Studies on Physical Education Promotion Policy for Young Men's Association in the Taisho Era: Focusing on the Administrative Process in Tokyo Prefecture*

Int. J. Sport Health Sci. Paper : History Studies on Physical Education Promotion Policy for Young Men's Association in the Taisho Era: Focusing on the Administrative Process in Tokyo Prefecture*

Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University 2-579-15 Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-1192 Japan y-ono.sps＠aoni.waseda.jp

*Original article published in Japan J. Phys. Educ. Hlth. Sport Sci. 60: 449-465, 2015 (in Japanese) [Received March 21, 2018; Accepted November 13, 2018; Published online November 22, 2018]

The Young Men's Association (YMA) was an education institute that provided programs and further education for young men. It aimed to train both mind and body, and valued physical education. However, in preceding studies, emphasis was placed on the consideration of the national stance that physical education should be promoted in the YMA, or on the consideration of the implementation status of physical education in the YMA in the local community. Speciˆc con- siderations on the policy and process of the local government liaising between national aim and region implementation were insu‹cient. This study aims to clarify the development process of the physical education promotion policy of the YMA, taking as an example the Tokyo Prefec- ture administration during the Taisho Era. As a result, the following points were clariêd: 1) In the Local Governor Conference, no instruction on the speciˆc development method concerning physical education promotion of the YMA was given. Therefore, in each prefectural administration, policies needed to be formulated and implemented, taking into account the regional situation within the jurisdiction. 2) Prefectural Governor Tomoichi Inoue who spearheaded the YMA policy in Tokyo Prefec- ture, had set as the main objective of the YMA, the implementation of civil education and labor education for the working young men. He placed physical education as ``prerequisite for all'' activities of the YMA. In so doing, the aim was to train ``young men who contribute to labor'' through physical education. 3) As a specialized institution reviewing physical education policies of the YMA in Tokyo Pre- fecture, Governor Inoue established ``Tokyo Prefecture Physical Education Council.'' The council members consisted, not only of Tokyo prefectural workers, but also of external `èdu- cation and physical education experts.'' 4) The Physical Education Council raised as speciˆc issues, `ìmprovement of the physique and strength of young men'' and ``popularization method of physical education,'' and held repeat- ed discussions thereof. In resolving the above issues, the Physical Education Council cooperat- ed and collaborated with companies within Tokyo Prefecture, and further held ``workshops'' and ``lectures'' in the YMA'' at a local level. 5) The Physical Education Council compiled the information obtained through discussions and through the ``workshops'' and ``lectures,'' and therefrom established and issued the ``Tokyo Prefecture Regulations for Young Men's Physical Education.'' Regulations for Young Men's Physical Education Promotion played an important role in the origin of physical education of the YMA in Tokyo Prefecture in the years to follow.

Keywords: local government, governor, working young men

236 International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.16, 236-254, 2018 http://taiiku-gakkai.or.jp/ Studies on Physical Education Promotion Policy for Young Men's Association

1. Introduction systems and policies. Takenoshita and Kishino (1959) demonstrated that the YMA began to active- 1.1. What are Young Men's Associations? ly carry out physical education and sports activities following the proclamation of the ˆrst directive, Young Men's Associations (YMA) are social, which provided the political impetus for the physi- educational institutions that developed under the cal education and sports activities of the YMA. teaching of the Ministry of Home AŠairs and the Accordingly, Kinoshita (1970) showed that the rise Ministry of Education from the late Meiji to the in awareness of political authority among the mass- Taisho period. Their primary purpose was to oŠer es following World War I, and the increased interest vocational education and supplementary education in social reform, provided the social background in to youth engaged in labor in the region after stu- which the YMA became involved in physical educa- dents completed compulsory education. During the tion and sports activities. Also, Irie (1991) observed Taisho period, the proclamation of the Ministry of that the YMA's institutional support for Meiji Home AŠairs and Ministry of Education Directive Shrine Athletic Meets allowed citizens from all No. 9 of Taisho 4 (1915), ``On Development of classes of society to take part in these events. YMA Teaching'' (the ˆrst directive) spurred the Based on these studies, it is clear that the physical bureaucratization of the YMA (Kumagai, 1942). As education and sports activities of the YMA were this demonstrates, from the Taisho period onward, promoted to address social conditions such as the the YMA were characterized by nationalistic teach- physical improvement of the people, ideological ing and total control by national authorities aiming issues, and the systematization of young men to to develop the YMA nationally. They played such resolve military and educational issues. an important role that, until the prewar Showa The second standpoint includes studies that at- period, Japanese social education could be said to tempted to clarify information on the practice of ``revolve around the YMA''*1 (Miyasaka, 1968). physical education and sports activities based on During the Taisho period, to improve the physi- concrete examples of activities by the local YMA. cal strength of the masses, address health problems, Kozu (1994) and Sasaki (2004) investigated the psy- promote ideological guidance policies, and en- chological state of the youth, the former concerning courage nationalism, political measures concerning attempts to empower rural youth through sports sports were proposed, mainly to meet health and and the latter regarding rural youth's acceptance military-related needs (Kinoshita, 1970; Takenoshi- and resistance to physical education and sports ta and Kishino, 1959). Furthermore, with the rise of activities. Whereas Sasaki (2000) examines the Taisho democracy, the public began to make great- development process of the YMA tournaments in er demands for sports and, along with state involve- detail, Ono and Tomozoe (2014) examine the ment, this urged their spread and promotion (Kozu, organizational format and development process of 1994). Thus, physical education and sports gradual- the YMA's physical education clubs in depth. ly increased in popularity during the Taisho period, Based on these studies, it is apparent that diverse and in the YMA, the two played an essential role in activities were developed in response to local condi- the process of bureaucratization and regional in- tions. The YMA gave the local youth their ˆrst tegration. opportunity to become acquainted with physical education and sports activities, and they gained 1.2. Consideration of preceding studies practical experience through daily activities and tournaments. The studies described above demon- Preceding studies on the physical education and strate that some youth actively took part in physical sports activities of the YMA have generally fallen education and sports activities, regarding them as a into one of two standpoints depending on the per- means of self-fulˆllment, while others took a criti- spective taken. cal view of physical education and sports activities, The ˆrst standpoint includes studies that attempt regarding them as bourgeois. These studies demon- to elucidate the relationship between the nationwide strate that the youth did not practice physical edu- teaching of the YMA by the state and physical education and sports activities monolithically. cation and sports from the perspective of historical The studies mentioned above suggest that

