster emergent identities in the situated process of learning (86) K: >Yea, she stayed < in< Canada. a language. As language teachers, we must (87) B: Oh, okay. remember that what our students learn is closely (88) K: Yea, she has stayed in Canada before. But linked to how they learn. This paper also argues maybe never been to United States. that classroom discourse analysis be conducted by teachers and for teachers. Ultimately, it is Here, it is Kenta who offers the correlation hoped this kind of research empowers individual between one’s proficiency and studying abroad. teachers in their own unique contexts to make He could have ended his contributions after line appropriate language and pedagogical choices 82. However, his contributions in lines 86 and 88 when working with nontraditional students. follow the emerging trajectory of the conversa- tion. Therefore, if Kenta is indeed complicit with References this emerging trajectory, is there a danger he Beale, J. (2002). EFL in Japan: Whose English is it might feel less successful as a learner due to his anyway? Babel, 37(2), 26-28. previously fashioned identity (a learner with an Crookes, G. (1998). On the relationship between unsuccessful study abroad experience)? second and foreign language teachers and What can be learned from this excerpt? I research. TESOL Journal, 7(3), 6-11. learned that our classroom talk did not affirm the Hilles, S., & Sutton, A. (2001). Teaching adults. life experiences and identities Kenta put forward In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a in the interaction, which is problematic. As Kelly second or foreign language (pp. 385-399). Boston, (2004) notes, “adults need to connect learning to MA: Heinle & Heinle. their lifetime of experience and be acknowledged for it” (p. 23). Furthermore, it has been shown Kasworm, C. (2005). Adult student identity in an that L2 identities are closely linked to investment intergenerational community college class- in language learning (Peirce, 1995). Therefore, if I room. Adult Education Quarterly, 56(1), 3-30. hope to nurture Kenta’s investment in language Kelly, C. (2004). Acting adult in the English learning, I must choose alternative language classroom. The Language Teacher, 28(7), 21-23. and ways of interacting, which more closely Kidd, J. R. (1973). How adults learn. New York: recognize Kenta’s identities as productive to Association Press. the language learning process. For example, I Lea, M., & West, L. (1995). Motives, mature might return to the events of grammar teaching students, the self and narrative. In J. Swindells and translation that Kenta described and show (Ed.), The uses of autobiography (pp. 177-186). further interest with follow-up questions. Or I London: Taylor & Francis. might describe how an experience of learning Japanese through a particular translation method Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science helped me progress with my own language and Technology (MEXT). (2008). School Basic learning. In either case my language choices Survey, 2008. Retrieved from <.mext.go.jp/b_ would allow Kenta to positively identify with menu/toukei/001/08072901/002.pdf>. one type of language learning experience (gram- Norton, B., & Toohey, K. (2002). Identity and mar-translation) rather than negatively identify- language learning. In R. B. Kaplan (Ed.), The ing with another (study abroad), thus supporting Oxford handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 115- his investment in the learning process. 123). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Peirce, B. N. (1995). Social identity, investment, Conclusion and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 9-31. Analysis of classroom discourse offers the pos- sibility of understanding nontraditional students Rex, L. A., & Schiller, L. (2009). Using discourse in new ways and of understanding mixed analysis to improve classroom interaction. New (traditional and nontraditional students) English York: Routledge. THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 19 TLT » Special Issue • Lifelong Learning
Rugen, B. (2008). Considering the nontraditional (8) K: Yes. And one day I (1.0) I taught English student in teacher education in Japan. Explora- to, to her. tions in Teacher Education, 16(2), 3-9. (9) All: Mmm Yamamoto, S. (2001). Changing society-changing (10) K: Exactly, I translated some documents for universities? Japanese perspectives. In H. G. her. Documents for her and send, Schuetze & M. Slowey (Eds.), “And the walls (11) send to her. (0.5) And I, and I really came tumbling down” – Higher education and enjoyed that work. nontraditional students (pp. 225-230). Vancou- ver: University of British Colombia. (12) T: Eh? Same company worker? (13) K: Un. {Yes}. Same staff. And, yea, I noticed Appendix A. Transcription Conventions I like, I like studying and I like English, (14) and also I liked [helping her. (0.0) Pause or silence, estimated to the nearest tenth of a second (15) B: [Gre::at. = Latching of successive talk (16) K: And around that time, I bought, uh, my personal computer. And I wrote in, I [ ] Overlapping speech, with the utter- ances vertically aligned and marked with (17) wrote in some, (1.0) I, I surfed some brackets sites: and stopped at the community : Elongation of prior syllable (18) sites where many, many users are (0.5) teaching each other in, in many ↑ Rising intonation (19) categories. And in the category, there, there ↓ Falling intonation was are English grammar ____ Emphasis (underline) (20) category, and I begin to teach (0.5)= > < Accelerated talk (21) B: =Oh, [cool < > Drawn out talk (22) K: [unkno- grammar to unknown (hh) Laughter users of English. And, that, that was also a (( )) Talk unclear or inaudible (23) fun experience. Italics Utterance in Japanese (24) B: Wow, that’s wonderful { } Comments by transcriber including (25) K: From then on I:: I thought of , thought of English translations returning to school seriously. And
(26) then after, uh, after half a year, I decided to Appendix B. Excerpt 1 quit my job and go to L.A. Participants: K—Kenta, B—Brian, T—Tomoki, (27) T/S: Eh:: {Wow} S—Sachiko (28) B: You went to L.A. first? (1) K: Maybe in the 5th year of my, my career (29) K: Uh, (2.0). Uh:: yea, last mon- last year: as the store manager at XYZ {Restaurant the end of October to December pseudonym}, (30) 14th, I went to Los Angeles a:nd, >yea, but< (2) I was in, I was working as a manager in the I didn’t have (1.0) plan. Yea, shop in Kayabacho, (31) just I had friend in Los Angeles. And, yea, I (3) B: Mmm. asked him to: (1.0) something, (4) K: Near, near Tokyo stock market. (1.0) (32) uh: I have no confidence to speaking And one of the, one of the staff, p- English (hh), so I want to, I wanna go to (5) part-time staff, one of the part-time staff (33) Los Angeles and studying, studying English was, uh, exchange student, with, with no money (hh). (6) exchange student in- from China= (34) B/K: (hh). (7) B: =Oh yea? (35) Y: Yea, and my friend, uh, he, he didn’t know much about the school but 20 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
(36) he had some information about adult school (62) B: Tomoki, you’ve studied abroad? and he said uh:: maybe, (63) T: No, but my friend (1.2) (37) maybe you can. (64) B: Your friend studied abroad? (38) B: Ah:. Like a private language school? (65) T: Un. Yes. She studied in United-↑ (39) K: Yea, maybe. (66) B/K: Mm:: (40) All: Mm: (67) T: She is good English speaker. (41) K: And I:: I believed that and I will go. So, I (68) S: Urayamashii {I’m jealous}. quit my job and just fly to Los Angeles (69) B: Shonan campus? (42) with almost nothing, (hh) almost no, no (70) T: Yea, but different class. plan. (71) All: Mmm (43) T: Wow, you are strong (hh). (72) T: Maybe she’s in top class now. [A1 (44) K: And after that I:: I:: when I reached in Los Angeles, I: researched, I (73) B: [A1 (45) searched in the Internet and I, yea, I’m very (74) {1.5} fortunate, fortunately I found (75) B: {To Kenta} Did your wife visit you in Los (46) the school↑. It’s adult school and I went, I Angeles? went, I attended the class every (76) K: No: (47) day, uh:: from nine to three and sometimes (77) B: Has she ever been to LA? nine to five. (78) K: Maybe no. (48) T: Ii ne. {That’s great}. (79) B: Can she speak English? (49) K: Before I went there, I have very (0.5) (80) K: Ah, yes, yes. kind of negative= (81) B: Really? (50) B: Mmm, mm. (82) K: Mm, yea. maybe better than me. [(hh) ↑ (51) K: to:: for Japanese to speaking English , (83) T/S: [Ahh. (hh). but, I have some, courage (hh) to go there. (84) B: No, no: your English is great. (52) B: Mmm (85) S: Ne: {Yea}. (53) K: But, uh, and there are a lot of, a lot of (86) K: >Yea, she stayed in< Canada. immigrants in L.A.- L.A., and that school is (87) B: Oh, okay. for the, (88) K: Yea, she has stayed in Canada before. (54) for that kind of people, I think. And they, I But maybe never been to United States. was in the top class (hh). And there were no (89) B: Ah: and her job now she doesn’t [use (55) other Japanese students and, uh, there were English? a lot of (0.5) the nationality is very (90) K: [doesn’t, yea diverse, and (91) B: Ah: (56) everyone can speak very well. Uh, I thought (92) K: She, she is computer (hh), she= Japanese is not so good at speaking English. (93) B: Oh, yea? (57) B: Mm: yea, I don’t know (1.0). Did you enjoy your time there? (94) K: Yea:: (58) K: Mm, maybe. But, I lost my confidence= (95) B: Like a computer engineer [or something? (59) B: =Ah:: (96) K: [Engineer, yea, yea. (60) K: little bit. (97) B: Mm:: (61) T/S: Mm::
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 21 22 Special issue on lifelong learning Curriculum negotiation at NHK: Meeting the needs and demands of adult learners
Harry Harris Keywords curriculum negotiation, learner-cen- Hakuoh University tered methodology, student autono- my, second language education Bio Data Curriculum negotiation, the act of Harry W. Harris, Jr., has an M.A. in teacher-student collaboration to de- Spanish linguistics and one in Applied termine a syllabus, is a procedure that various researchers have explored and Linguistics. He has taught English and explained. This writer has engaged in Spanish at academic institutions in this process in NHK Culture Center Japan, the U.S., and Bolivia. At present, English classes because of the great he is involved in curriculum develop- variety in the language needs and ment in the new English Program at personal demands of his students and other institution-related condi- Hakuoh University, for which he has tions. It is argued that this alternative collaborated on writing skill objectives pedagogical practice can successfully and organized the Writing component. allow mature students to create their He also participates in teacher-training workshops in Japan, own curriculum responsibly, making writes language-education materials, and appreciates his wife’s the learning process more meaningful and interesting to them. It is also sug- company and her amazing tolerance of the overtime he spends gested that the methodology herein at the computer < [email protected]>. described may be adaptable to other second language learner contexts. he prestigious NHK Culture Center, which began シラバスを決める為の教師と学習者の協 offering a variety of courses (including language) to the 働活動である、カリキュラム交渉は、様々な T general public in 1979, advertises that 750,000 people 研究者が研究している教授方法の1つであ る。NHK文化センターの英語クラスでは、 attend its classes annually and that “[t]he large number of its 受講生のニーズや要望が多様であり、またこ continuing ‘members’ [students] is proof of the high satisfaction の学校独自の状況も考えて、この方法が取り 入れられた。この型にはまらない教授方法 and trust for the classes they offer” (NHK Culture, 2009, para.1, により、大人の学習者にとって学習過程がよ translated by author). True, but it cannot be because of the り意味深く、興味深いものとなり、彼らが責 image I project in my NHK classes. My stern face seldom offers 任をもって自らのカリキュラムを上手く構築 することができるようになると論じる。さら the beckoning service-industry smile important in meet-the- に、この方法は他の第二言語学習者の場合 public Japan. I visibly fidget if my students show up late and にも採り入れられると提案する。 inquiringly stare at them if they do not do their homework, but they grin in the first instance and share their work across tables in the second. Yet, I do offer a collateral presence, and purpose,
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My NHK students like and may need, this paper does not invoke an abdication of the role of the teacher, who Many of my NHK students have been in my should judiciously tailor the process not only to class for a very long time. Ranging in age from student wishes and participative ability but also their mid-40s to almost 80, they are motivated to such circumstances as course or institutional professionals involved in various endeavors. objectives. In classes where students seem, for One attends international meetings and is at example, to have trouble providing activities, the NHK to build listening and presentation skills. teacher could write language skills on the board Another likes short stories but needs business (e.g., speaking), with several related activities English at work. Still another exhibits her art and (e.g., game, dialog, show-and-tell, or discus- wants to maintain her English to communicate sion) and encourage students to provide others. with friends met during her study abroad year. A Alternatively, a whole repertoire of skill-related fourth teaches Japanese to international children activities could be offered, from which the in Japan and expresses a need for improved students could make selections. In a course with English grammar knowledge. An inquisitive specific program goals, suggested activities, fifth likes to learn about different topics through of course, should be relevant, though many of English. Clearly, these and other students in my these are often interpretative, leaving latitude for class are mature learners with many demands adaptation. With “Family,” for instance, learners and needs we must attempt to meet in our could bring in photographs or devise (or fill in) weekly 70-minute sessions. family trees, describe family (even from prepared paragraphs), or test for vocabulary acquisition. Methodology and activities Next, I write a grid on the board and ask At the beginning of each NHK term, when my students to fill in the slots next to class sessions students have settled themselves and we have with the activities that we have already noted exchanged greetings, I ask whether they would (see below). The students, with my occasional like to craft their own three-month schedule guidance, spread these out to “hit” a variety of again. I remind them that the syllabus should skill areas during the term. Again, teachers with reflect their needs and interests and that, less experienced students should supervise the afterwards, they will take a vote, “finalizing” choices to ensure preparation time and variation. the schedule (with changes possible). When As well, those with “shyer” classes can modify new members are present, I emphasize that this procedure by having their students fill in this is their opportunity, with my aid, to choose a similar grid on a handout, which the teacher activities they think will help them with English takes home for final schedule assembly based skills they want to improve. With their consent, on majority preferences (and teacher discretion). and presumed understanding of our purpose, I (There can be more than one activity per slot, group them (better than a teacher vs. whole-class especially in classes such as Speaking, in which framework) and they generate activities they you may wish to increase tempo and variety.) A would like to cover, which I later elicit. Generally final schedule, on which we vote, usually looks patterned upon past class activities, my students like Table 1. make their suggestions, which I write on the board randomly. Table 1. Sample class schedule for an Importantly, though I have indeed been NHK class fortunate to work with such cooperative NHK students, teachers with students less ready Teacher’s 1st class 7th class Lecture to collaborate, for cultural or other reasons, Choice should adapt this methodology. (Some students New Short within other contexts, for example, might 2nd class 8th class prefer a top-down teacher-initiated curriculum, Article Story a desire which must be considered.) Though News 3rd class Debate 9th class students certainly should understand they can Article engage themselves in relevant activities they 24 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