237 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

physical education and the sports activities of the Thus, the purpose of this paper is to clarify the YMA initiated through political involvement by the Prefectural Government's policymaking process of state ultimately served to encourage the spread and encouraging physical education in the YMA based promotion of sports among the broader public. on the speciˆc example of the Tokyo Prefectural Furthermore, the physical education and sports ac- Government. This paper is structured as follows. tivities evolved into behaviors that not only contrib- Before the core discussion, the chain of events by uted profoundly to physical development but also which physical education by the YMA was en- to the formation of attitudes and human develop- couraged in the Taisho period will be described, and ment. Thus, the involvement of youth in physical three speciˆc topics will then be investigated. education and sports activities, and the diverse The three topics are as follows: First, this paper perspectives they formed regarding sports, provide will clarify the orders the Ministry of Home AŠairs viewpoints that are signiˆcant in comprehending the and the Ministry of Education issued to Prefectural varied manifestations of physical education and Governments to encourage physical education sports in Japan up to the prewar Showa period. To among the YMA based on the orders of local guber- gain a broader outlook on the spread and growth of natorial conferences. Second, this paper will focus physical education and sports in Japan, it is neces- on Prefectural Governor Inoue Tomoichi (Inoue), sary to pursue a more in-depth study of trends in who directed the YMA policy of the Tokyo Prefec- the physical education and sports activities of the tural Government, by discussing the vision of the YMA from a range of diverse viewpoints. policy that Inoue developed in response to the direc- tives and local gubernatorial conference orders and 1.3. Viewpoint and purpose of this study the role he assigned to physical education. Finally, this paper will discuss the policymaking process by A thorough examination of preceding studies which the Tokyo Prefecture YMA Physical Educa- bringstolightoneparticularquestion.Whatsortof tion Promotion Policy was created to clarify the de- physical education promotion policy of the local velopment process of the ``Tokyo Prefecture Youth YMA was implemented by Prefectural Govern- Physical Education Promotion Regulations.'' ments acting on the orders of the state? These studies have focused on investigating the relationship 2. Research methods between the state and local areas (the YMA), for example, concerning the organizational formats of To clarify the state's requirements regarding the YMA and the process through which their activ- YMA Physical Education Promotion policies, the ities were developed following the issuance of the orders of the local gubernatorial conferences will be ˆrst directive. The policy process at the Prefectural analyzed. Local gubernatorial conferences are Government level that links state intentions with ``conferences at which, on the initiative of the local practices has not been investigated in detail. Cabinet, the Home Minister convenes the regional Ono and Tomozoe's (2014) study clariˆes that governors who are the directors of the general physical education and sports activities were includ- branch institutions of the nation, which also serve ed in the activities of the YMA in response to poli- as conferences of the prefectural governors who cies encouraging physical education by the YMA occupy the position of leaders of Prefectural enacted by the Tokyo Prefectural Government. Governments'' (Taikakai, 1971b). These confer- However, they did not investigate the detailed ences were a vital starting point in the thorough content of the government's policies encouraging implementation of the state's policymaking and physical education through the YMA or the governance objectives on a nationwide basis. policymaking process. Clarifying the actual nature This paper will then analyze the policymaking of the policies encouraging physical education by process at the level of prefectures, the creators of the YMA and how they developed concerning the the actual policies concerning the physical education political logic of Prefectural Government represen- and sports activities of the YMA. Accordingly, the tatives should advance our understanding of the reason why the Tokyo Prefectural Government was state of the physical education and sports activities chosen as an example is that, during the Taisho beginning in the Taisho period of the YMA. period, it occupied a prominent position in carrying

238 Studies on Physical Education Promotion Policy for Young Men's Association out the political tasks of the state as an `ùrban 3. The issuance of the ˆrst directive and orders political center'' (Ishizuka, 1991; Takishima, 2003; to Prefectural Governments Nakajima, 2010) capable of exerting a nationwide in‰uence. Preceding studies have not examined the 3.1. Focus on physical education due to the policymaking process at the level of any prefecture bureaucratization of the Young Men's Associ- in the nation. In light of this tendency, the Tokyo ations Prefectural Government is a representative example worthy of consideration. Why did the bureaucratization of the YMA lead Also, the primary period considered here begins to an emphasis on physical education? The wars in Taisho 4 (1915), when the ˆrst directive was experienced by modern Japan may have in‰uenced issued, and extends to around Taisho 7 (1918), this development. when the Tokyo Prefectural Government promul- From the middle to late Meiji period, Japan gated a prefectural order entitled the ``Tokyo Pre- went through two wars, the Sino-Japanese War fecture Youth Physical Education Promotion Regu- (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War lations,'' thus completing the promotion policies in (1904-1905). Based on these experiences, and to the Taisho period. cultivate people who would support the state more Certain historical records were used in this paper: fervently than before, the Ministry of Home AŠairs To investigate the orders of the local gubernatorial and the Ministry of Education broadly spread edu- conferences, this paper uses the same method as cation among the people by proactively expanding Takenaga (2005, 2008, and so on), who conducted the education system and organizing various educa- substantial empirical research concerning the local tional groups (Miyaji, 1973). Also, local young men gubernatorial conferences, and made use of the were a particular target of these activities, and the minutes of the local gubernatorial conferences pub- focus was placed on the reorganization of the YMA lished in newspapers. However, because the orders to make young men a support base for the regime. concerning the promotion of physical education Regarding this approach by the Ministry of were not published in the newspaper, the descrip- Home AŠairs and the Ministry of Education, tions of the orders recorded in the Youth Educa- Tanaka Giichi (Tanaka) of the army also sought an tional AŠairs Newsletter (in the Nippon Seinenkan's appropriate means of youth education from a mili- possession) issued by the Ministry of Home AŠairs tary perspective. Bureau of Regional AŠairs were used. From February to August of Taisho 3 (1914), Also, for the investigation of Inoue's vision for Tanaka visited and conducted observation in several the YMA and the policymaking process of the Western countries investigating the status of youth Tokyo Prefectural Government, the administrative education there. Thus, Tanaka realized that documents containing records of Inoue's instruc- Western countries paid signiˆcant attention to the tions at the Tokyo Prefecture county, city, and YMA from a military point of view and turned his ward mayors' conference recorded in the `Òutline focus to cultivating the YMA. of Oral Instructions by the Governor of Tokyo Pre- In so doing, Tanaka observed various problems, fecture'' (in the Tokyo Metropolitan Archives' pos- namely, that youth in Japan, where excessive milita- session) as well as the papers Inoue wrote about the ry preparatory education was practiced, took a ‰ip- YMA in Tokyo (in the Nippon Seinenkan's posses- pant attitude toward military exercises and lacked sion) were used. As the `Òutline of Oral Instruc- the physical and mental strength to withstand hard- tions by the Governor of Tokyo Prefecture'' and ship. Thus, he said, ``we must realize that military some of the papers are unpublished, they have been teaching of youth education will build their physical separated from the ``references'' and marked as strength, invigorate their spirits, and inspire a ``materials.'' robust militaristic spirit among them, but nothing more'' (Tanaka, 1915, p. 121). He expressed the view that emphasizing physical education was much more essential as a prerequisite than putting youth through basic training as soldiers. Consequently, Tanaka came to regard physical education as ``the

239 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

most important part of youth education'' (Tanaka, with, at the ˆrst local gubernatorial conference fol- 1915, p. 106), and to form a vision of encouraging lowing the issuance of the ˆrst directive on Decem- physical education by the YMA. ber 6 of Taisho 4 (1915), Ichiki issued the following Thus, Tanaka encouraged physical education by instructions to the secretary of the Hokkaido the YMA, not for specialized military knowledge government o‹ce and the governors of the prefec- and skills, or high-level military training for milita- tures: ry activity, but for the cultivation of more general As indicated in the directive issued after con- qualities and abilities that were prerequisites for sulting with the Minister of Education, as it military activity, such as a robust physique, abun- was deemed necessary to do based on current dant physical strength, the cultivation of a militaris- conditions, at present the YMA have spread tic spirit, and a spirit of self-sacriˆce or, as he put across nearly the entire country, and we ask it, ``the military demands nothing more than build- that all in attendance oŠer proper guidance to ing their physical strength and inspiring a militaris- them and communicate with the districts, tic spirit'' (Tanaka, 1915, p. 123). This also demon- cities, towns, and villages under your jurisdic- strates that the reason Tanaka emphasized physical tion, requesting that they remain adequately in education by the YMA was precisely that ``exer- contact with local public groups and assist with cises'' that ``emulate the military'' (Tanaka, 1915, their development. (Tokyo Nichinichi Shim- p. 123) were useful in developing the various ele- bun, Dec. 7, 1915) ments needed for military activity. Additionally, Ichiki issued the following order Based on these ideas, Tanaka appealed to the under the title ``Concerning the YMA'': Ministry of Home AŠairs and the Ministry of Edu- Regarding the regions in which the YMA are cation regarding the advantages of the military and organized and established, and so on, I hope educational functions of the YMA. Tanaka also that circulating general standards will assist made a strong appeal regarding the signiˆcance of with teaching, and the hope that standard the youth education that employed physical education YMA will adhere to these to the greatest possi- and, in a demonstration of their acceptance of these ble extent is the original reason for the founda- claims, the Ministry of Home AŠairs and the Minis- tion of the groups. Depending on historical and try of Education*2 stated in the ˆrst directive that other local circumstances, adhering to these physical education should be emphasized. Thus, it standards may, to the contrary, shake the is apparent that physical education by the YMA was foundations of the organizations and even des- encouraged because of the demands by the military troy them. To prevent this, such circumstances on the youth. should be improved. (Tokyo Nichinichi Shim- bun, Dec. 7, 1915) 3.2. Orders to Prefectural Governments at local Based on these orders, it is apparent that Prefec- gubernatorial conferences tural Governments were given the authority to direct and supervise the YMA. Also, these govern- Next, let us turn our attention to the fact that the ments were required to fully implement orders ˆrst directive was issued to the ``secretaries of the regarding the districts, cities, towns, and villages Hokkaido government o‹ce and the prefecture'' under their jurisdiction, and each government was (Ministry of Home AŠairs and Ministry of Educa- required to develop its policies with the assistance of tion, 1915a). The term ``secretaries''*3 refers to the the districts, cities, towns, and villages. Through ``secretary of the Hokkaido government o‹ce'' as this process, it was possible to develop policies in a well as the ``prefectural governors,'' and the fact manner appropriate to the regional conditions of that the directive was issued to the ``secretaries'' in- the jurisdiction.*5 dicates that the content of the directive was to be Next, Ichiki stated that: promoted*4 by the Prefectural Governments. Promotion for physical education by the YMA Also, the local gubernatorial conferences follow- is already very important. I hope that everyone ing the issuance of the ˆrst directive ordered that in attendance will clarify the purpose of physi- the Ministry of Home AŠairs and the Ministry of cal education and su‹ciently communicate its Education direct and supervise the YMA. To begin necessity in light of current conditions, creating

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individual policies and working to encourage lowing praise after his death: `Ònce he became physical education. (Ministry of Home AŠairs governor of Tokyo Prefecture, he fulˆlled his long- Bureau of Regional AŠairs, 1915, p. 5) held ideas and made numerous accomplishments in As this quote indicates, speciˆc methods of Tokyo, producing excellent results and creating an encouraging physical education were not men- example to be emulated by other regions'' (Omi, tioned, as in the directive, and it is apparent that the 1920,). task of implementing physical education promotion This study's investigation of the Tokyo Prefectur- policies fell entirely to the Prefectural Govern- al Government's YMA Physical Education Promo- ments. A review of the subsequent orders of local tion Policy development process focuses on Inoue gubernatorial conferences regarding the YMA also because, as governor, Inoue was the leader who appears to show that orders concerning the promo- guided the Taisho period YMA policies made by the tion of physical education by the YMA were not government. The details will be given later but In- made. Even when the promotion of physical educa- oue focused the YMA's reorganization of the ˆrst tion by the YMA were mentioned, it did not usually directive on ``cultivating a regional foundation to exceed a request for full assistance with the promo- allow future outstanding citizens to contribute to tion of physical education. their homeland, based on the fact that the YMA is, Next, let us examine how the Tokyo Prefectural in essence, an institution intended for the self- Government implemented the YMA Physical Edu- improvement of youth'' (Inoue, 1915) and building cation Promotion Policy after receiving the ˆrst avisionoftheYMAinTokyo.Inthisvisionof directive and the orders of the regional gubernatori- Inoue's concern with the YMA in Tokyo, what role al conference. did physical education play? Analyzing Inoue as a government administrator provides us with further 4. Prefectural Governor Inoue Tomoichi's vi- hints regarding the role of physical education in the sion for the Young Men's Association under YMA in the Taisho period. the Tokyo Prefectural Government and the To accomplish this, we will review Inoue's claims role of physical education regarding youth education and physical education inhiswritingswhilehewasinchargeoflocalgover- 4.1. Regarding Prefectural Governor Inoue nance as the Director of the Prefectural Division of Tomoichi the Ministry of Home AŠairs Bureau of Regional AŠairs. In September of Taisho 4 (1915), when the ˆrst First, in the discussion of urban park administra- directive was issued, Inoue Tomoichi served as the tion in The Essence of Self-Governance (1909), Governor of Tokyo Prefecture. Before becoming Inoue mentions the existence of `èxercise parks.'' prefectural governor, Inoue served at the Ministry Here, Inoue sees `èxercise parks'' as venues appro- of Home AŠairs as the Director of the Municipali- priate for physical education, claiming that it is also ties Division of the Prefectural Administration necessary for local governments to actively expand Bureau, Director of the Prefectural Division of the exercise parks because of public health concerns Bureau of Regional AŠairs, Secretary to the Home (Inoue, 1909, pp. 170-171). He describes an Ameri- Minister, the Ministry of Home AŠairs Councilor, can case study in which the establishment of an ex- Director of the Home Ministry Bureau of Shrine ercise park reduced youth crime, a case in which AŠairs, and so on. Inoue held various positions as a `àn emphasis was placed on encouraging exercise, Home Ministry bureaucrat, but his greatest interest at the same time putting into play the doctrine of was in local administration, especially in industry social education'' (Inoue, 1909, p. 174). It is appar- and education, and he also focused on promoting ent that he was aware of the educational value that social welfare (Taikakai, 1971a). physical education could achieve within social edu- From July 2 of Taisho 4 (1915) to his sudden cation. death on June 12 of Taisho 8 (1919), he served as Also, in the discussion of ``self-governance and the twenty-ˆrst governor of the Tokyo Prefecture. vocational training'' in Self-Governance Develop- Although he served as governor for just four years, ment Training (1912), Inoue states, ``school educa- he accomplished a great deal, and received the fol- tion places too much focus on books, and instead of

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teaching people only from books, it is important to and factories'' (Inoue, 1917a). As will be described su‹ciently cultivate work ability and stamina later, Inoue's Prefectural Government placed par- through real-life education from childhood on'' ticular emphasis on commerce and industrial poli- (Inoue, 1912, p. 240). Here, he demonstrates an cies, which demonstrated that he envisioned the awareness of the importance of ``workability'' and principal members of the YMA of Tokyo as young ``stamina.'' laborers working in shops, companies, and facto- Thus, in considering the appropriate means of ries. urban governance and regional self-governance Moreover, Inoue stated that the YMA of Tokyo from his time as Director of the Prefectural Divi- should achieve the following three main purposes. sion of the Ministry of Home AŠairs Bureau of First, to cultivate a spirit of national service, the Regional AŠairs onward, Inoue believed that physi- YMA should perform ``education regarding prefec- cal education would help maintain people's health, tural citizenship.'' According to Inoue, the ``spirit and would prove eŠective as a part of the education of national service'' meant ``simply being con- for youth. Based on the previously described stantly aware of one's responsibilities as a member claims, we will examine Inoue's vision as Governor of a group, the empire'' (Inoue, 1917b, p. 2), and of Tokyo Prefecture below. he explained that this meant recognizing oneself as a part of the state. Tokyo diŠered signiˆcantly from 4.2. Prefectural Governor Inoue Tomoichi's vision other regions in that it received numerous beneˆts for Tokyo's Young Men's Association from the imperial family;*6 therefore, closer attention should be paid to ensuring that Tokyo youth Following the issuance of the ˆrst directive, Inoue held a su‹ciently strong concept of service, he said. expressed the following view. Second, Inoue mentioned that ``civic education'' As you all know, the Home Minister and the should be conducted to improve group life by cul- Minister of Education, Science and Culture tivating the previously mentioned ``spirit of nation- have issued a directive concerning the promo- al service.'' As group members, youth should work tion of the improvement of the YMA. In the to ``improve themselves as citizens'' (Inoue, 1917b, counties, villages, and islands of this prefec- p. 2). In concrete terms, Inoue believed this in- ture, there are 274 YMA, and while there are a volved cultivating thoughts of homeland, self- number of YMA that achieve their goals, un- governance, and group. fortunately, most of them do not... We should Third, Inoue mentioned ``labor education'' as a work to cultivate a regional foundation to al- means of improving production e‹ciency. By im- low future outstanding citizens to contribute to plementing labor education in the YMA, the Tokyo their homeland, based on the fact that the Prefectural Government aimed to improve produc- YMA are, in essence, institutions intended for tion e‹ciency and strengthen the foundation of the self-improvement of youth. (Inoue, 1915) local development.*7 Inoue had been concerned that the Tokyo YMA Inoue also stated that accomplishing the above hadfallenbehindthoseelsewhereinthecountry three goals would assist in ``making a faithful na- since before the issuance of the ˆrst directive. Thus, tion, and a robust population of farmers and com- he made up his mind that ``Tokyo cannot remain merce and industry-minded citizens'' (Inoue, 1917b, asleep any longer'' (Inoue, 1918a, p. 378) and, fol- p. 4). lowing the issuance of the ˆrst directive, became ac- The core of Inoue's vision for the YMA in Tokyo tively involved in strengthening the YMA. consisted of cultivating among youth a spirit of na- First, according to Inoue, the YMA were a tional service and a keen awareness of themselves as ``venue for training established to function as eco- members of the state; it also entailed educating nomic and mental activities of ordinary society out- them in such a way as to support local development side of school education'' (Inoue, 1917a). Their through labor. main members were the ``young laborers'' (Inoue, 1917a) who made up the majority of the groups' membership. Inoue explained that these ``young laborers'' were youth ``working mainly in shops