from her great-grandmother. Remain practical Cassette 4th class Grammar 10th class but flexible with your syllabus. Listening Presenta- 5th class Discussion 11th class Issues tions Perhaps the biggest concern with successful CN Business Presenta- implementation is low student motivation and 6th class 12th class English tions incredulity at the task, hindering negotiation. That said, in this venture you can coach and coax, but not coerce. Student ideas can still be Most of the activities in Table 1 are self-explan- incorporated into a curriculum more indirectly atory and need not detain us in detail. However, by eliciting their ideas on paper, having them fill a brief explanation might be in order for these in (rather than discuss) a blank grid such as the choices. The first class of the new term, Teacher’s one above (which can be used as the departure Choice, requires that I prepare an activity. Because for a teacher-adjusted class syllabus) or respond students will not have prepared, this is always to a questionnaire, as Bloor and Bloor (1988) speaking or listening related. With News Article, report doing with SL self-access and writing students separately bring in English newspaper students. (Many students routinely do course- (or magazine) articles read at home in preparation final questionnaires, so why not course-initial for in-class group summaries and discussions. For ones?) Also, as Clarke (1991) explains, learners Debate and Discussion, students decide on a topic can still be involved in this process even if they during a previous class session. For Grammar are restructuring, rather than generating, a and Business English, I provide students with syllabus. They can modify components such as handouts well before the class so they can pre- tasks, topics, and tests on a teacher-generated pare. With Lecture, I speak on a prepared topic. syllabus, allowing them some control and giving Students take notes and summarize the material them a sense of syllabus ownership, which, as afterwards. With Short Story, students read a Irujo (2000) reminds, is important. story I have given them and answer prepared Also, empowering students to determine questions. For Cassette Listening, they listen to their syllabus may come with the drawback selections in class, ask and answer questions, of their selecting inappropriate materials (e.g., then summarize and discuss, depending on time. for reading) for themselves or group members Finally, for Presentations, students prepare a when they have been given this responsibility, topic and present it individually in front of the and absences may be problematic if students class. These have been lectures, workshops (e.g., designated to prepare group materials miss class. origami), and quiz-type activities. However, teachers who have students select (or Needless to say, some activities in the chart prepare) materials should provide guidance. For above may be inappropriate for some student example, students can be taken to the library populations and in such cases should be where they can learn that graded readers become modified or replaced with ones more suitable progressively more challenging (Oxford, Cam- to student needs and wishes. However, with bridge, Longman, and Macmillan all offer these presentations, it is not difficult to imagine a valuable additions to extensive reading). As well, class of diverse students using hobby samples teachers who have students bring materials for for class presentations. One of my lower-level class use should prepare other activities before- students once played her violin, much to the hand in case of “no-shows.” Anticipate these delight of the class, who responded in English to surprises. Finally, it is important to remember her performance; another student brought in a that choosing or creating material is itself part of map to describe a trip [“First, I went here. It was the collateral learning process, and students can a beautiful city. Then, I went there. The mountain learn about their educational needs and abilities was beautiful.”]; another brought in a key-ring, from mistakes. explaining the circumstances under which this Finally, in CN, individuals might dominate the family heirloom had been passed down to her process or later contest syllabus choices. As in THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 25 TLT » Special Issue • Lifelong Learning
any other comparable academic context, howev- Breen, M., & Littlejohn, A. (2000). The sig- er, student self-expression should be encouraged. nificance of negotiation. In M.P. Breen & A. If this is difficult, their suggestions could be writ- Littlejohn (Eds.), Classroom decision-making: ten. As well, learners should be reminded that Negotiation and process syllabuses in practice (pp. CN is a democratic activity. Once, well into an 5-38). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. NHK term, a student questioned Short Story on Clarke, D. (1991). The negotiated syllabus: What this activity day. This student was first reminded is it and how is it likely to work? Applied that the schedule was a community construct. Linguistics, 12(1), 13-28. Then, another student who had always opted for Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education: An this activity told him very politely but promptly introduction to the philosophy of education. New that it was his favorite. The issue was dropped York: Free Press. First published in 1916. with manifest agreement that the schedule was student-generated for students, and in the first Dewey, J. (1977). Experience and education. New class of the next term they confirmed their desire York: Collier. First published in 1938. to negotiate the new schedule and I affirmed Freire, P. (2008). Pedagogy of the oppressed. 30th their vital place in that process. Anniversary Edition. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. First pub- Concluding remarks lished in 1970. Irujo, S. (2000). A process syllabus in a methodol- CN is the pedagogical practice of allowing stu- ogy course: experiences, beliefs, challenges. dents to make choices about how and what they In M.P. Breen & A. Littlejohn (Eds.), Classroom will learn. Though this teacher has had to adopt decision-making: Negotiation and process syl- this collaborative exercise for his NHK classes labuses in practice (pp. 209-222). Cambridge: because of institution-specific considerations, Cambridge University Press. the observations made here should be of value to many SL educators in situations in which they Kordalewski, J. (1999). Incorporting student are obliged to ensure a meaningful and interest- voice into teaching practice. (ERIC Document ing curriculum for students of disparate interests Reproduction Service No. ED440 049). and language abilities. Certainly, curriculum Littlejohn, A.P. (1983). Increasing learner involve- construction sharing will provide our students ment in course management. TESOL Quarterly, the opportunity to make learning choices for 17(4), 595-608. which they should be responsible. As such, it is NHK Culture. (2009). NHK Culture Center. an alternative practice to which to give serious Retrieved from
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Strategies for teacher motivation
Keywords Joseph Falout motivation, self-regulation, belonging, self-efficacy Nihon University
Many teachers of a foreign language (FL) may face struggles particular to their situations working abroad and Teacher demotivation become demotivated in their careers. Without easy access to support A survey from The National Union of Workers (2004) was services, they may be susceptible to conducted on 330 foreign teachers of a foreign language (FL) emotional exhaustion, depersonali- in Japan. Eighty-seven (26%) were full-time with tenure, many zation, and a sense of low personal with doctoral degrees; 93 (28%) were limited-term and 150 accomplishment. This paper outlines (45%) part-time, most with MA or BA degrees. Eighty-nine processes by which teachers can regain and maintain their motivation percent of the part-time teachers reported being without salary by practical steps founded on three bonuses, 95% were without research funds, and 51% were principles—managing emotions, without any pension plan. The main sources of dissatisfaction joining communities, and boosting among them all were perceptions of unfavorable discrepancies efficacy. FL teachers can generate between them and their Japanese counterparts. These included agentive thinking and pathway thinking for their own remotivation, promoting obligation of annual employment contracts and exclusion proactive step-taking toward preferred from faculty meetings. Furthermore, nearly a quarter of these futures for their students, colleagues, respondents felt they had been harassed at work for being a and themselves. foreigner. Many FL teachers work in insecure and uncertain contexts, 外国語教師は外国での勤務という特殊事情 に起因する様々な状況から物事への意欲の as many of us teach overseas, away from our home countries 減退や喪失に直面することがある。支援を and familiar systems of physical, social, and emotional support; 容易に受けられない環境下では感情の枯 渇、社会からの孤立、達成感の低下に陥り gain employment through part-time and limited-term contracts; やすくなる。本稿では外国語教師が実践で hold short-lived work relationships due to a high rate of きる意欲の回復と維持方法に関して、感情 turnover; and accept high stakes testing goals and rigid cur- の制御、コミュニティへの参加、自己認識能 力の向上という3原則に基づいて段階ごとに ricular policies — down to choice of textbook and page number 説明する。そして、主体的考え方と方向性を on which day. These conditions exclude most FL teachers from 見出す考え方を発達させることで、教師が接 する学習者、同僚、そして自分自身が望む将 the decision-making processes that govern their work in the 来のあり方へ積極的に前進していく方法を classroom and their professional advancements. Also, academia 提言する。 is known to have chronically toxic cultures that perpetuate acts of incivility from faculty and administrators (Twale & De Luca, 2008). Often deprived of autonomy (control), opportunity to exercise competence, and a forum to express themselves (relatedness), FL teachers can feel devalued, isolated, and helpless, causing job dissatisfaction and demotivation. Similarly
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 TLT » Feature Article
demoralized, their colleagues resign from school emotions counters emotional exhaustion; joining and even leave the country, further isolating communities counters depersonalization; and those they leave behind. boosting efficacy counters low personal accom- Compared with other professions, teachers plishment. Each principle covers the three basic across various countries, school contexts, and psychological needs for well-being. subject fields exhibit higher levels of psychoso- The ability to cultivate and maintain condi- matic symptoms (e.g., Jin, Yeung, Tang, & Low, tions which fulfill these needs is a process called 2008; Kieschke & Schaarschmidt, 2008). High self-regulation (agency), which is used to achieve levels of job dissatisfaction, stress, and burnout personal goals in the long-term, and to cope can negatively influence motivation, cognition, under stressful conditions in the short-term. and job performance (Dai & Sternberg, 2004). For Skinner and Edge (2002) identified the two key teachers, those who report low levels of motiva- factors that allow people to cope adaptively as tion tend to perceive their students’ motivation they struggle to persist in times of difficulty — a levels as low (Gorham & Millete, 1997). Dörnyei sense of control (autonomy) and social sup- (2005) elucidates how substantially teacher port (relatedness). These two key factors bring motivation influences student motivation and enjoyment and hope, which are linked to greater learning achievement. To keep a healthy and effort, deeper cognitive engagement, and more productive learning environment for their self-regulated behaviors within the workplace, students, work environment for their colleagues, promoting proactive step-taking toward pre- and career for themselves, it is imperative that ferred futures (Dai & Stenberg, 2004). teachers maintain motivation. Teachers living abroad may encounter difficul- Managing emotions ties particular to their situations, but much rel- Emotional exhaustion is the primary predictor of evancy with coping toward success can be found teacher burnout and it relates directly to negative in studies on stress in the workplace and human interactions with students, colleagues, and su- achievement in general. Founded on principles pervisors (Grayson & Alvarez, 2007). Managing in fields of psychology, and incorporating what I emotions is a coping skill that can lead to im- have learned from my and other teachers’ experi- proved cognition. It is situated contextually and ences, this paper covers processes and practical culturally, and is exercised by a self-regulatory steps by which teachers can regain and maintain agent. When the agent perceives incongruence their motivation. either internally or externally between actual and desired outcomes, coping skills are exercised to Strategies for teacher motivation—Three repair mood (Eich, Kihlstrom, Bower, Forgas, & principles Niedenthal, 2000). Motivation waxes and wanes as it is dynamic, Your successful emotional management can situational, and psychologically experienced improve moods and thinking not only for you, (Dörnyei, 2005). However, chronic drops over the but for those you interact with. And at stake long-term might be indicative of teacher burn- might be more than just feelings. It can be a out, of which three factors have been identified bonding with others and a building of your and investigated regarding their relationships to reputation that lands or loses a job. It can be that school context variables—emotional exhaustion, one extra reason that gives someone the trust to depersonalization, and low personal accomplish- take a chance and extend you an offer when you ment (Grayson & Alvarez, 2007; Skaalvik & least expect it. Skaalvik, 2009). Here are the top ten most commonly used Experience in any dimension of teacher emotion regulation strategies in the workplace, burnout can be linked to a disparity in any of the according to one study (Diefendorff, Richard, & three basic psychological needs for well-being— Yang, 2008), ranked by frequency of use: (1) Seek autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci out individuals who make you feel good, (2) keep & Ryan, 2002). Teachers with at-risk conditions yourself busy working on other things, (3) do can remotivate with three principles—managing something enjoyable to improve your mood, (4) try 28 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