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4.3. Role of physical education in the Young Men's tremely persuasive view, and from my expert Association policies of Prefectural Governor perspective, I believe we should cultivate youth Inoue Tomoichi capable of working su‹ciently toward local development. (Inoue, 1918a, p. 337) What role did Inoue give to physical education in As seen here, Inoue stated that it would be prefer- the YMA policy of the Tokyo Prefectural Govern- able to not only fully meet the military needs of the ment? state but also to cultivate ``youth capable of work- On May 5, Taisho 6 (1917), at the Tokyo YMA ing su‹ciently toward local development'' from the Leaders' Conference held in the Tokyo Conference perspective of a prefectural governor leading the de- Hall, Inoue issued instructions on the signiˆcance velopment of Tokyo. Precisely what sort of youth of the YMA's involvement in physical education. are the ``youth capable of working su‹ciently On this occasion, Inoue stated that education toward local development,'' which Inoue desired? through the YMA was an urgent task for the devel- First, according to Inoue, for youth, physical opment of Tokyo, explaining that the YMA of education is ``an activity aimed at building a strong Tokyo had three goals: education regarding prefec- body, the work of building vigorous strength in tural citizenship, civic education, and labor educa- youth'' (Inoue, 1917a). Also, he stated that physical tion. It is also worth noting that Inoue mentioned education by the YMA had the eŠect of cultivating physical education as a precondition for achieving excellent laborers by structuring both body and these goals. On this point, Inoue stated: mind and that engaging in physical education in the To build such a great nation, vigorous physical YMA would fortify the public spirit and social strength is needed. It is very unfortunate that morality (Inoue, 1917a). He described the vision of the physical condition of the citizens here in youth who had to be cultivated through the promo- Tokyo is the very worst in Japan except for tion of physical education as follows: ``I would like Osaka Prefecture and Kagoshima Prefecture, to cultivate a large number of energetic youth capa- according to a conscription examination com- ble of withstanding labor, that is, youth with the parison chart... It seems to me that when fac- vitality to contribute to labor'' (Inoue, 1917a). Why ing a lathe in a factory, when using a hoe to did Inoue ˆnd it necessary to place particular em- clear wasteland, and when colonizing the South phasis on cultivating young laborers? Seas, where the culture is completely diŠerent, As the nationwide economy developed in the physical strength is the precondition for every- Taisho period, Tokyo, the economic center of thing. (Inoue, 1917b, p. 4) Japan, gained increasing importance. As this state As seen in this statement, to cultivate the ``faith- of aŠairs progressed, the ‰ow of population into ful national nation and a robust population of Tokyo grew year after year, and the increase in farmers and commerce and industry-minded young laborers engaged in commerce and industry citizens,'' Inoue felt that youth needed ``physical was particularly marked (Tokyo Prefectural strength'' to meet it. Also, Inoue's conviction that Government, 1916). According to reports by the physical education was the ``precondition for every- Secretarial Administrative Division (1916) and the thing'' in activities by the YMA demonstrates the Administrative Statistical Division (1921) of the degree of signiˆcance he assigned to promoting Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, the total physical education by the YMA. number of young men engaged in manufacturing in Next, Inoue expressed the following view regard- Tokyo in Taisho 3 (1914) was 61,250, a number that ing the form of military education the state sought grew to 115,330 in Taisho 8 (1919). Among these from physical education by the YMA. young men, the number of youth aged 15 to 19 in- Vice-Director Tanaka of the Military General creased from 14,231 in Taisho 3 (1914) to 28,980 in StaŠ O‹ce explained that it has to be this way Taisho 8 (1919). Also, in Taisho 8 (1919), the per- in order to cultivate youth who will give their centage of laborers aged 15 to 19 in Tokyo among strength to a nation at war, and Director such laborers nationwide was 16.5z (the total num- Nakagawa of the Health and Medical Bureau ber nationwide was 175,401). These data are limited insists that it should be this way from the per- to those engaged in manufacturing, but they still spective of physical education. This is an ex- provide a glimpse of the situation surrounding

243 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe young laborers in Tokyo in this period. 5. Development of the Young Men's Associa- This increase in young laborers intensiêd admin- tion physical education promotion policies istrative problems, such as the maintenance of order in Tokyo and labor disputes and social division and destabili- zation, mainly in urban areas. This was exempliêd We have already discussed Inoue's vision of phys- by the outbreak of unrest related to the abnormal ical education in the YMA. How was Inoue's vision increase in prices after World War I. Additionally, implemented in reality? Below, we will examine the there was a need to respond to infectious diseases, process leading to the promulgation of the Tokyo such as cholera and the plague, which were spread- Prefecture Youth Physical Education Promotion ing widely at this time. It was necessary to cultivate Regulations in Taisho 7 (1918). healthy youth with strong bodies to maintain public health. Based on Tokyo's situation in the Taisho 5.1. Governance status of social education in period, the resolution of the problems surrounding Tokyo in the Taisho period young laborers was a very urgent task for the Tokyo Prefectural Government. First, before the establishment of governance Accordingly, Inoue concentrated the powers of over social education, the Tokyo Prefectural Board the Prefectural Government on developing com- of Education and the boards of education of the merce and industry policy. For instance, Shibusawa districts and cities oŠered ``popular education.''*8 Eiichi, a businessman and member of the Commit- For instance, the Tokyo Prefectural Board of tee on Tokyo Commerce and Industry Policy, Education began to oŠer various activities begin- praised Inoue's contributions to the commerce and ning in Meiji 21 (1888), shortly after its founding, industry policy as `èxtremely great'' (Shibusawa, including lectures and projection shows that were 1919, p. 47). Mizumachi Kesaroku, who was a part of its popular education program. Later, in member of the same committee and interacted with Meiji 44 (1911), it established the Popular Educa- Inoue, also said: ``There seems to be reason to have tion Department as an initiative to improve social great hope for our manufacturing abilities under the conditions and spur on social progress. Conse- Tokyo Prefectural Government, which has rapidly quently, it became possible to `àchieve the wide- made plans to further increase this ability... and has spread, energetic diŠusion of popular education'' made continuous eŠort to achieve economic (Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education, 1944). results'' (Mizumachi, 1919, p. 45). The Tokyo City Board of Education established in Inoue's commerce and industry policy not only Meiji 33 (1900) was also vigorously active, for in- sought to achieve improvement in e‹ciency but also stance, in establishing popular education facilities to stabilize the lifestyles of laborers (Inoue, 1919, p. and creating project plans (Tokyo Metropolitan 6). This further indicates that Inoue did not limit Board of Education, 1944). In response to these de- himself to YMA policies but sought to form a vision velopments, the Tokyo Prefectural Government ac- of youth laborers throughout the entire Prefectural tively attempted to promote and gather support, for Government. instance, by issuing the proclamation of ``Notiˆca- As stated, Inoue acted in response to the social tion on Promotion of Popular Education'' in Meiji conditions of Tokyo in the Taisho period and, in 39 (1906) and granting subsidies to the Tokyo the policy of encouraging physical education by the Prefectural Board of Education and the Nishitama YMA, found a partial solution to the administrative District Board of Education in Meiji 44 (1911) problems surrounding young laborers. For Inoue, (Tokyo Prefectural Government, 1937). who felt that improvement of the physical strength As mentioned, popular education was vigorously of youth through physical education contributed to developed by the Tokyo Prefectural Board of Edu- the development of the YMA and local develop- cation and the boards of education of the districts ment in Tokyo, the promotion of physical educa- and cities. Particularly from the late Meiji period tion in the YMA was indispensable in the light of onward, actions that began to complement and the state of aŠairs. replace the need for governance over popular education had not yet been established. This series of actions can be regarded as initial steps toward the

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subsequent establishment of governance over social Director, it was still possible to establish an appro- education in Tokyo (Matsuda, 2004, p. 224). priate plan'' (Inoue, 1918a, p. 278). Accordingly, Also, according to a report by the Tokyo Prefec- the Domestic AŠairs Department Academic and ture General AŠairs Department (1939), the ˆrst Military AŠairs Division's*9 school inspectors*10 step in the establishment of governance over social supported the formation of physical education pro- education in Tokyo was the institution of a full-time motion policies. Thus, below, we turn our focus to social education superintendent in Taisho 8 (1919). the contributions of the school inspectors. This full-time superintendent was responsible for administrative aŠairs related to not only the YMA 5.2. Establishment of the Tokyo Youth Physical but also youth education in general, and a school Education Committee inspector from the Academic and Military AŠairs Division of the Domestic AŠairs Department was Beginning in around Taisho 6 (1917), Inoue at- appointed to the position. tempted to strengthen the YMA by promoting the Subsequently, a social education budget was ˆrst establishment of various committees. His ˆrst step appropriated in Tokyo in Taisho 10 (1921). Thus, was establishing the Tokyo YMA Leaders' Commit- governance over social education ``gradually began tee (Leaders' Committee); later, the Tokyo Youth to develop'' (Tokyo Prefectural Government, 1941, Physical Education Committee (Physical Education p. 6). Committee) was established as an oŠshoot of the Following this, in December of Taisho 14 (1925), Leaders' Conference. the local social education personnel system was Initially, the Leaders' Conference was established promulgated through Edict No. 324; in the next under Inoue's supervision to carry out ``the fore- year, Taisho 15 (1926), the social education superin- most responsibility of getting leaders to plan the im- tendent was placed in the School AŠairs Division of portant points of this directive and even more thor- the School AŠairs Department, newly established oughly implement the programs currently in opera- through organizational restructuring. This provided tion, such as supplementary education and promo- the impetus for governance over social education to tion for physical education'' (Inoue, 1917c). The ``change its format somewhat, becoming highly committee's membership mainly comprised school occupied with not only holding all types of courses inspectors from the Academic and Military AŠairs and lectures... but also performing administrative Division of the Domestic AŠairs Department, who tasks related to YMA physical education meets'' considered supplementary education, book reading (Tokyo Prefectural Government, 1941, p. 6). Thus, projects, and promotion of physical education in progress was made in establishing governance over theYMA,inadditiontoinvestigatingthestatusof social education in Tokyo in the late Taisho period the YMA in the prefecture. Furthermore, they and afterward. gathered the leaders of the local YMA and held con- However, while Inoue was considering YMA ferences, aiming to cultivate leaders and achieve physical education promotion policies (1915-1918), consistent communication among them. the full-time social education superintendent had However, promotion of physical education came not yet been appointed. As seen in a report by the to be seen as a problem that, owing to its particular Tokyo Prefectural Government (1941, p. 6), which importance, could not be resolved through the stated, `ònly a single representative of the Academ- Leaders' Conference alone. Regarding this point, ic and Military AŠairs Division was engaged in the Inoue states that `ìn order to fully implement hard work related to supplementary vocational promotion for physical education, investigations training schools, the YMA, and popular lectures'' should be conducted by specialized conferences with (Tokyo Prefectural Government, 1941, p. 7), assistance from the outside in a manner that exceeds governance over social education had not been administrative categories'' (Inoue, 1917d). Thus, on establishedinTokyo. July 25 of Taisho 6 (1917), Inoue established the Nonetheless, regarding developing YMA policies, Physical Education Committee as a specialized Inoue stated, `àt the School AŠairs Division that institution for considering the YMA physical supervises the policies, thanks to the great diligence education promotion policies by the Tokyo Pre- of the school inspectors, including the Division fectural Government. The purpose of the Physical

245 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

Education Committee was to ``investigate methods Table 1 Composition of the Tokyo Youth Physical Education of improving the physical strength of youth and for Committee. additional, appropriate teaching and promotion'' Position Name Main Occupation (Inoue, 1917d). Its central undertakings were con- Higashizono States Director of Home AŠairs, Chairman sidering the physical education teaching and promo- Motomitsu Tokyo Prefecture tion policies in the YMA and carrying out research Professor, Tokyo Higher Nagai Domei and surveys on physical education institutions as Normal School well as health and hygiene (Tokyo Prefectural Murata Temporary Employee, Government, 1919, p. 321). Uichiro Ministry of Home AŠfairs Upon the establishment of the Physical Educa- tion Committee, Inoue made this statement: Temporary Kita Sanitation O‹cer, Members Toyokichi Ministry of Education Following an investigation of methods of improving the physical strength of youth, the Taniguchi Protection O‹cer, Tenji Ministry of Home AŠairs Tokyo Youth Physical Education Committee was established within the Prefectural Govern- Moriya Director of the Education, Kozaburo Tokyo City ment o‹ce to oŠer additional support for ap- Shimomura propriate teaching promotion, and members Investigator, Tokyo Prefecture were selected from among bureaucrats, prefec- Jyuichi Niwa tural school principals, doctors, and experts Investigator, Tokyo Prefecture with related education and expertise, each with Shichiro their own specialties. Bearing this purpose in Takahashi Engineer, Tokyo Prefecture mind, they should express their views on pro- Appointive Konosuke motion of physical education, provide the Members Takizawa Principal, Aoyama Normal School materials necessary for the investigation on an Kikutaro as-needed basis, and oŠer support for the ad- Kawada Principal, Tokyo Prefecture vancement of the investigation. (Inoue, 1917d) Masazumi First Junior High School As seen here, Inoue attempted to investigate the Yoshida Temporary Employee, YMA physical education promotion policies of the Hiroshi Tokyo Prefecture Tokyo Prefectural Government from a more Tokura School Inspector, Tokyo Prefecture specialized perspective by establishing the Physical Seichi