Joining communities Depersonalization was found to be the second major contributor to teacher burnout (Grayson & Alvarez, 2007). The sense of social support is crucial for teachers under stressful conditions (Kieschke & Schaarschmidt, 2008; Wilhelm, De- whurst-Savellis, & Parker, 2000). With joining a community, teachers can find the relatedness that Figure 1. When me and we goals are aligned they need to persist and even to maintain well- and resonate (Snyder, 1994, p. 297) being. Relevant here is the belonging hypothesis, which is that “human beings have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum Teachers can collaborate to mentor each other, quantity of lasting, positive, and significant in- and model the behaviors and values that lead terpersonal relations” (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, to professional success (Hooker, Nakamura, & p. 497). We get motivated through socialization. Csikszentmihalyi, 2003; Park, Oliver, Johnson, Our community involvement and interper- Graham, & Oppong, 2007). Examples are sonal relationships form the processes of social meeting to talk about classroom problems and identities and actions we take in the community. solutions, forming reading circles that focus on These social identities interrelate with our pedagogy and research, and collaborating on individual identities; social concepts, attitudes, projects. A mutual goal can simply mean enjoy- and behaviors are co-constructed through self ing a pleasant day, with daily greetings, respect- concepts, attitudes, and behaviors (Hogg, 2003). ful language, and polite demeanor contributing THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 29 TLT » Feature Article
immensely toward a cooperative environment. activity within a specific context (Bandura, 1997). If you are experiencing the opposite, set a good Professional efficacy and classroom efficacy are example and keep working toward it. the two underlying psychological forces that Sometimes others do not cooperate. Regardless drive teachers toward self-directed professional of the culture and context, bullying and mobbing development that can lead to job satisfaction permeate academia (Twale & De Luca, 2008) (Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009). and every workplace — numerous studies have After committing to a long-term goal, divide it consistently shown that such behavior dete- into attainable subgoals. With each achievement, riorates the quality of work performance, and you build self-efficacy, impelling persistence, the physical and mental health of employees, improving your outlook and demeanor, and with costs paid in damage to the organization’s increasing chances of getting the recognition reputation, medical fees, legal fees, and human needed to help take control of your career devel- lives (e.g., Namie & Namie, 2009; Porath & opment. The key is maintaining hope through Pearson, 2009). Often victims or “targets” do not agentive and pathway thinking with strategies know what is happening to them until it is too such as those listed in Table 1. late. Here are specific ways to deal with bullying (garnered from Kohut, 2008; Lubit, 2004): (1) Table 1. Agentive and Pathway Thinking Don’t blame yourself, blame the bullies — you Checklist (excerpted from Snyder, 1994, just happen to be the target at the time; (2) avoid pp. 239-240, 254) them — despite appearances, bullies do not have the capacity to empathize or cooperate; (3) avoid • Tell yourself that you have chosen the goal, provoking them — bullies excel at setting people so it is your job to go after it. up, distorting facts, spreading rumors, and • Begin your pursuit of a distant goal by manipulating others; (4) document each act and concentration on the first subgoal. how it made you feel — not only does this help you vent, you can analyze the situation more ob- • Practice making different routes to your jectively when you are calmer; (5) don’t let them goals and select the best one. see, hear, or smell your weakness or pain — they • Mentally rehearse scripts for what you feed on it, and their attack escalates; (6) seek would do should you encounter a block- friends and allies for support, and for knowing age. that the school does employ kindhearted people; • Conclude that you did not use a workable and (7) cherish your little victories daily. strategy when you do not reach a goal, How well teachers under stress cope seems to rather than harshly blaming yourself. have a reciprocating effect on the people around them. As stress increases, teachers become less • Think of problems as challenges that tolerant and more aggressive. Such behaviors arouse you. isolate them even more. In one longitudinal • Recall your previous successful goal study (Wilhelm, et al., 2000), teachers who pursuits, particularly when you are in a remained in the profession had two things jam. early in their careers — hope and a professional • Enjoy the process of getting to your goals role model. If you find these lacking in your and do not focus only on the final attain- immediate environment, self-assertively seek a ment. community with supportive role models to share academic interests and goals. • If you need a new skill to reach your goal, learn it. Boosting Efficacy • Cultivate two-way friendships where you can give and get advice. The third contributing factor to teacher burnout is low personal accomplishment, meaning low self-efficacy, the belief in your abilities to do Sequential subgoals might lead from creating the job well, and it relates to persistence of an materials for class, to an article in a journal, to a 30 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
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Kieschke, U., & Schaarschmidt, U. (2008). Profes- Twale, D. J., & De Luca, B. M. (2008). Faculty sional commitment and health among teachers incivility: The rise of the academic bully culture and in Germany: A typological approach. Learning what to do about it. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- and Instruction, 18(5), 429-437. Bass. Kohut, M. R. (2008). Understanding, controlling, Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: and stopping bullies and bullying at work. Ocala, Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: FL: Atlantic Publishing Group. Cambridge University Press. Lubit, R. H. (2004). Coping with toxic managers, Wilhelm, K., Dewhurst-Savellis, J., & Parker, subordinates . . . and other difficult people. Upper G. (2000). Teacher stress? An analysis of why Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. teachers leave and why they stay. Teachers and Mushayikwa, E., & Lubben, F. (2009). Self- Teaching: theory and practice, 6(3), 291-304. directed professional development — Hope for teachers working in deprived environments? Joseph Falout researches developmental moti- Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(3), 375-382. vational variables of teachers and students in FL Namie, G., & Namie, R. (2009). The bully at work: contexts
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Keywords Douglas James Rapley JHS, student attitudes, oral skills, negative test impact Kawasaki Medical School
In 2003, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technol- ogy unveiled a new junior high school n 2003, the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, (JHS) English as a Foreign Language Science and Technology (MEXT) released an Action Plan to (EFL) policy that focused on oral com- improve the English speaking skills of junior high school munication. While evidence of policy I non-compliance in schools exists, until (JHS) students. However, pressures working within JHS English now there has been no research on as a foreign language (EFL) education negate the efforts of the attitudes of students in regard to MEXT. These pressures include the poor English speaking skills learning English speaking skills. This of many Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs), large classes of paper reports on research carried out 1 in two schools in a mid-sized Japanese mixed-leveled students and negative test impact . These issues, city that investigated the opinions of along with the unpopularity of English amongst students students via questionnaires. The study (Honna & Takeshita, 2005) have made JHS EFL a controversial reveals that although EFL educa- and much debated section of the Japanese education system. tion is considered very important, English is very unpopular compared The research conducted in this study can be used by native- to other subjects. While being able English teachers to better understand the current condition of to communicate orally in English is a EFL and EFL learners in Japanese JHSs. This has been difficult JHS EFL education outcome desired up to now because many of these teachers are unable to com- by students, passing the senior high prehend relevant Japanese research due to insufficient reading school entrance examination is their main concern. skills. In addition, there have been no recent studies in English dedicated to finding out exactly how students view EFL in JHS. 2003年、文部科学省はオーラルコミュニケ ーションに重点をおいた、中学校における外 国語としての英語(EFL)の新方針を発表し Research Questions た。いくつかの学校は方針に従わない傾向 もあるが、英語のスピーキングスキル学習に The following research questions were explored in this study: 関して、生徒に対する研究はまだ為されて 1. What do students want from Japanese public JHS EFL いない。本論では、日本の中都市にある２つ の学校で実施された、生徒の意見を調査す education? るアンケートを研究題材とした。本研究によ りEFL教育は非常に重要とみなされている 2. Do students believe that possessing English speaking skills にも関わらず、英語は他の科目に比べて非常 will be beneficial for their future? に人気が低いことが明らかとなった。生徒 はその教育の成果として口頭により英語で 3. Do students like English as a JHS subject? コミュニケーションをはかれるようになるこ とを望んでいるにもかかわらず、高等学校入 学試験に合格することが一番の関心事とな 1 Test impact is the impact tests have on aspects of education. It negatively af- っている。 fects EFL education at the JHS level because teachers, due to exam pressure, feel obliged to teach students exam relevant information only. In Japan, this usually means speaking skills are ignored.
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Previous Studies It reduces English to a collection of discrete items (Honna et al., 2005), which lowers student English is the foreign language in Japan (Lo- motivation to speak in lessons because it is not a Castro, 1996); however, success in EFL has not relevant test skill. been high. In fact, Japan has been considered the poster child of first-world nations that have unsuccessful EFL programs (Reesor, 2003, p. Methodology 57). The MEXT 2003 Action Plan was an attempt Research setting and participants to rectify this. It stated: “On graduation from a This research was undertaken in two public JHSs junior high school, students can conduct basic in a mid-sized Japanese city. The participants communication with regard to areas such as were the students of the schools and ranged greetings, responses, or topics relating to daily in age from 12 to 15 years old. Japanese JHS life (para 1).” Regarding JHS, “the focus is on students normally receive three 50-minute EFL cultivating communication abilities in listening lessons per week. However, the research location and speaking (para 9).” To achieve these goals, is a special educational district of English, one of students would have to interact with English only 34 such districts in Japan. While the location rather than be passive receivers of grammatical has no greater need for English than anywhere information, a goal that would require JTEs to else, the language was held in high regard by employ an interactive student-centred style of members of the city council. To become a special teaching. However, the main method of instruc- district of English, city officials must apply to the tion in Japanese JHS EFL classrooms remains the central Board of Education in Tokyo. The most teacher-centred, Asian version of grammar-trans- important outcome of acquiring this status is the lation: yakudoku (Gorsuch, 2000; LoCastro, 1996; placement of a native speaking English teacher Rubrecht, 2004). Yakudoku is mainly conducted in every JHS to provide an additional 50-minute in Japanese, which gives students insufficient EFL lesson each week, over and above the exposure to English to develop any communica- scheduled 150 minutes. tive competence (LoCastro, 1996). Reasons given for yakudoku use are (Brown, H., Questionnaire development, 2000; Gorsuch, 2001; LoCastro, 1996; Rubrecht, administration, and analysis 2004): • Low JTE English proficiency Two focus group sessions involving three JTEs per group were arranged to assist questionnaire • Implementation requires few teaching skills item production. A question enquiring about • Fear of making mistakes in English and foreign culture and world affairs knowledge was losing face during lessons requested by JTEs and added to the item list to • The simplicity of making and marking tests show gratitude for their assistance. The item list based on translation was sent to a journalist and an EFL professor for analysis. Ambiguous items were highlighted and were either reworded or deleted, leaving the Test impact may also promote the use of yaku- questionnaire with six items. Likert scales were doku either positively or negatively. If assessment then developed. The traditional strongly agree… matches course goals, objectives, and teaching strongly disagree scale was avoided because the practice, then the impact is positive. If assess- term strongly suggests an emotional component, ment does not match these factors, it is negative a degree of conviction or caring about the (Brown & Hudson, 1998). Tests are extremely answer over and above the cognitive task that important in JHS, none more so than the senior is the central question (Fowler, 1995). Completely high school (SHS) entrance examination. This agree…completely disagree was used instead, and test dictates which schools students can attend negative choices were placed on the left end of and has huge implications for their future. the scale to reduce bias (Brace, 2004; Bradburn, Unfortunately, it negatively affects JHS student Sudman, & Wansink, 2004). English speaking competency because the exam has no oral component (Akiyama, 2003).