Education Committee. In so doing, he focused on Hatcho School Inspector, Tokyo Prefecture member composition. However, the list of members Harutaro of the Physical Education Committee does not cur- Managers Shimizu Temporary Employee, rently seem to exist as a public document. There- Fukuichi Tokyo Prefecture fore, while the lack of historical documents imposes Suzuki Temporary Employee, some restrictions, let us consider contemporary Eiichiro Tokyo Prefecture newspaper reports, which provide useful informa- (Summarized from ``Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, July 25, 1917'') tion. Regarding committee members, Inoue himself negotiated to invite a wide range of outside experts (Table 1). The members invited included, for in- of the membership was also unique in that it includ- stance, Nagai Domei, who played an important role ed school staŠ, such as the principals of a Tokyo in Japanese physical education teaching; and Mura- normal school and a prefectural middle school. ta Uichiro (Murata), who served as Principal of The Tokyo Prefectural Government invited not Osaka Tennoji Normal School, after which he put only external experts but also two school inspectors his full energy into promoting youth education from the Academic and Military AŠairs Division of nationwide as a non-regular employee of the Minis- the Domestic AŠairs Department. According to a try of Home AŠairs; and Kita Toyokichi, an expert Tokyo Prefectural Government report (1941, p. 8), on school health, all experts in education/physical these school inspectors were two individuals with education active on the front lines. The composition daily experience in physical education teaching (for

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instance in elementary schools) and, in addition to In response to this situation, on April 3 of Taisho participating in conferences, they were also respon- 7 (1918), a conference called ``Regarding Improve- sible for administrative work, liaison, and coor- ment of the Physical Education of Youth in dination tasks. The chairman was Higashizono Tokyo'' was held at the Tokyo Conference Hall. At Motomitsu, director of the Domestic AŠairs this conference, the topic of discussion was ``how to Department of the Tokyo Prefectural Government. improve the physique of youthful apprentices in As discussed, after establishing a Physical Educa- Tokyo.'' tion Committee, the Tokyo Prefectural Govern- The conference was attended by not only the ment encouraged physical education. The fact that members of the Physical Education Committee and an administrative foundation for supporting the Tokyo Prefectural Government personnel, includ- YMA physical education promotion policies had ing those from the Academic and Military AŠairs not been established in Tokyo was one of the rea- Division of the Domestic AŠairs Department, but sons for this, and the establishment of the Physical also the proprietors of ``large factories and stores'' Education Committee itself can be seen as one (Inoue, 1918b) in Tokyo. Speciˆcally, 50 proprie- means of implementing these policies. tors of companies, factories, and stores, such as Mitsukoshi, Kanebo, and Fuji Gas, attended. 5.3. Problems the Tokyo Youth Physical Educa- At the conference, Inoue made the following tion Committee faced with the promotion of statement to the proprietors: physical education and their solutions According to the results of conscription examinations in the past three years, the physical Next, let us examine two problems the Physical condition of youth engaged in agriculture in Education Committee faced in encouraging physical the countryside is outstanding, but that of education in the YMA, along with the measures that sedentary factory workers is extremely poor were taken to resolve them. and, disappointingly, only 12 among 100 young men engaged in tabi sock manufacturing 5.3.1. Problem of poor physical condition of received an A grade. This is alarming, and with youth: ``How can the physical condition of regard to methods of improving physical edu- youth be improved?'' cation, through our discussions we have at last The ˆrst problem the Physical Education Com- arrived at three proposals. We would like to mittee faced was the ``poor physical condition'' of implement these improvements in concrete youth in Tokyo. On this point, Inoue made the fol- fashion through physical education courses, lowing observation: assistance with the establishment of physical In the past ˆve years, conscription examina- education institutions, and physical examinations in this prefecture have shown that... we tions. Some of those in attendance today per- place between 42nd and 46th among all the pre- sonally possess appropriate facilities. Thus, I fectures in Japan. This is extremely concerning, would like to ask all of you for your assistance. and we need to solve this problem as soon as (Inoue, 1918b) possible. Thus, the construction of appropriate After explaining to the proprietors that the recent facilities for improving the physical education physical condition of youth engaged in commerce of youth should be treated as an emergency. and industry in Tokyo was much poorer than youth (Inoue, 1917e) engaged in agriculture in the countryside, Inoue The Tokyo conscription examinations revealed stated that the Physical Education Committee was the situation described by Inoue. In Inoue's opin- struggling over how to handle this. Inoue asked for ion, ``the physical condition of youth has reached assistance with creating an environment where an extremely low level, and in particular the situa- youth could engage in physical education while tion among factory workers in the apprentice com- being employed as workers in factories and stores panies of merchants is so miserable that it is painful (Inoue, 1918b). He declared to the companies oŠer- to look at'' (Inoue, 1917e). He saw the decline in ing assistance that the Tokyo Prefectural Govern- the physical condition of youth working in com- ment would make allowances for regional condi- merce and industry as particularly problematic. tions and the nature of the business and would

247 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

establish the necessary facilities, such as exercise Education Committee attended the course as in- venues and exercise equipment, and also pay subsi- structors, and training was held regarding ``the the- dies (Inoue, 1918b). ory and practice of exercise physiology and gymnas- It was di‹cult for young laborers to take part in tic competitions, the essentials of martial arts edu- physical activities at the YMA every day due to time cation for youth, and so on'' (Tokyo Prefectural restrictions. The Physical Education Committee felt Government, 1919, p. 322). that this was a factor that hindered the promotion Next, the Physical Education Committee began of physical education and, in collaboration with to work on hosting the lectures. The purpose of the companies, they created an environment for young lectures was to spread the thought of physical edu- laborers to take part in physical education and at- cation among the leaders of the regional YMA and tempted to promote it. general group members (Murata, 1918). In fact, like A survey carried out by the Commercial and In- the course, a lecture concerning ``improving dustrial Section of the Tokyo Prefecture in Taisho 8 thought of physical education among youth'' was (1919) reported that a higher number of factories held, with members of the Physical Education had installed physical education facilities, such as Committee in attendance as instructors (Tokyo Pre- exercise areas and physical education equipment.*11 fecture Government, 1919, p. 322). This indicates that the companies made eŠorts to in- As seen here, the Physical Education Committee stall physical education facilities in response to the emphasized the cultivation of physical education request by the Physical Education Committee. leaders and worked toward their development to spreadphysicaleducationtotheYMAinvarious 5.3.2. Problem of the absence of physical educa- regions under the jurisdiction of the Tokyo Prefec- tion leaders: ``How can we spread physical tural Government. education?'' The second question the Physical Education 5.4. Promulgation of the Tokyo Prefectural Order Committee faced was ``how can we spread physical entitled ``Tokyo Prefecture Youth Physical education to the YMA?'' (Inoue, 1918c). Particular Education Promotion Regulations'' emphasis was placed on the question of who would teach physical education in the local YMA. The Physical Education Committee held a total As studies have indicated, until the ˆrst directive of 12 conferences from Taisho 6 (1917) to Taisho 7 encouraged physical education by the YMA, many (1918). On June 18 of Taisho 7 (1918), the Physical youths in the local YMA had no experience with Education Committee also formulated and promul- physical education. Therefore, Inoue expressed the gated Tokyo Prefectural Order No. 63, the Tokyo view that ``we should make acquiring YMA leaders Prefecture Youth Physical Education Promotion our ˆrst priority'' (Inoue, 1918c). Therefore, cul- Regulations (the Physical Education Promotion tivating leaders who would teach physical education Regulations), summarizing the knowledge gained was a preeminent task. from the results of the 12 meetings, the course, and In response, the Physical Education Committee the lectures (Table 2). held a Tokyo Youth Physical Education Leaders' The Physical Education Promotion Regulations Course (the course) and Tokyo Youth Physical are made up of four articles. Article 1 promotes the Education Leaders' Lectures (the lectures). establishment of physical education facilities in is- First, the course was held beginning in March of lands, districts, cities, towns, villages, and the YMA Taisho 7 (1918) and was attended by ``people who and the hosting of courses and lectures to improve are engaged or could be engaged in teaching of physical education. It stipulates that subsidies are to physical education among youth'' (Tokyo Prefec- be paid by the Tokyo Prefectural Government when tural Government, 1919, p. 322), speciˆcally YMA these events are held. Article 2 further stipulates o‹cials, school instructors, and members of the as- that islands, districts, cities, wards, towns, villages, sociation of reservists. The purpose of the course and the YMA that achieve outstanding results on was to share methods and theories of physical edu- physical education examinations and tournaments cation teaching with the leaders of the local YMA are to be recognized. (Murata, 1918). Indeed, members of the Physical Inoue issued the Physical Education Promotion

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Table 2 Tokyo Prefectural Order: ``Tokyo Prefecture Youth cal Education Regulations also urged the spread Physical Education Promotion Regulations.'' and promotion of physical education through Tokyo Prefectural Order No. 63 activities in which the YMA played a leading role. Tokyo Prefecture Youth Physical Education Promotion Regulations-instituted as follows 5.5. Relationship between Inoue's vision and the June 18, Taisho 7 (1918), Inoue Tomoichi, Ph.D. in Legal Studies, Governor of Tokyo Prefecture actual policies Tokyo Prefecture Youth Physical Education Promotion Regulations What type of understanding did Inoue express Article 1: Subsidies shall be paid when deemed necessary to toward the relationship between his vision of physi- encourage youth physical education in a manner corresponding to Item 1 on the follows. cal education by the Tokyo YMA and the policies 1. When establishing physical education facilities that are to that were developed? Let us consider this point. be used by ordinary youth in islands, districts, cities, As previously stated, Inoue sought to implement wards, towns, villages, or YMA. 2. When holding courses, lectures, and tournaments to civic and labor education through the YMA and, to improve the physical education of youth. that end, he aimed to cultivate `ènergetic youth Article 2: Certiˆcates of commendation, money, or goods who contribute to labor'' through physical educa- shall be paid for achievements in a manner corresponding tion. However, in the Physical Education Promo- to Item 1 on the follows or corresponding to other standards. tion Regulations that were formulated and promul- 1. YMA with outstanding results on youth group physical gated from the Physical Education Committee's examinations; discussions, the focus was placed on spreading 2. Islands, districts, cities, wards, towns, villages, and YMA physical education as well as `ìmproving the results with outstanding results on physical conscription examinations; of physical examinations.'' 3. The winners or winning YMA of tournaments in accor- Inoue himself expressed the understanding that, dance with Article 1, Item 2. because the poor physical condition of youth was Article 3: Subsidies and items granted in accordance with these Regulations shall fall within the budget for the one of Tokyo's weak points, it was inevitable that applicable year. improving their physical condition was a signiˆcant Article 4: When it is determined that Article 1 or Article 2 practical problem that had to be addressed (Inoue, applies to the island administrator or the district or city 1918d). Also, he stated that `ìmproving young mayor, the details shall be carefully investigated and reported to the governor. people's results on various types of conscription Supplementary provision: This order shall be enforced from examinations will help cultivate energetic youth'' the date of its promulgation. (Inoue, 1918d), emphasizing the signiˆcance of (``Tokyo Prefecture Youth Physical Education Promotion noticing the results of physical examinations be- Regulations'' summarized from Tokyo Prefectural Govern- cause this would ultimately help turn his vision into ment, 1918) reality. Furthermore, Inoue stated that the results of physical examinations were `èasily understood indi- Regulations and explained their purpose as follows: cators of our achievements'' (Inoue, 1918d). It is The prefecture has newly established the Youth clear that he attempted to use physical examinations Physical Education Regulations and estab- to measure the achievements of physical education lished and promulgated a system for subsidiz- promotion policies. This also seems to demonstrate ing facilities and equipment deemed appropri- that Inoue emphasized tangible results of this type ate for encouraging physical education and to the regional YMA in his initial eŠorts following other facilities, and for granting awards. I hope the promulgation of the Physical Education Promo- that all of you will encourage YMA leaders, tion Regulations. and so on, and promote the establishment of facilities. (Inoue, 1918d) 6. Conclusion In addition to the above, Inoue also explained that in formulating the Physical Education Promo- This paper has examined the process by which the tion Regulations, he placed particular emphasis on YMA physical education promotion policies of the encouraging activities through ``the self-awareness Taisho period in Tokyo were made. The results may of youth'' (Inoue, 1918d). Accordingly, the Physi- be summarized as follows.

249 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

1) At the local gubernatorial conferences, prefec- physical education by the YMA to serve the military tural governments were not given instructions on requirements of the state, as Tanaka favored, Inoue speciˆc methods of oŠering promotion for physi- declared that, from his perspective as Prefectural cal education by the YMA. Thus, the prefectures Governor, it would be preferable to cultivate youth formulated and implemented their policies based whoworkeddiligentlytoward regional develop- on the local conditions within their jurisdictions. ment. Furthermore, he expressed a negative view 2) Inoue, who guided Tokyo's YMA policies, saw toward using promotion for physical education by ``young laborers engaged in commerce and in- the YMA `èxclusively'' to meet military require- dustry'' as the main targets of the YMA, and re- ments. Inoue stated that his vision was to cultivate garded the purpose of the YMA as oŠering civic `ènergetic youth who contribute to labor'' through education and labor education to these young physical education. laborers. He regarded physical education as the Thus, while basing his policies on the military re- ``general precondition'' for achieving this pur- quirements of the state, which aimed to use physical pose. Regarding the young laborer issue, which education to cultivate a robust physical condition, presented an administrative problem to Tokyo in abundant physical strength, a militaristic spirit, and the Taisho period, he aimed to cultivate `èner- a spirit of self-sacriˆce, and with reference to Tokyo getic youth who contribute to labor'' through Prefecture's administrative problems, Inoue as- physical education. signed goals unique to Tokyo to physical education 3) Inoue established the Tokyo Youth Physical by the YMA. For instance, he recommended the Education Committee as a specialized institution cultivation of youth laborers for local development. that considered the YMA physical education This demonstrates that physical education, which promotion policies. The members not only in- was initially included as part of the activities of the cluded Tokyo Prefectural Government personnel YMA because of the military requirements of the but also `èducation and physical education ex- state, took on a more signiˆcant role according to perts.'' Tokyo's administrative problems. However, this 4) The Physical Education Committee designated does not indicate that the requirements of the state `ìmproving the physical condition and strength were neglected. As Inoue explained, ``local develop- of youth'' and ``methods of spreading physical ment'' meant ``developing the spirit of national education'' as concrete problems. To solve these, citizenship and the economy of the citizens on the the Physical Education Committee collaborated regional level'' (Inoue, 1912, p. 1). Inoue's vision with companies under the jurisdiction of the extended to include the development of the entire Tokyo Prefectural Government and held courses nation, not just Tokyo. and lectures at the local YMA. Also, Inoue regarded physical education in the 5) Drawing on the achievements of conference YMA as signiˆcant because he saw it as ``the meetings and the knowledge gained through the precondition for everything'' in activities by the courses and lectures, the Physical Education YMA. The main targets were youth engaged in Committee formulated and promulgated the commerce and industry, which were the majority in Tokyo Prefecture Youth Physical Education Tokyo in the Taisho period. Attempts were made Promotion Regulations. The Youth Physical not only to encourage physical education by appeal- Education Promotion Regulations provided the ing to the YMA but also by directly appealing to starting point for subsequent physical education companies where youth worked. In this case, YMA activities by the YMA in Tokyo. physical education promotion policies of Tokyo's This paper has examined the process of relationship between ``labor'' and ``physical educa- policymaking by which the YMA were encouraged tion'' was uniquely emphasized based on Tokyo's to adopt physical education in the Taisho period in youth situation, whose physical condition was con- Tokyo. Finally, based on the knowledge gained siderably worse than the national standard. The through this investigation, the unique characteris- poor physical state of youth working in commerce tics of these policies of the Tokyo Prefectural and industry was a particular problem and attempts Government can be summarized. were made to promote both. First, in contrast with the notion of encouraging Inoue hoped physical education by the YMA