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To promote comprehension, the questionnaire completed student questionnaires were received. was translated into Japanese. Translation accura- Results were statistically analyzed to identify cy was ensured by employing a back-translation meaningful results. method in the following stages: 1. Questionnaire translated from English into Findings and discussion Japanese Students selected their three most important 2. Questionnaire translated back into English school subjects. These selections were calculated using a different translator to provide the subject importance ranking shown 3. The English questionnaire from Stage One in Figure 1. To determine subject popularity, and the re-translated English questionnaire students ranked their favourite subjects from one from Stage Two were compared to nine, one being their favourite. Only the top- 4. Non-matching items analyzed and fixed by a three ranked subjects were considered, as these third translator were the ones students would be most adamant about. To calculate the subject popularity selec- tion, numbers were inverted (i.e., a selection of The Japanese questionnaire was given to JTEs one had a true value of nine points). The finding to critique and piloted by a JHS English Club that English was a very unpopular subject in JHS to ensure its appropriacy. Following its accept- supported the 2005 MEXT survey mentioned ance by the principals of the two schools, it was previously (Honna, et al., 2005). Reasons for the printed and distributed to the JHSs (see ap- unpopularity of English could be: pendices). At one JHS, all students completed the • A lack of variety, creativity, or physical questionnaire during class. In the other school, movement (probable motivational factors administration was done at JTE discretion. 337
Figure 1. JHS subject popularity and importance ranking
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for this specific age group) found in other since students who cannot enter a good SHS will subjects, such as art or physical education probably not attend university. In Japan, this • Negative attitudes towards English borne usually means a future of low paying, menial through the belief that English is only a employment. Three of the four next favoured necessary evil in scholastic advancement skills involved speaking, yet the gap between them and passing the SHS entrance exam was • Yakudoku use significant. Students demonstrated little interest in world English, ranked within the top three most im- affairs and foreign cultures-- perhaps they were portant subjects and not far below the top subject too busy with the present to be concerned about (Japanese), was a significant finding. It is likely something so seemingly distant. The desire that this importance ranking was boosted by the to use all taught English vocabulary must be fact that English is a prominent part of the SHS considered an untenable expectation given the entrance examination. This point complements small amount of time dedicated to EFL and the findings shown in figure 2 below. In gather- the demands of other subjects. However, this ing this data, students were asked to choose as demonstrated an active attitude toward language many options as they wished in the item regard- learning where the language is used rather than ing the abilities wanted from JHS EFL education. stored. Students also wanted to learn how to They were also asked to write any additional greet, give self-introductions, and talk about desired skills. Each selection was calculated to daily life. These points related directly to the provide the level of student desire. MEXT JHS EFL goal mandate. However, talking The importance of passing the SHS entrance about daily life is multi-leveled, so it is uncertain examination was certainly evident. At this point which level of speech students were advocating. in a student’s schooling, it is not surprising The majority of students (37.4%) chose don’t that students value assessed skills above non- know as their response in regards to JHS EFL assessed ones in this extremely important exam
Figure 2. Abilities students want to gain from JHS EFL education
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What is unfortunately not clear in Table 1 was Avenues for further research how students defined future. It is possible that in the eyes of some students, it meant nothing be- This research has revealed details on JHS student yond the entrance examinations rather than life views regarding EFL tuition in a mid-sized after study, which would have boosted affirma- Japanese city. As a future extension, the data tive selections. However, half of the additional here could be compared with that from a larger, written comments involved either the ability to more international city, such as Kobe, Osaka, communicate with foreigners or being able to or Tokyo. This research should incorporate a live in an English speaking country, indicating greater number of participants, which would that many students defined future as sometime raise the study’s significance. In this study, the after their SHS entrance exams. relatively small number of subjects could be seen as a limitation. Research in the future could also endeavour to establish why English is seen as important to JHS students and focus on how THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 37 TLT » Readers’ Forum
the SHS entrance examinations affect this view. Brown, J. & Hudson, T. (1998). The alternative in Reasons behind EFL’s unpopularity should be language assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4), investigated, as this probably adversely affects 653-675. learning motivation. Fowler, F. Jr. (1995). Improving survey questions: To gather the more subjective data suggested Design and evaluation. CA: Sage Publications. above, a more thorough, lengthy questionnaire Gorsuch, G. (2000). EFL educational policies and that allows for elaboration should be used. While educational cultures: Influences on teachers’ some participants in this study wrote additional approval of communicative activities. TESOL information on their questionnaires, a designated Quarterly, 34(4), 675-710. comments section for each question may have Gorsuch, G. (2001). Japanese EFL teachers’ provided a lot more significant, rich information perceptions of communicative, audiolingual to supplement the statistical data. An item asking and yakudoku activities: The plan versus the students to detail the need for English speaking reality. Retrieved December 18, 2007, from skills in the future could have provided English
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Douglas Rapley is the head ___数学 ___技術・家庭 of the Kawasaki Medical ___理科 ___英語 School English Department ___音楽 in Okayama prefecture. He has been teaching EFL in Okayama prefecture for over 13 years. The first six years 4. 英語は将来話せるようになるために勉強すると of his time in Japan were いうより、教科の１つとして学べばよい。 spent as a junior high school 全くそう そうは 分から そう思う 強くそう ALT. His main interest lies in 思わな 思わな ない 思う the teaching of oral communication. い い
Appendix A 5. 中学校3年間の授業を受けて、できるようになりたい Administered Student Questionnaire ことは何ですか。 あてはまるものにをつけてくださ い。いくつでもかまいません。
生徒用 • 英語で挨拶 英語で自己紹介 • あなたの率直な御意見をお聞かせ下さい。 • • すべての質問にお答え下さい。 • 英語で自分の日常生活についての会話 • 下記の答えから一番当てはまるものに○印を１つだ • 英語でメールを送る けつけて下さい。 • 学んだ言葉を使って文章を書く 全くそう そうは 分から そう思う 強くそう • 英検３級に合格する 思わな 思わな ない 思う • 高校の入学試験に合格する い い 外国の文化や世界の出来事に関心を持つ • • その他(説明してください) ______1. 次の中学校の教科を好きな順に１から９まで番 • 号をつけてください。 ___国語 ___美術 Appendix B ___数学 ___技術・家庭 Student Questionnaire in English (not ___社会 ___体育 administered) ___理科 ___英語 • Please answer using your honest opinions. ___音楽 • Please try to answer all questions. • When answering the Likert Scales please circle in the box that is true for you. Circle 2. 将来、英語で話せるようになる必要がある。 only one box per question. 全くそう思 そうは思わ そう思う 強くそう わない ない 思う For example
Com- Generally Generally Com- pletely disagree agree pletely 3. 中学校の教科の中で、自分の学習で特に重要だ disagree agree と思うもの３つに○をつけてください。 ___国語 ___美術 ___社会 ___体育
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1. Please rank the junior high school subjects in 4. I should learn English as an academic subject the order in which you like them (from 1~9, 1 rather than for future communication being the subject that you like the most) Com- Gener- Don’t Gener- Com- ____ Japanese ____ Art pletely ally know ally pletely ____ Social Studies ____ Mathematics disa- disa- agree agree ____ Industrial Arts/Homemaking gree gree ____ Physical Education ____ Science ____ English ____ Music 5. After completing 3 years of English lessons in Junior High School, what do you want to be able to do? Please check as many boxes as 2. I will need to be able to speak English in the you want. For example: future • greet in English Com- Generally Generally Com- • give a self-introduction in English pletely disagree agree pletely • have a conversation about his/her life in disagree agree English • write emails in English 3. Please choose the 3 subjects that you think • use all vocabulary learnt in composition are most important • pass a 3rd level Eiken Test ____ Japanese ____ Art • pass the English section of the High School ____ Social Studies ____ Mathematics entrance examination ____ Industrial Arts/Homemaking • have a good knowledge in foreign cultures ____ Physical Education ____ Science & world affairs ____ English ____ Music • other (please explain) • ______English for University Accreditation: Elementary School How it Impacts You 小学校英語活動 by Bern Mulvey ith bilingual East Shikoku Chapter W articles on • Saturday, November 13 theory and practice • 15:30 - 17:30 by Watanabe Tokio, Sakai Hideki, Tonya • Kagawa University, Faculty of Kneff, Koya Shinobu and Erin King, Education Campus Room 411 Amanda Carr, Tagami Tatsuto, and Okayama Chapter David Ockert, beginning with the question “What is the foundation of • Sunday, November 14 communicative ability?”. • 15:00 - 17:00 For a free copy of the first edition • Tenjinyama Bunka Plaza of Shinshu JALT’s journal, please send a B5 or A4 SAE with ¥140 postage to: Please check the JALT Events 3-4-1 Nagisa, Matsumoto, Nagano Calendar
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TOEIC materials and preparation questions: Interview with an ETS representative
Keywords David John Wood TOEIC®, ELP, ETS, TOEIC® prepara- tion, TOEIC® materials Chikushijogakuen University
サバティカルリーブの2009年にTOEICの 様々な側面を研究していたが、タイのAsian Universityでthe Center for Professional Assessmentの試験作成者の一人である aving been granted a sabbatical leave from teaching Robert Woodheadに連絡をする機会を得 to research various aspects of TOEIC while at Asian た。彼は、TOEICとTOEFL両方の試験作成 団体であるEducational Testing Services H University, Thailand, in 2009, I had the opportunity (ETS)についても精通していて、テストの準 to contact Robert Woodhead, a test writer at the Center for 備や題材に関するインタビューについて快 諾してくれた。インタビューは、最新の受験 Professional Assessment (Thailand). He was very knowledge- 者ハンドブックに書かれているガイドライン able about Educational Testing Services (ETS), the producers に関して行なわれた。インタビューの目的 of both the TOEIC and TOEFL tests. He kindly agreed to be は、専門家に直接インタビューをすること で、試験のための準備の要点をどの程度確 interviewed on the subject of test preparation and materials. 認でき、そしてその示唆をどの程度明らか The interview questions were based on the guidelines given in にすることができるのかを知るためであっ た。 recent examinee handbooks, the aim being to see to what extent a live interview with an expert would confirm the preparation points and perhaps shed more light on their implications.
David John Wood (DJW): Is TOEIC something you can or should try to teach or prepare for?
Robert Woodhead (RW): TOEIC is a test, so preparation of the test item types cannot hurt and should in fact help. The purpose of the test is to obtain the best representation of a test taker’s listening and reading ability as possible, so the more familiar a test taker is with the item types the more reliable their results are likely to be.
DJW: What new learning strategies does the new TOEIC imply?
RW: The new TOEIC does not really require any new learning strategies. The test item type changes were made to update
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 TLT » Readers’ Forum
the test in relation to current language usage in very helpful, as they can be printed out and the work-related environments. audio downloaded for listening exercises.
DJW: How important is studying past papers? DJW: Are any Business English materials a good source for preparation? RW: Studying past forms of the test may help the test taker become more familiar with the RW: This is a very subjective issue and depends test item types, but will not help in actually more on how the materials are used in a teaching improving a test score or a test taker’s overall experience. No material I have seen is by-and-of- proficiency. itself better than any other.
DJW: What preparation tips can candidates get DJW: If any materials are potentially useful de- from using the TOEIC homepage? pending on their use, does it matter if they are of limited scope (such as classic British literature)? RW: Using the take the TOEIC Tour link of the Or is a wider variety better?
DJW: Graded readers are flooding the com- DJW: Should materials include information mercial market – is this the right way to go or are about business culture? there other as good or better kinds of reading? RW: If the purpose is preparation for the TOEIC, RW: Assuming you mean in relation to improv- then probably yes. This, like everything else, ing general reading proficiency to be measured depends on the level of the student. At the very by the TOEIC, the kind of reading activities lowest levels language needs to be of a very gen- would need to be leveled (I prefer this term to eral nature at first. As the student’s proficiency graded as we are always talking about proficiency improves, more targeted topical information levels) for purposes of either developing confi- could be included in the lessons. dence in a student’s ability (using materials at the student’s current ability level) or helping the DJW: I have heard several sources say TOEIC student move to the next highest level. is less relevant to low proficiency students because the further below 400 points they score, DJW: Many of the readers are actual British the smaller their prospects of significant gain literature, often classics. Content-wise, wouldn’t become. Would the TOEIC Bridge be a better they be less relevant than writings relating more option for them as their motivation might be to the current use of language in a work-related weakened otherwise? environment? RW: There are a couple of answers to this: First, RW: As the TOEIC is designed as a test of the test a person takes should generally depend English used in the international workplace, on the intended use and acceptance of the result- I don’t really think classic British literature ing score. TOEIC is usually the better option for would have all that much value. More effective organizations wanting to measure many posi- materials might be written using contemporary tions across many levels. Second, TOEIC is not language. Materials we have seen that have really less relevant to low proficiency test takers. value (and remember I am an American so I tend Expected gains from both the TOEIC and Bridge to lean toward things I know) include magazines actually compare closely to each other. The like Reader’s Digest that contain relatively issue is one of training time. Neither TOEIC nor short, easy to read 1-3 page articles written at an Bridge are designed for re-testing with less than intermediate – high intermediate language level. 90 – 120 hours of instruction time in between Some possible online sources like the Voice of each attempt. America Special English materials would also be DJW: How about TOEFL study materials – are 42 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 43 TLT » Readers’ Forum
RW: Improve overall language ability. There is depends on where the individual is at the start of no easy answer to this question as the best ways a program AND what the separation is between to prepare for a test are as varied as the number the Listening and Reading score. In general, of learning styles individuals prefer. the lower the starting point, the quicker the initial success in score improvement. However, DJW: What are the best study materials? Do you this does not necessarily mean improvement think official materials are better, or are there to functional language ability. We tend to see any superior unofficial ones? Besides the official individual test takers already at intermediate preparation guide, the only other that looked levels (TOEIC scores between 500–700), accom- interesting to me was the OUP guide. Do you plishing improvement of their listening scores know of any others that I should look at? more quickly than on the reading section. That improvement is not, however, always perma- RW: All of these questions can be answered the nent. It is our policy to NOT recommend any same way. The OUP Tactics for TOEIC (Trew, particular course or program, or even a general 2007) series are the official materials and as such course of study until we know the starting point are fairly effective. They are the only materials of an individual’s language ability as measured that have practice tests of any value. We have not by the TOEIC. Even then we never recommend a seen any other current materials with effective particular school or course as we have found that practice tests. The Barron’s TOEIC Test series success in these programs is almost always more written by Lin Lougheed (2006) is also a good dependent on the individual instructor than it is teaching resource, while I am less confident that on any curriculum or program type. the practice tests in this series are as valuable as the general learning material. DJW: So, what do you think are the most impor- tant qualities of a good instructor? DJW: What is the best way to self-study? RW: I’d really rather defer to teacher trainers RW: First the student needs to be motivated to on this as they are much more familiar with learn English and NOT simply to pass the test. the success and failure rates of instructors. In After that I refer back to my answer on the issue general, however, I think a good instructor of learning styles. needs to be flexible, have a good sense of humor, DJW: What would be the best way to teach be patient, and be as completely prepared for TOEIC? everything that can (and usually will) go wrong in a classroom as possible. We tend to be very RW: TOEIC is a test, not a language, so teaching strong proponents of lesson planning, lesson TOEIC is not really an option. The best thing to planning, and MORE lesson planning. We find do is to teach English focusing on proficiency the better prepared the instructor is to deviate rather than rules or vocabulary. (in a structured way), the quicker they can get back on track and the more useful the deviation DJW: Is it possible to make TOEIC part or all of a is likely to be. curriculum? DJW: In terms of test-taking techniques, there is RW: In most places, English is already part of the a pretty standard set: work quickly, don’t spend curriculum. The change in the curriculum that too much time on any single question, return to might be advantageous would be to stress ability Reading section questions later if necessary, and over knowledge. answer all the questions. Which are the most DJW: Do you know of any successful English important and are there any others you could courses? recommend?