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would solidify the social element of ``labor'' that try of Home AŠairs and were referred to as the regional was generally a part of the social life of youth into a secretaries. *4 Regarding the legal signiˆcance of the directive, `ìt only foundation for ``local development'' through physi- binds lower level authorities in their relationships with cal education and also to help form bodies and upper-level authorities, and in principle, by its nature, it is minds by improving the physical condition, strong not a law. Therefore, acts against the directive are not public spirit, and social morality of youth. This illegal'' (Wagatsuma, 1952). Therefore, regarding physical education by the YMA, the directive stops at oŠering ``pro- would also help cultivate youth who were `àware of motion'' and is not legally binding. themselves as members of the state'' and who would *5 ``Concerning The YMA'' (Ministry of Home AŠairs and become ``citizens who support the state on their Ministry of Education 1915b), a notiˆcation issued at the own initiative.'' same time as the ˆrst directive, provided standards the eligi- ble ages of group members, demarcation of group areas, Thus, for the Tokyo Prefectural Government, and qualiˆcations of leaders. promotion of physical education by the YMA was *6 Regarding the beneˆts Tokyo received from the imperial an attempt not only to cultivate strong bodies but family, Inoue mentions the Tokyo City Education Funding Charity Relief Fund and the Prefectural Distinguished also concerning administrative problems, particu- Laborer Recognition Fund. larly, to cultivate a nation and people that would *7 Throughout his involvement in Prefectural Government, support the region and the state through physical Inoue often used the term ``local development.'' According activities. to Inoue, ``local development'' meant ``developing a spirit of national citizenship and the economy of citizens at the In the future, it will be necessary to clarify the local level'' (Inoue, 1912, p. 1). policymaking processes of other prefectures, and to *8 According to Miyahara (1990), the term ``social education'' perform comparisons to determine their similarities existed from the Meiji period as a term that referred mainly and unique characteristics, speciˆcally the extent to to extracurricular educational activities. It came into general use in the mid-Taisho period, before which it was referred which their policies adhered to national policies and to as ``popular education.'' Accordingly, (Matsuda, 2004, to what extent they were based on local conditions. p. 114) showed that the Tokyo Prefectural Board of Educa- Bydoingso,itshouldbepossibletodescribewith tion of the late Meiji period regarded popular education as ``popularized education for youth and adults who have greater accuracy the state of YMA teaching at the completed elementary education,'' and that the term had time. the same meaning as social education. *9 Inoue mentions that the `Àcademic AŠairs Division'' was Notes the department responsible for supervising the YMA in Tokyo, but the Tokyo Prefectural Government did not have * 1 The number of youth enrolled in the YMA rose to approxi- an `Àcademic AŠairs Division'' in Taisho 7 (1918). Because mately three million in the early Showa period, which was the department with jurisdiction over the YMA in the approximately 60z of all Japanese youth aged 15-25 at the Tokyo Prefectural Government during this time was the time. This number was calculated based on the total number Academic and Military AŠairs Division of the Domestic of nationwide group members in the Nationwide YMA AŠairs Department, when Inoue mentions the `Àcademic Foundational Survey (Association of Japan Young Men's AŠairs Division,'' he seems to be referring to the Academic Associations Survey Department, 1934) and the estimated and Military AŠairs Division of the Domestic AŠairs population data of the Ministry of Internal AŠairs and Department. Following Inoue's death in Taisho 15 (1926), Communications Bureau of Statistics (Ministry of Internal theAcademicandMilitaryAŠairs Division of the Domestic AŠairs and Communications Bureau of Statistics, 2003). AŠairs Department split from the Domestic AŠairs Depart- * 2 According to Kumagai (1942), the initial plan was to issue ment and became the Academic AŠairs Department, which the ˆrst directive as a joint directive of the Home Minister; was made up of four divisions: the Academic AŠairs Divi- the Minister of the Army; and the Minister of Education. sion, the Shrine, Temple and Military AŠairs Division, the However, the signature of the Minister of the Army could Social Division, and the Health Division. lead to the misunderstanding that the YMA was being *10 The school inspectors belonged to the Academic and Mili- militarized, so the signature was removed and the order was tary AŠairs Division of the Domestic AŠairs Department issued. Accordingly, Koketsu (2009) also argues that, while and were local education government o‹cials who the ˆrst directive was ostensibly issued in the names of the governed the observation and administration of academic Home Ministry and the Ministry of Education, in fact, the matters. content actually fully accepted the intentions of the military, *11 In January of Taisho 8 (1919), Inoue conducted a fact- including Tanaka. Thus, we should be aware that in the is- ˆnding investigation of factories and welfare program suance of the ˆrst directive, although the Ministry of Home facilities. The survey targeted a total of 497 factories in the AŠairs and the Ministry of Education stood on the front jurisdiction of the Tokyo Prefectural Government with 50 lines, the Ministry of the Army played a leading role in the employees or more. Among these, 244 factories referred to background. the facility information report and responded, among * 3 The secretary of the Hokkaido government o‹ce and the which 32 factories had established `èxercise areas or eq- prefectural governors were o‹cials dispatched by the Minis- uipment.''

251 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

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Materials Inoue, T. (1915). Seinendan no shido shorei ni kansuru ken [Matter of the instruction promotion of the Young Men's As- sociation]. Taisho 4 nen tokyo fuchiji kojutsu kunji yoryo [Outline of oral instructions by the governor of Tokyo Pre- fecture at 1915]. Tokyo: Tokyo Prefecture, p. 16. (in Japanese). Inoue, T. (1917a). Seinendan kaihatsu jikko hoho [Method for development practice of the Young Men's Association]. Fusei genko zatsushu [Prefectural administration original manuscript article olio]. Tokyo: Tokyo Prefecture, p. 20. (in Japanese). Inoue, T. (1917c). Seinendan shidosha yosei ni kansuru ken [Matter of the leader training of the Young Men's Associa- tion]. Taisho 6 nen tokyo fuchiji kojutsu kunji yoryo [Out-

253 Yuta Ono and Hidenori Tomozoe

Name: Yuta Ono

A‹liation: Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda Uni- versity

Address: 2-579-15 Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-1192, Japan Brief Biographical History: Apr 2016-Mar 2018 Research Associate of Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University Apr 2018- Assistant Professor of Faculty of Sports Sciences, Waseda University Main Works: Ono, Y., and Tomozoe, H. (2014). Sporting activities of the Young Men's Association during the period between the Taisho era and pre-war Showa era: An analysis of the Fuchu Sport bulletins. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 59: 705-720. (in Japanese) Ono, Y., Tomozoe, H., and Nemoto, So. (2016). A study of physical education promotion plan for the Young Men's Association by the hotokukai in the Early Taisho Era: An analysis of the shimin bulletins. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 61: 701-716. (in Japanese) Ono, Y., Tomozoe, H., and Nemoto, So. (2017). A study on the Formation Process of Sports Recommendation Admis- sions to Universities in Japan. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 62: 599-620. (in Japanese) Ono, Y., Tomozoe, H., Takahashi, S., Fukami, E., Yoshinaga, T., and Nemoro, S. (2018). Conceptions of learning and learning strategies of students in junior high school physical education. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 63: 215-236. (in Japanese) Membership in Learned Societies: Japan Society of Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences Japanese Society of Sport Education Japanese Association of Educational Psychology Japan Society for the Pedagogy of Physical Education Japan Society for the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Edu- cation

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