RW: Success can be measured in many ways, RW: In terms of the Listening Section, the best but here I am assuming you mean courses that advice is to NOT fall behind the audio. Test tak- help test takers to improve their TOEIC scores. ers often focus so hard on one question that they Improvement on a TOEIC score most often miss the next one altogether. The TOEIC only
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RW: The TOEIC revision was meant to bring the test into alignment with changes in the way language is used in the workplace today versus when the test was first developed. Also, it was Submitting material to done to bring the test into alignment with more recent advances in test item types. Those pur- The Language Teacher poses have indeed been achieved. Guidelines DJW: How has the new TOEIC been received – is it now perceived as more difficult? The editors welcome submissions of materials concerned with all aspects of language educa- RW: The revised TOEIC is well accepted wher- tion, particularly with relevance to Japan. As ever it has been introduced. Beginning in 2010 well as for feature articles, readers’ forum it will have been introduced in all countries articles, interviews, and conference reports, offering TOEIC testing. ETS went to a great deal we also need material for our many columns. of time and effort to ensure that the revisions Submitting online did not negatively impact the test. Regarding the difficulty level of the test, it has remained To submit articles online, please visit: equivalent to the original TOEIC. Perception of
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 45
TLT » Resources » MY SHARE TLT ResoMyurces Share ello and welcome to the special lifelong Activity time: One hour learning (LLL) edition of My Share. In Materials: Themed board spaces (see “Prepara- H this issue, we bring out the “inner kid” tion”), a number of different magnets (I use in adult learners. Kim Bradford-Watts reviews cheap ones with numbers written on them), and functional travel language with a fun whiteboard a 1-yen coin game and Doreen Gaylord offers a board game to practice conditionals. Zane Ritchie uses Introduction children’s books in an activity with older false- beginners, while Julia Harper gets learners in a Some false beginner learners in a mixed-level multi-generational classroom reminiscing about company class I taught some years ago were the holidays. Four fun activities that are sure to nervous about using English on an upcoming motivate your adult learners. trip to Hawaii. They had a translator for the business meetings, but were on their own on the plane and getting to the hotel, and during free- time activities including eating out and shop- Reviewing ping. After reviewing functional conversations for several weeks, we played a game to practice functional language these conversations the evening prior to their departure. The aims of this game were (a) for for traveling students to anticipate in which order situations Kim Bradford-Watts may occur, and (b) to practice the language that they had been studying. Kyoto Women’s University, Kyoto This was a class of 18 learners, of whom an aver- University age of eight would attend on any given week. Since
MY SHARE ONLINE: A linked index of My Share articles can be found at:
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 47 TLT » Resources » MY SHARE: Bradford-Watts
Step 2: Cut the board pieces out of cardboard in Step 2: Ask students to put the series in order the required shape. My pineapples were approxi- by choosing board pieces and placing them in a mately 10 cm tall and 7 cm wide. continuous line on the board. Link with arrows Step 3: Write all the steps that students need to drawn between the spaces (see Figure 1). If the take in order to successfully complete a trip, one order is not logical, ask students questions to per board space (e.g., On the plane: Beef or fish?, At establish what step may be next. Some situa- immigration, At customs, Taxi to the hotel, Checking tions are open to negotiation, or there may be in, etc.). Make sure the pieces can be organized in alternative possibilities. The negotiation of order a logical chronological order for situations that is an important step in terms of encouraging may occur during their trip, linking places with anticipation of what may happen during their things like Asking directions to the shopping center. trip, and for English practice in general. Discuss See Figure 1 for examples. the timeline to confirm its accuracy. Step 4: Attach magnetic strips at the top of the Step 3: Review the steps that they will go reverse side of the board spaces. through when traveling on the journey. Step 4: Each pair of students picks one magnet to act as their marker as they go around the board. Procedure These are placed on the whiteboard before the Step 1: Shuffle the board space pieces and lay first game space. them out randomly over the top of the table.
Figure 1. Example game assembled on white board
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Step 5: Determine which pair will take the first Introduction turn. The Conditional Imperative (CI) is one of the Step 6: The first pair tosses the one-yen coin. If it most frequently used and simplest conditional lands on the “1” side, move the pair marker one sentence types, though is often overlooked space. If it lands on the “tree” side, move the pair by EFL/ESL textbooks. It is used in everyday marker three spaces. spoken English to instruct people on what to do Step 7: Pairs perform the dialogue determined under various circumstances, e.g., If you don’t by the situation described on the space upon know what to do, ask me. Since adults are often in which they land. Other pairs and the teacher authoritative positions, they regularly have a listen carefully. If the performing pair leaves need to give instructions/commands. out anything important, they must go back two The It’s Your Life game provides repetitive spaces. speaking and listening practice of the CI form. Step 8: Play until the pairs take off for home, Verbs in the main clauses are limited to move and having completed many of the conversations go, so it is simple to play. The cards have been throughout the game. This took approximately written specifically for adult players, address- 90 minutes. ing topics such as (grand)children, gardening, volunteer work, etc. It also provides a chance Conclusion for players to get to know each other and sparks lively conversation. This game brings together travel-related dia- logues practiced in class, and it informs students Preparation of what to expect at each stage of their trip. It also provides a chance to practice complaining Step 1: Download the game board and cards and reporting something lost or stolen. I hope (Appendices 1 and 2). that your students find this game fun and useful. Step 2: Enlarge the board to fit A3-size paper and print on cardboard or laminate (one for each group of three to five players). Step 3: Print one set of cards for each group on Conditional cardboard. Cut and store sets in small plastic bags. imperative board Step 4: Organize game markers for each player. game: It’s Your Life. Procedure Step 1: Demonstrate how to play by posting Doreen Gaylord a game board on the whiteboard and putting Kanazawa Technical College different colored magnets representing players’ markers on the Start square. Explain the object of
• cards that instruct players to move forward conditional sentence types produced by adults in or backward an equal number of spaces ac- everyday spoken English. cording to the number of things they have or times they do something (e.g., “If you drink Appendixes one can of soda a day, move back one space; two cans, two spaces, etc.”) The appendixes for this article are available online at
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THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 51 TLT » Resources » MY SHARE: Harper
of the experiences and perspectives of other Happy holidays! generations.
An information Preparation Step 1: Choose an approaching holiday or exchange activity special day, i.e. Children’s Day, and prepare a list of related vocabulary for the board. Learn- for multi- ers will need advice as to how to explain some holiday-related words, as direct translations are generational not always possible. classes Step 2: Prepare a handout for each learner where they can record information such as “Food I ate” Julia K. Harper or “Things I did” (see Appendix). Fill out one Ritsumeikan University handout with your own information to use as an example.
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…with Robert Taferner To contact the editor:
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 53 TLT » Resources » BOOK REVIEWS: McCrostie
tests that are 20% the length of the TOEIC In addition to language competence, many Listening and Reading test. There is not much researchers emphasize the need to teach test- practice either; level one and two each contain taking skills (Falout, 2004; Trew, 2006). A unit eight 24-minute practice tests which can be given that teaches tips and strategies is listed on in the classroom or for independent study. Each the back cover of Interchange Companion to the practice test corresponds to two units from the TOEIC Test as one of its key features. This short third edition of Interchange. A few additional introduction to test-taking strategies leaves much online materials, consisting of mp3 files of the to be desired. When I first told my freshman student CD, vocabulary word lists, and lists of university students to turn to the strategy unit, typical TOEIC question patterns, are available at I saw a look of dread appear in their eyes. No
Saegusa, Y. (1985). Prediction of English profi- value of strong writing skills and how to think ciency progress. Musashino English and Ameri- their way through the process. can Literature, 18, 165-185. Each chapter is organized essentially in the Trew, G. (2006). A teacher’s guide to TOEIC Listen- same manner with pre-learning, during-learning ing and Reading Test: Preparing your students and post-learning activities. Pre-learning asks for success. Tokyo: Oxford University Press. students to recall their prior knowledge. The Retrieved from
high-interest visuals such as color annotations, approach encourages reflection on what has graphic organizers, conceptual maps, and pho- been learned. Each chapter begins by focusing tographs. Overall, my students felt confident in on prior knowledge and experiential learning being able to express themselves in their writing before moving into the reading and writing tasks after using the textbook. and skills to be learned. Then each chapter is This text is an excellent resource for learners concluded with assignments requiring students with TOEFL scores above 400. Below that, learn- to write their reactions on what they learned. ers may require a little more time and assistance Learners and instructors who value a consistent to read through the materials or discuss the approach towards writing should find this text cultural inferences introduced in some of The to be an exhaustive resource with seemingly Reading Selections. This is not necessarily a weak- never-ending opportunities to expand learning ness of this textbook as it could facilitate more that is both comfortable and enjoyable. student-teacher interaction, which is sometimes lacking in a writing course. References Writing for Life: Paragraph to Essay approaches Rubdy, R. S. (2003). Selection of materials. In writing instruction and learning in engaging B. Tomlinson. (Ed.), Developing materials for detail by using clear directions and amazing language teaching (pp. 37–57). London: Con- graphics and images. Henry’s pedagogical tinuum.
Books for Students (reviewed in TLT) Recently Contact: Greg Rouault Received [email protected] ...with Greg Rouault ! Academic Reading in Science. Elvin, C. Kawa-
Crawley, UK: Helbling Languages. Resourceful Books for Teachers Teacher Series activity book w/ CD-ROM/ (reviewed in JALT Journal) audio CD]. Contact: Bill Perry * Thinking in English. Hunter, L. Tokyo: Cengage Learning, 2009. [Coursebook for logical com-
As well as our feature columns, we would also like to answer reader queries. If you have a question, problem, or idea you would like discussed in this column, please contact us. We also invite readers to submit articles on their areas of interest. Please contact the editors before submitting.
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 57 TLT » Resources » TLT Wired: Marlowe
individual license with a limit of 500 papers, the tions, authors, or publications to view private cost is $580 for a year. A campus license which documents. allows unlimited instructors, classes, and papers starts at $1,835 including $1.55 for each student with a minimum of 500 students required.
How does it work? Instructors set up the class name, class assign- Figure 1. Student submission page ments, and assignment due dates. To enroll stu- displaying the similarity report dents in a class, email addresses can be collected and entered manually or uploaded as a batch from a list. Students will be sent an invitation What are the benefits? email with a class ID and enrollment password. Although it has the potential to deter students Alternatively, instructors can provide a class ID from copying from each other or the Internet, number and a password for students to join on Turnitin can be utilized as a learning tool and not their own through the Turnitin website. After just a “gotcha” device. Instead of simply policing students enroll through the step-by-step process students, Turnitin can be used to help enhance they can then upload their documents in any students’ original writing and language use by text-based format and Turnitin will compare it to highlighting areas that need to be revised, rewrit- a continuously updated database that includes ten, or properly cited. One of the main benefits over 12 billion websites, 100 million student of using the software is the ability to submit mul- papers, 80,000 newspapers, magazines, scholarly tiple drafts of the same paper and compare how journals, and thousands of books. After the docu- each draft has changed. This is extremely useful ment has been compared to the database, within in courses with an emphasis on process writing. minutes Turnitin provides an originality report Additionally, originality reports can provide an to the teacher and the student that highlights excellent opportunity to teach about intellectual areas that are similar to other documents and property and plagiarism. These are often difficult shows the matching web links in a side by side concepts for students and particularly language comparison. The links will either lead you to the learners who write within a limited range of webpage or provide an email request to institu- vocabulary and word usage.
Figure 2. Side by side comparison of originality report
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How effective is it? also allows teachers to create customized rubrics and grade books to track student grades. Because language learners often have such limited expressions, Turnitin will often report a high percentage of matches. These high per- centages are often due to the use of redundant expressions, particularly when several students are writing on the same topic. Although this may seem alarming to some students, Turnitin provides side-by-side color-coded references for its matches, allowing teachers and students to determine which need to be rewritten and which can be ignored. Depending on the class, level, and topic, instructors should decide an appropri- Figure 3. Making comments using the ate percentile range for students to aim for. A GradeMark feature high matching percentage does not necessarily indicate plagiarism. Essentially, Turnitin does the Who is Turnitin for? matchmaking work, but it stops short of deter- mining what constitutes plagiarism; this is still Although Turnitin is widely used in first lan- a decision left to the keen eye and judgment of guage pedagogy, its use in the second language the instructor and not the software. Additionally, classroom is perhaps more limited depending on instructors can print or allow student access to the situation. For many experienced EFL teachers the online originality reports, providing for the working with beginner writers, sophisticated opportunity for self-correction. plagiarism detection software is probably un- necessary to detect copied passages. Moreover, writing classes which focus on personalized or What else can it do? creative writing texts will most likely produce The developers continue to add features, func- authentic student texts regardless. Turnitin is tions, and uses. It currently works on Mac and probably best suited for English for Academic Windows platforms including Internet Explorer, or Special Purposes, Content Based Instructional Firefox, and Safari browsers. It can also be programs with a heavy focus on process, or integrated into several major learning manage- research and academic writing. Using Turnitin ment systems such as Moodle and Blackboard. does require a small learning curve for both the In addition, the Turnitin interface has a multi- teachers and students. However, iParadigms lingual function that currently features 11 major LLC provides multiple levels of support includ- languages. ing manuals, video tutorials, online training More importantly, Turnitin2, an updated sessions, and local representatives. In the end, version being released this year, will include Turnitin simply provides one more tool in the an additional software suite that has an online fight against plagiarism and offers instructional peer review and grading system as part of the support to teachers and students on their way to WriteCycle. The peer reviewing software, called achieving original writing. PeerMark, not only rids students and teachers of the process of shuffling papers, but also enables J. Paul Marlowe is an instructor of English as students to peer review anonymously, thus a foreign language at Kwansei Gakuin Uni- reducing any biases and encouraging authentic versity in Japan. He has been teaching English corrective feedback. Likewise, GradeMark to students of all ages and nationalities since eliminates the teacher burden of collecting and moving to Japan in 2004. His primary research carrying piles of paper and burning through tons interests include assessment and the use of com- of red ink. Rather, GradeMark allows teachers municative technology in enhancing language to provide corrective feedback and scoring acquisition. electronically from any computer connected to the Internet (please refer to Figure 3). GradeMark THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 59
TLT » Resources » JALT Notices JALT FJALTocus FOCUS
At the time of writing, I have just returned from JALT Calendar four incredible days at Tokyo Equinox 2010, which Listings of major upcoming events in the organisation. For has been described to me by a half dozen veteran more information, visit JALT’s website
Equinox 2010
…with Marcos Benevides To contact the editor:
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Actually, I should disclose that I had a small There have been many outside-the-box mo- part in the genesis of this event, through a lucky ments at the international JALT conferences too. coincidence that to me perfectly encapsulates Most recently, the workshop by presentation what JALT is all about. After the 2009 confer- design guru Garr Reynolds, of “Presentation ence in Shizuoka, Steve and I happened to be Zen” fame, kicked off JALT2009 to a strong start. returning to Osaka together when we ran into Although not an ELT teacher, Reynolds has had Thornbury and Cambridge representative John an incredible impact on presentation design Letcher on the Shinkansen. Taking a chance, we for teachers in Japan, which has raised the ante introduced ourselves and invited them to dinner. for presenters at all conferences. This year, the Lots of sushi and beer later, Steve had convinced “Design for Change Contest”
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 63 TLT » Resources » Showcase JALT SFochowcaseus n this edition of Showcase, Darren Elliott which needed to be discussed. How can you sit introduces his website, the lives of teachers, and down with Scott Thornbury without referring I discusses his passion for interviewing ELT to grammar or the “dogme” movement, for teachers and researchers. example? But as I continue, I do hope to meet more teachers from “the chalkface”, to get more Showcase personal stories, and to give voice to those who otherwise don’t get a platform. One of my biggest concerns is that non-native speakers Darren Elliott are shamefully under-represented amongst the interviewees so far, something I am hoping to address. So, if you have a Skype connection, and In 2005, I was working on a dissertation about a story to tell (who doesn’t?), please get in touch! teacher development, and the interviews I recorded with other teachers, the stories they told, the feelings they shared, were a joy. I had an inkling of an idea that the kind of interviews I had recorded might make interesting listening for someone out there as podcasts, but with no idea of how to put such a thing together I left the idea on the back burner. Four years later, back in Japan, I was tinker- ing with various online teacher development activities. One blogging experiment had run its course, when I noticed that vocabulary superstar Paul Nation was coming to town. I managed to get in touch with him and he magnanimously agreed to do an interview. One way or another, the podcast idea was now a go… Since then I have recorded videos and audio interviews with Darren Elliott has been teaching and training a number of teachers, researchers, and writers teachers in Japan since 1999, and currently works at in ELT, mostly as they pass through Japan for Nanzan University in Nagoya. His research interests conferences or training sessions. include teacher development, reflective practice, The project has strayed from its original and technology in education. He can be contacted at concept somewhat—each of the people I have
…with Jason Peppard To contact the editor:
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n this edition of Grassroots, Mary Burkitt gives with speaker names, dates, topics, and hosting a little history on our JALT Asian scholars chapters going as far back as 1988 for the Asian I and tour speakers—ever wonder when it all Scholar and 1995 for the Four Corners Tour. started? Read on! Robert Chartrand explains According to JALT records, the first Asian how the JALT CALL SIG helps support the Scholar came from China 22 years ago in 1988, teaching community with conferences and other with the 1990, 1991, and 1993 speakers from events; Tadashi Ishida reports how older learners Pakistan, India, Vietnam, and Russia funded of English make friends with people from abroad by the Yoshitsugu Komiya Scholarship Fund through the events of an NGO while improv- from the Catena Corporation. An item in the ing their English; and Chisato Saida gives her December 1995 JALT News states that “Since impressions of attending the TESOL conference, 1992, JALT has offered scholarships for Asian a Mecca for language teachers. educators to participate in the Annual Interna- tional Conference and share their experiences of language teaching with those working in Japan.” Twenty-two years The 1995 speakers were from China and gave presentations in ten cities throughout Japan. and 52 speakers All in all, over the course of 22 years, JALT has hosted 21 speakers from 12 Asian countries. later There have been four speakers from China, three from Vietnam, three from the Philippines, two by Mary L. Burkitt , JALT2010 from Cambodia (including this year’s speaker Balsamo Asian Scholar Liaison and Om Soryong), two from Laos, and one each from Four Corners Tour Coordinator Pakistan, India, Russia, Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea, and Bangladesh. Equally impressive are the numbers for the As the 36th annual JALT International Confer- Four Corners Tour. Since 1995, including the ence approaches, we are preparing to host three 2010 speakers, 33 speakers have or will have speakers this year, including the Balsamo Asian graced our chapters across Japan: speakers of Scholar, on the 2010 Four Corners Tour. international stature that have included pillars of After five years of coordinating the tour, my the language teaching world from Hokkaido to curiosity was provoked about just how long Okinawa and many points in between. Speakers JALT has been inviting and hosting Asian Schol- such as Curtis Kelly, Susan Barduhn, Martha ars and Four Corners speakers. Thanks to all the Clark Cummings, Dave Willis, Simon Greenall, data collecting Director of Records Aleda Krause Mario Rinvolucri, and Anne Burns have brought has been doing, she was able to supply me workshops and lectures to JALT chapters and
…with Joyce Cunningham and Mariko Miyao To contact the editors:
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 65 TLT » JALT Focus » Grassroots
educational institutions. The 1998 tour saw six Finally, I would like to thank Tokyo and West speakers exploring our four corners in over Tokyo Chapters for their largesse in support- twenty locations! ing the 2010 Balsamo Asian Scholar’s visit; the These tours were initially pre-conference, but Material Writers SIG for contributing to the Four eventually were extended to post-conference Corners Tour for Alan Maley; and the Teaching depending on the availability of the speakers. Children SIG for their support of Marianne Topics over the years have included “The Nikolov. We hope you will join us in Nagoya, Psychology of Difficult Students” (Kelly), “The but if not, find your way to any of the chapter Lexical Approach” (Barduhn), and “Rules, presentations to be given by our tour speakers. Patterns and Words: A Pedagogic Description of You won’t be disappointed! Language” (D. Willis). But enough of history! Forward to the JALT2010 Four Corners Tour. Asian Scholar, Om CALL: What’s your Soryong, is currently the deputy head of the English Department of the Institute of Foreign motivation? Languages, Royal University of Phnom Penh, by Robert Chartrand, JALT CALL Cambodia. Arriving in Tokyo pre-conference, he will be hosted by Tokyo Chapter on 13 Novem- Coordinator;
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 67 TLT » JALT Focus » Grassroots
musical instruments and English Rakugo, and Festival and taste some of the traditional food guided tours for non-Japanese guests. Special offered at such festivals. They can also visit the events include a cherry blossom viewing picnic nearby specialty stores selling restaurant sup- in Ueno Park, participation in the Sanja Festival plies, including the models of plastic food that and the Tanabata Festival, and enjoying fire- you often see in restaurant display windows in works in downtown Tokyo. Japan.
Japanese culture The application of the events to English education In order to meet the increasing worldwide interest in Japan, the program for Japanese culture in- Japanese cultural programs cludes calligraphy, origami, tea ceremony, playing My students teach Japanese culture to foreign the shamisen, making rolled sushi, and trying on visitors and therefore can practice their English kimonos. My students want to serve as ambas- in real communicative situations with our guests. sadors for Japan to people around the world by introducing Japanese culture in these areas. Sightseeing tours English Rakugo My students show foreign visitors around Ueno Park. After doing considerable research and Rakugo is sit-down comedy, usually ending with preparation, and armed with notebooks, cam- a punch line that provokes laughter. Japanese eras, and voice recorders, they not only manage jokes are frequently based on a play on words, to explain the highlights of the tour to our which is often missed in translation, but the foreign visitors, but are also able to write their story itself is quite understandable in English. To own combination text and guide book in English get this across more easily to foreign people, the based on this experience. names of characters and ideas in the story may be changed to make them more adaptable to English Rakugo western culture. The performer is Mr. Tatsuya Sudo, a lecturer at Sightseeing tours Kanda University of International Studies. He believes the Japanese can improve the ability of Ueno Park is a beautiful place to take a stroll, their spoken English and simultaneously acquire visit temples, shrines and museums, and ap- a sense of humor by following the Rakugo preciate its imposing statues. You will certainly method. learn interesting history and acquire general Rakugo is a story based on conversation and is information at the very least. suitable for acquiring spoken English. You need to recite the story hundreds of times before you Sanja Festival present it to an audience. This process of read- The Sanja Festival is one of the biggest festivals ing aloud is crucial to developing one’s skill in held in Tokyo each year. It is famous for its parade spoken English. of about 100 portable shrines around Asakusa Also, since Rakugo is a solo performance, you in Tokyo. Each of the shrines is carried on the don’t need a conversation partner. It is true that shoulders of 20 to 30 people. Twenty-five inter- the number of foreigners is increasing in Japan, national students from Waseda University have yet it is still hard to find a partner to talk to in been given the opportunity to join a team carrying English when you live and work in Japan. In a portable shrine with special permission from Rakugo, you talk to imaginary characters such as PEACE members living in the Tokyo area. your friends, your parents, and siblings, so you can practice the conversation and create your Tanabata Festival own story. For more information about PEACE, please Participants can view the display of decorations visit its website at
There were also which were selected for their interest to TESOL plenty of networking professionals. I attended AAAL 2010, held just opportunities through- before TESOL, and participated in an interesting out the conference. session, “TESOL at AAAL,” focusing on class- Among others, The room research and the meditational effects of President’s Reception technology in classroom research. The two-way was one such exciting exchange sessions were exciting. I found that the opportunity to meet content covered by the two professional organi- and talk with many zations did touch on some similar areas although participants from their approaches were different. I recognize the different countries Mark Algren, TESOL President importance of connecting research and practice and enjoy such Boston in a variety of educational settings and such favorites as turkey with cherry sauce. And of links between TESOL and AAAL enrich all our course, Mark Algren, TESOL President 2009-2010 research and practices. was there to welcome us all warmly. The next TESOL annual convention will be Another interesting session was “AAAL held in New Orleans, 16-19 March 2011. Another (American Association for Applied Linguistics) stimulating spring programme has already been at TESOL.” This session offered papers from posted at
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The use of music in classrooms has long been distorted understanding of the United States. standard practice for language teachers. Songs Students, taxi drivers, servers, and even local such as The Beatles’ “Hello, Goodbye” and English teachers professed the innocent belief Louis Armstrong’s “What a Wonderful World” that America is a land of unabashed wealth. In enjoy widespread popularity, not only for their Vietnam, with its median age of 25, Cold War-era practical vocabulary and conversational motifs American stereotypes have been replaced by the but because they make language fun. One of my fantastical portrayals of life in popular films and fondest memories learning French was a lesson TV shows. At Hong Duc University, the Ameri- organized around a song by the French rapper can Studies curriculum glosses over the grittier MC Solaar, in which he chronicled the lives of issues such as racial tension, income inequality, residents of the banlieues, the crime-ravaged and high crime rates, leaving students with a suburbs of Paris. As my professor expounded rather stilted picture of America. The content of with evident relish on the social symbolism of my class, therefore, focused mainly on aspects of everyday human interactions represented in American culture and society which tend to be a lyric about smoking a joint, I found myself overlooked—not only in Vietnam, but in many becoming involved with the French language on classrooms in the United States as well. a far more personal and analytical plane. With this inspiring lesson in mind, from March 2010 I led a seminar for intermediate to advanced students at Hong Duc University in Thanh Hoa, Vietnam, entitled “20th Century American Culture and History through Music.” Each week we examined a specific era or theme in American history through one or two songs, chosen for the unique perspective they lent to the topic. When appropriate, other materials such as movies, documentaries, photographs, and cartoons were incorporated. Although a small amount of lecturing on my part was unavoid- able, every effort was made to keep the focus on small-group discussions emphasizing critical analysis of media. Waldman and Vietnamese students in a culture exchange contact zone Several unique characteristics of the student body at the International Education Center made them ideal for the kind of integrated, multi- On a more abstract and theoretical level, the disciplinary class I envisioned, while simultane- rectification of misguided beliefs about America ously posing a unique set of challenges. Overall, was accompanied by a more subtle upheaval of students were bright and hungry for knowledge the traditional classroom hierarchy in Vietnam. of foreign societies, but were generally limited The dominant method of teaching in Vietnam in their prior knowledge of American culture. follows a “banking approach” to education Engagement with American music, for all but (Freire, 1970). This is a rigid top-down pedagogy a couple of students, stopped at boy bands and in which the student plays the role of a bank Hollywood soundtracks. teller, passively and obediently receiving what- My goals for the seminar were personal and ever knowledge the teacher chooses to deposit. professional. Apart from a rather vague desire to One of my goals for the seminar was to challenge foster mutual understanding between the people this antiquated educational model and restruc- of the United States and Vietnam, I wanted ture my Vietnamese classroom along the lines to correct a persistent stereotype. During the of Mary Louise Pratt’s (1991) concept of contact months I spent in Thanh Hoa, I had come to real- zones, “Social spaces where cultures meet, clash, ize that the average resident holds a profoundly and grapple with each other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power” THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 71 TLT » JALT Focus » Outreach
(p. 33). The aggressive give-and-take Pratt provided a wonderful opportunity for lyrical describes here often takes place in the modern analysis. Students were encouraged to think ESL classroom, but rather than resist it, I believe about the singer’s point of view, and to identify that educators should welcome the occasional and discuss the “5 W’s” (who, where, when, usurping of their power. Practical ideas concern- which, and why) of the narrative. In this par- ing the use of music as “codes” in ESL teaching, ticular example, students were able to uncover which I picked up by attending Brendan Ries’ once dark secrets from their listening experience: (2010) workshop at the 6th annual CamTESOL Johnson sings “standing at the crossroad, rising conference in Phnom Penh, played an invaluable sun going down / believe to my soul now, poor role in planning this seminar. Bob is sinking down.” In all likelihood, this verse To facilitate discussion, each student received is a reference to the once commonplace practice a 30-page booklet prior to the beginning of the of lynching African-Americans walking alone at seminar containing the course syllabus and night. An amusing situation arose during discus- table of contents, a map of the United States, sion of this song, when a student asked about the brief readings providing background for each final line, “Lord I didn’t have no sweet woman, topic, definitions of key vocabulary, lyrics, and babe, in my distress.” The student, unfamiliar discussion questions. Songs for each session with the African-American patois, was curious were posted on our class Google Groups page about the singer’s incorrect usage of grammar. a few days in advance, allowing students to After a brief explanation, she smiled presciently listen beforehand while reading along with the and responded, “I see. So we don’t have no lyrics. I did my best to diversify the activities, grammar rules here!” Ultimately, it was a great although each session followed the same loosely way for students to learn that non-standard organized flow, which I will describe using the usage of language is acceptable, even normative example of my first session “Slavery and the depending on the cultural context. The potential Blues Tradition.” to unpack various meanings contained in a single song is one of the great, underutilized The class began with a brief overview of strengths of music as an educational tool. slavery, highlighting the enormous scale of the Atlantic slave trade and its pivotal effects on In conclusion, student feedback showed that the America’s racial and socio-cultural spectrum. unorthodox, almost novel (by Vietnamese stand- We discussed the horrifying conditions for most ards) structure of the seminar did leave a positive slaves, and how the music that supported them, impression. By the end of the course, many of the mainly spirituals and work songs, was passed students were actively initiating discussions with down orally from generation to generation and fellow classmates without a prompt, and their eventually grew into the Blues idiom. As an ability to analyze highly subjective media loaded example of the way that indigenous African with a diverse array of connotations had notice- songs were maintained by slaves transported to ably improved. Freed from the rigid constraints the New World, we listened to a field recording of the TOEFL curriculum, students were able of traditional Yoruba music from the 1930s, to contextualize and “own” new ideas on their followed by Muddy Waters’ “Mannish Boy.” The underlying theme here, recurring throughout the seminar, was the hybridization of culture. Is your membership Students were asked to listen for similarities between the two seemingly disparate pieces, in due for renewal? particular for the clear use of call-and-response, Check the label on the envelope a common Blues and Jazz technique of West this TLT came in for your renewal African origin in which a single rhythmic and date, then go to
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Dear readers of the Outreach column, celebrity with an important cause; every creative entrepre- neur who can think outside Pandora’s box; every NGO Thanks to the superb support of contributors, the Outreach employee; and every volunteer teacher working anywhere column is able to assist our language teaching profession around the globe. All these people are candidates to have outside of Japan. Outreach has become a popular place for a vibrant voice in the pages of the Outreach column. Kindly teachers from around the world to exchange opinions and let your peers know Outreach is calling for their papers. ideas about foreign language learning and teaching. Contributors submit articles in the form of interviews with teachers based overseas. Insightful dialogues have been Calling for papers from around the world conducted with knowledgeable, kind, and friendly EFL Purpose: Outreach supports language teachers who would teachers in Iran, Laos, and the U.S. In the previous issue of not otherwise readily have access to a readership in Japan Outreach, Elliot Waldman, a volunteer teacher in Vietnam, was asked to share his perspective on the challenges univer- Popular Topics: Foreign Language Learning, ESL and EFL, sity students face before going abroad to study. In this issue Language Conferences, Language Associations, and Teacher Elliot provides more details about his teaching methodology. Training Other reports have highlighted the study of Japanese in Article Length: 1,000 words plus photographs Canada; children’s books in Australia; CALL conferences in Format: APA style guidelines Argentina; CALL centers in the Philippines; and professors and haiku poets in India. Submit: WORD.doc and PHOTO.jpg files to
On JALT2009: The Teaching Learning JALT Apple Store Dialogue: An Active Mirror The 2009 Conference Proceedings is now Don’t forget, JALT available to JALT members online! membership brings Over 80 papers offering information and added bonuses, such ideas to support and motivate you in your learning, teaching, and research. as� discounted Apple products through the JALT Apple Store.
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 73 TLT » Column » SIG News TLT ColSumInG NEWS
SIGs at a glance The Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Special Interest Group (SIG) actively Key: [ � = keywords ] [ & = publications ] [ = other activities ] [ = email list] [ ^ = online supports and promotes the use of various tech- forum] Note: For contacts & URLs, please see the nologies in language learning. In addition, Contacts page. we encourage everyone interested to join our new online discussions in our Google Group. JALTCALL 2011, 3-5 Jun at Kurume University in Pan-SIG 2011 Fukuoka, features Keynote Speaker Carla Meskill Pan-SIG 2011 conference will be held at Shinshu of the State University of New York. For more University, Matsumoto, in Nagano Prefecture, information please visit the reorganized CALL 21-22 May 2011. For more information, please SIG website at
…with James Essex To contact the editor:
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Framework & Language Portfolio UNESCO, Amnesty International, and Educators for Social Responsibility. Join us in teaching for [ � curriculum-planning, assessment, language education a better world! Our website is
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 75 TLT » Column » SIG News
improving our practice by exploring the connec- Materials Writers tions between learning and teaching. We also meet to share ideas and research in small-scale [ � materials development, textbook writing, publishers events such as mini-conferences, poster-sessions, and publishing, self-publication, technology ] [ & Between and local group meetings. For more information the Keys—3x year ] [ JALT national conference events ] check out our homepage
19-22 nov 10—JALT2010: 36th Annual Inter- national Conference on Language Teaching and Learning & Educational Materials Exposition: Creativity: Think Outside the Box, WINC Aichi, Nagoya, Japan. Contact:
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THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 77 TLT » Column » Chapter Events TLT CHAPTERColumn EVENTs NLY two more months until we say Following the meeting will be our year-end “Sayonara” to 2010! Be sure to take some social, location T.B.A. at the meeting. Sun 12 Dec O time to check out what’s happening at 13:30-16:00; Zaza City Pallette, 5F, Hamamatsu; See your local chapters in November and December! Hamamatsu Chapter website for location, directions Remember to check the chapter events website
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13:00-17:00; Hokkai Gakuen University
Okayama—University accreditation: How it stories for good measure. We will conclude by impacts you by Bern Mulvey. All universities looking at the very positive advantages creative in Japan must now submit to an external “ac- writing has to offer, both to students and to creditation” evaluation every seven years. They teachers. For further details, please visit the JALT receive assessments in multiple categories, not Sendai webpage at
Sendai—Helping students to write creatively The 4th Annual by Alan Maley. The poetic function is central to language at all levels, from young learners Extensive Reading in to young adults. Poems carry within them the beat and rhythm of the language, they provoke a Japan Seminar response (physical, visual, cognitive, associative, etc.), they prompt connections with personal ex- 13 Feb, 2011 perience, they open the way for learning through Okayama University vicarious experience, they foster language play, they offer non-tedious repetition, and they en- Call for submissions ends Sep 30. courage learners to take risks with the language. For more information, see But literature can also be written, as well as read.
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Fukuoka: May—Collaborative professional would fit under the guidelines using activities development through peer observation that promote a “foundation for communication.” by Christopher Stillwell. The presenter intro- The presentation was useful for teachers wishing duced the topic of peer observation and shared to better understand the roles of HRTs, ALTs, important ground rules for setting up observa- JTEs, or NTs within the new elementary English tions and techniques for guiding post-observation schema. conferences in such a way as to maximize the Reported by Aaron Gibson benefit for all parties involved. Also touched on was the prickly issue of giving peers feedback on Gifu: March— their work. Participants acted out teacher confer- Bilingual cognition and a Chisae Kasai ences and showed how a third party conference practical guide to bilingualism by Robert Gee observer can promote a deeper level of reflection. and . Gifu enjoyed a fascinating The benefits of this kind of observation were two-part presentation about bilingualism in discussed including the possibility of gathering Japan. Kasai had investigated the cultural peers’ feedback on new material being tried, get- effect of language learning; she concludes that ting a second pair of eyes to find out more about “in a broad way, if a Japanese person goes to classroom behavior, and having a partner from England and learns English, their thinking whom to learn a new style of teaching. The ideas changes.” The presenter demonstrated through presented would be beneficial to communities an interactive activity how monolingual English, of teachers who want to improve their teaching monolingual Japanese, and bilingual students through peer observation. reacted differently when showing preferences for shapes and materials. She then outlined future Reported by Aaron Gibson research plans which included brain scans and tests to evaluate young children’s language Fukuoka: June—Elementary school English development. After a short break, Gee gave a activities: Are we there yet? by Ann Mayeda. practical guide to bilingualism drawing on his The presenter introduced the new guidelines for own experiences in Japan. Gee not only focused MEXT’s course of study for elementary school on the positive aspects but examined some of English activities and looked at the reasons for the negative effects of bilingualism. Gee stated: some common misunderstandings concerning “Having options can mean increasing complica- this policy. The focus was on how schools are tions such as finding appropriate schooling or implementing or changing current programs balancing dual citizenship. Every society has its based on their interpretation of the teaching own problems. The way to do it, I think isn’t to guidelines. During discussion the audience run away, I think you have to work at creating was asked to share how activities are currently your own culture.” conducted at their schools and discuss how they Reported by Brent Simmonds
…with Tara McIlroy To contact the editor:
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 81 TLT » Column » Chapter Reports
Gifu: July—Materials production and introduced the European Portfolio for Student evaluation for young learners: Six principles Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL). This teacher by Catherine Littlehale Oti. How can we help training tool helps future language teachers young learners learn? What should we be doing assess and reflect on their progress using 195 with kids? What kind of materials should be distinct can-do statements. Newby co-created presented and how do we present them? Oti de- EPOSTL as an extension of independent learning scribed the six principles of material production principles set forth by the Common European and evaluation. She gave a description of each Framework of Reference for language (CEFR) principle in her framework. Materials should and the European Language Portfolio (ELP). have content that is relevant, support learners’ Newby’s second presentation addressed some development, consider different learning styles, perceived problems with integrating grammar care for the affective needs of the learners, help education into communicative classrooms. learners develop learning-to-learn skills, and cre- Newby criticized recent trends in communicative ate autonomous learners. The forum discussed teaching which either treat grammar as an after- these elements. The desire for a student-centred thought, or disregard explicit grammar educa- approach was central to the conclusions drawn. tion completely. Newby’s proposed solution is The problem of dealing with “the powers that to focus student attention on language functions, be” was raised. Young learner specialists and which he terms notions. By focusing on notions, those in non-normative teaching situations both students can concentrate on using necessary felt they benefited from this rewarding and grammatical forms to express their own ideas. enjoyable presentation. Five chapter members also gave presentations Reported by Brent Simmonds this year. David Gann’s presentation, Critically minded podcast: theory and application, began by clarifying what is and what is not critical Gunma: July—Adaptation of CEFR to the Eng- thinking. Gann then played an excerpt showing lish curriculum in Japanese higher education by how podcasts can be used to teach students Noriko Nagai. This presentation was enlighten- critical thinking terminology. Fergus O’Dwyer ing for many of us who had limited knowledge spoke about Can-do statements in language of the Common European Framework of Refer- education in Japan. O’Dwyer showed that using ence for languages (CEFR). In general, CEFR is can-do statements in self-assessment, students a way to assess communicative language profi- can identify learning targets and monitor their ciency in terms of five communicative activities progress. While the CEFR and ELP contain using “can do” statements. Nagai explained that can-do statements, O’Dwyer warned against CEFR has a role to play when designing cur- using these statements without first adapting ricula and courses because the designers must be them to a student’s individual language learning concrete about what learners need to learn, how situation. Wayne Pennington’s presentation, they learn, the goals, and the expected outcomes. An extensive reading program using the Moodle She described the process of designing English reader module, posited extensive reading infea- curricula through her experience at Ibaraki sible as a class component, as insufficient class University, the first step of which was to identify time makes it “supplemental reading” rather the problems in the current program. Along than extensive reading. This year Pennington the way, she and her team made adaptations to has started two classes dedicated exclusively to CEFR to suit the environment, with the result extensive reading. Thanks to the Moodle reader that the whole program has clear objectives, module’s automatic record keeping, Pennington coherent structure in the curriculum and classes, is able to concentrate on orienting his students and a unified evaluation system. to the goals of the program. Atsushi Iida and Reported by Lori Ann Desrosiers Asuka Iijima gave a presentation entitled Use of haiku in Japanese classrooms:Theory to practice. Iijima presented some benefits of using literature Gunma: August—Theory and practice of L2 translated from the student’s L1 to the target teaching by various. The workshop featured language. She found students were able to use David Newby from Graz U. in Austria. Newby 82 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
Nagasaki: July—Testing the new TOEIC students, by including a line for them to write speaking and writing test and Writing flu- comments freely, and use your own materials, ency: What is it, and is it necessary? by Terry making sure the activity involves the skill you Fellner. In the first of two presentations, Fellner are aiming to practise and trying it out on one gave background information about the goals, class before making a lot of copies. claims, structure, and content of the TOEIC Reported by Kayoko Kato speaking and writing test, before sharing his own experience of taking the test. His results, Niigata: July— and the feedback received, led him to suggest Teaching haiku for communica- that the largely American business schema used tive purposes in a Japanese EFL college writing Atsushi Iida in the test may lead to difficulties in accurately classroom by . Sharing his own class- assessing the performance of, and the provision room teaching experience, Iida demonstrated how of useful feedback for, Japanese test-takers. In and why he uses haiku in his EFL writing classes. his second presentation, Fellner introduced the To begin, he discussed student perceptions of topical concept of writing fluency, arguing that writing, and how many of them list writing as a it as yet lacks a clear definition and is therefore lower priority in their English studies for various difficult to determine, and that measures of reasons. Through writing a haiku, Iida spoke writing fluency need to take into account not just about how students can find their voice to speak the amount of writing, but also lexical frequency. more freely without being as concerned about the Post-presentation discussion focused on the role restrictions of grammar as they are in other forms of the TOEIC test, and particularly on writing of writing. Iida then went through three stages of fluency, with participants questioning not only building a haiku as he teaches them in his own the extent of practical, real-world writing tasks classrooms: the “collecting information” stage, that require fluency, but also the value of the the “generating ideas” or free writing stage, and concept itself. finally the “producing haiku” stage. Through the process, we must keep the syllable structure of Reported by Richard Hodson the haiku at 5-7-5, using a seasonal reference, and a cutting word (kireji). Lastly, Iida stressed that Nagoya: July—Materials production and haiku is an excellent way for students to practice evaluation: Six principles by Catherine Lit- writing without having to worry about being tlehale Oki. Oki showed how to evaluate a right or wrong, as well as being reader-centered course book through discussion according to its with multiple interpretations. physical characteristics, layout and what comes Reported by Kevin M. Maher with the book, theoretical characteristics, what ideas about language learning or learning in Oita: May— general the book seems to reflect, productive Developing personalized portfolio Steve Quasha characteristics, and how its linguistic content, rubrics for the EFL classroom by . activities, and physical designs are created. Oki The presenter demonstrated how he uses stressed the importance of balancing the people portfolio assessment as a core part of his com- who make decisions on education, materials, and municative English courses, and as a creative theory. Giving six principles on materials and alternative to the traditional paper test. Quasha some desirable material components, she asked related assessment to student motivation, citing participants to discuss and rate the importance Nunan’s humanistic approach to language of each of the principles: Materials should (1) education. He argued that intrinsic motivation have content relevant to learners; (2) support is vital for language students, but that this is learners’ language development; (3) consider largely dependent on the assessment style and different learning styles; (4) care for the affec- it should be “meaningful and self-initiating.” tive (psychological) needs of learners; (5) help Quasha advocated a move away from the hurdle learners to develop learning-to-learn skills; and of traditional testing towards the portfolio, (6) help create autonomous learners. Lastly, Oki outlining the numerous benefits of the portfolio gave two recommendations: get feedback from in terms of promoting critical thinking, encour- aging reflection and accountability, providing 84 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
Osaka: July—Teaching in English: Challenges video of Harry Wong’s international bestseller, for high school by various. This event was The First Days of School: How to Be an Effective hosted by Kansai University of International Teacher, and another video of an American teach- Studies (KUIS), and featured keynote speaker er who follows Wong’s principles. We watched a Yasuyuki Mizohata and featured speaker Atushi few sections from the videos and after watching Iida. In addition, 14 other presenters shared their each section, we discussed Wong’s ideas and experience with teaching English in English. strategies. In the latter half of the session, we also Topics included motivation, learner centered had a very active group discussion on our own classrooms, developing autonomy, the role of ideas and strategies for the first day classes. All the teacher, and technology in the language participants eagerly shared tricks, lesson plans, classroom. Of particular interest was the success and activities for creating better lessons for the KUIS has had in implementing English-only in- first day and the classes following. struction, and the requirement that students use Reported by Soichi Ota English not only on campus, but off campus as well. Moreover, a small fair trade booth featuring Shinshu: September— Thai-made cloth was popular, and drew atten- Invisible writing by Peter Ross tion to economic disparities in Southeast Asia. , Older students as both teachers and learners by Tadashi Ishida, and The JALT Reported by Douglas Meyer Pan-SIG Conference by Andy Boon and Eric Skier. Ross showed that by inserting a piece of Sendai: July—Creative use of silence by writing paper, a piece of carbon copy paper, and Joseph Shaules. For many teachers, silence in another piece of writing paper into a clear plastic a classroom can be terrifying. It might mean pocket, students could write on top of the plastic your class is not well organized and managed. pocket with a pencil and not be able to see what However, Shaules proved that it does not have they were writing. This invisible writing was to be true. He described how we should interpret designed to shift the focus from students’ fear and use silence to achieve better language classes of mistakes and other obstacles to more fluent and help the students improve their language writing which reflects their “inner voice and skills. By sharing a concept called mindscaping or imagery” and set them on the path to process managing silence, and Caleb Gattegno’s concept writing. Ishida talked about PEACE (People’s of ogdens and the role of silence in language Educational And Cultural Exchange) in Taito-ku, planning, Shaules clearly explained to us that Tokyo, through which mature students both it is critical for language teachers to focus not learn and teach by involving tourists and foreign only on what students are doing but also on residents in cultural activities such as wearing what is going on inside of them while they are kimonos, playing the shamisen, and carrying silent. For example, they might need silence to o-mikoshis. Boon and Skier, who chaired the 7th process the input that teachers gave them. The and 8th JALT Pan-SIG conferences, provided workshop consisted of a lecture on the topic and background and procedural information for the some practical classroom techniques using sound 10th conference, Discovering Paths to Fluency, and silence. Participants were satisfied with the which will be held 21-22 May 2011 in Mat- useful and practical knowledge they gained at sumoto. this workshop. Reported by Mary Aruga and Mark Brierley Reported by Soichi Ota Shizuoka: August—Motivation and de- Sendai: August—The first days of school: motivation by Keita Kikuchi. About a dozen Being effective in the classroom by Sendai JALT. people came to hear Kikuchi talk about his This meeting was planned after the popularity ongoing research on motivation and demotiva- of our meeting in August 2009 in which we tion. He started the presentation by going over watched a documentary about a teacher and his some existing motivation frameworks, such class in the U.S. and then discussed our teaching as self-efficacy, attribution, and goal orientation principles and practices. This year, we chose a theories, as well as Dörnyei’s list of motivational 86 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online »
…with James McCrostie The JALT2010
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 87 TLT » Column » Job Information Center
language professionals convening, the JALT on Facebook by searching for the National EFL conference is unquestionably the number one Teacher Job Survey or send me a quick email at networking and recruiting opportunity in Asia.
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THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 89 TLT » Column » Conference Calendar
International Conference: Exploring Leadership 23-28 AUG 11—16th World Congress of Ap- & Learning Theories in Asia, U. of Malaysia, plied Linguistics (AILA2011): Harmony in Kuala Lumpur. Contact:
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 91 JALT MEMBERSHIP INFORMATION
The Japan Association for Language • Testing and evaluation Teaching (JALT) • Materials development • a professional organization formed in 1976 支部及び分野別研究部会による例会や研究会は日本 -1976年に設立された学術学会 各地で開催され、以下の分野での発表や研究報告が行 • working to improve language learning and われます。バイリンガリズム、CALL、大学外国語教育、 teaching, particularly in a Japanese context 共同学習、ジェンダーと語学学習、グローバル問題、日 -語学の学習と教育の向上を図ることを目的としてい 本語教育、自主的学習、語用論・発音・第二言語習得、 ます 児童語学教育、生涯語学教育研究部会、試験と評価、 • over 3,000 members in Japan and overseas 教材開発。 -国内外で約 3,000名の会員がいます JALT cooperates with domestic and interna- Annual international conference 年次国際大会 tional partners, including [JALTは以下の国内外の 学会と提携しています] • 1,500 to 2,000 participants : -毎年1,500名から2,000名が参加します • IATEFL—International Association of Teach- • hundreds of workshops and presentations ers of English as a Foreign Language -多数のワークショップや発表があります • JACET—the Japan Association of College • publishers’ exhibition English Teachers -出版社による教材展があります • PAC—the Pan Asian Conference consortium • Job Information Centre • TESOL—Teachers of English to Speakers of -就職情報センターが設けられます Other Languages Membership Categories 会員と会費 JALT publications include: • The Language Teacher—our monthly publica- All members receive annual subscriptions to tion - を毎月発行します The Language Teacher and JALT Journal, and • JALT Journal—biannual research journal member discounts for meetings and confer- 会員はThe Language TeacherやJALT Journal等 - を年2回発行します ences. の出版物を購読出来、又例会や大会にも割引価格で参 • Annual Conference Proceedings 加出来ます。 - 年次国際大会の研究発表記録集を発行します 一般会員: • SIG and chapter newsletters, anthologies, • Regular ¥10,000 and conference proceedings • Student rate (undergraduate/graduate in - 分野別研究部会や支部も会報、アンソロジー、研究 Japan) 学生会員（日本にある大学、大学院の学生）: 会発表記録集を発行します ¥6,000 • Joint—for two persons sharing a mailing ad- Meetings and conferences sponsored by lo- dress, one set of publications ジョイント会員（同 cal chapters and special interest groups (SIGs) じ住所で登録する個人2名を対象とし、JALT出版物 are held throughout Japan. Presentation and は2名に１部）: ¥17,000 research areas include: • Group (5 or more) ¥6,500/person—one set of • Bilingualism publications for each five members団体会員（ • CALL ５名以上を対象とし、JALT出版物は5名につき１部） • College and university education ：1名6,500円 • Cooperative learning For more information please consult our web- • Gender awareness in language education site
Full size copies of these images are available on the following pages
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THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 1
If you drive a hybrid car If you bring your If you do the (gas and electric), own shopping housework, move ahead 5 spaces. bag(s) to the move ahead grocery store, 3 spaces. move ahead 2 spaces. If you have gray hair, If you drive an SUV, If you have ever move ahead 3 spaces. go back 6 spaces. illegally parked in a handicapped space, move back 10 spaces.
If you have ever climbed one If you drove here today, of the 3 tallest mountains in move back 3 spaces. Japan, move ahead 5 spaces.
If you walked or rode your bicycle to class today, move ahead 2 spaces.
If you usually walk If you don’t own If you have ever up the stairs a cell phone, helped a tourist instead of taking move ahead with directions, the elevator, 1 space. move ahead move ahead 3 spaces. 3 spaces.
If you regularly attend concerts, then move ahead If you watch movies If you eat 4 spaces. in English, breakfast then every day, move then move ahead ahead 4 spaces. 2 spaces.
If you are If you have If you have ever computer ever donated run in a race, literate, then blood, then then move ahead move ahead move ahead 2 spaces. 5 spaces. 3 spaces. (If you won, move ahead 3 more!)
If you have If you watch the news on TV If you have a passport, every day, then move ahead a library card, then move 1 space. then move ahead 2 ahead 1 space. spaces.
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Move forward Move forward Move forward 1 space 1 space if you 1 space if you if you have your teeth have a teenager, have a grand- cleaned once a 2 spaces for 2 child; 2 spaces year; twice a teens, etc. for 2 grandkids, year, 2 spaces. (You deserve it!) etc. Move forward 3 spaces Move forward 3 spaces if you have a hobby. Move forward 5 spaces if you don’t smoke. if you work out at a gym. Move ahead Move back 3 spaces Let's see, Ken, 4 spaces if Move back 3 spaces if if you have gotten Jun, Miki , … you can you eat junk food every day. a speeding ticket lately. remember everyone’s name in this class.
This is boring … Move back 10 spaces Move if you talk on your backwards Move backward cell phone while driving. 3 spaces 2 spaces if you if you are are not enjoying overweight. yourself now.
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DMGaylord 2003
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Go back 3 spaces TLT » Resources » MY SHARE APPENDICES TLTMy Resource s Share Happy holidays! An information exchange activity for multi-generational classes Julia K. Harper, Ritsumeikan University
Memories of Holidays and Special Days: Information Sheet
Name of holiday Japanese: English: Background
Foods you ate
Things you did
Decorations you made or bought
Clothing you wore
Other memories
Information about your partner
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6 • November / December 2010 1