EXAMINING THE POPULATION HISTORY OF THREE MEDIEVAL NUBIAN SITES THROUGH CRANIOMETRIC ANALYSES By Jennifer Maria Vollner A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Anthropology – Doctor of Philosophy 2016 ABSTRACT EXAMINING THE POPULATION HISTORY OF THREE MEDIEVAL NUBIAN SITES THROUGH CRANIOMETRIC ANALYSES By Jennifer Maria Vollner According to the common historical narrative, the area of Nubia, which in the medieval period (ca 550-1500 AD) stretched along the Nile Valley from the first cataract to the confluence of the Blue and White Nile rivers, was ruled by three separate kingdoms. While there is scant historical information on the origins of Nobadia, the northern-most kingdom, Makuria, the middle kingdom, and Alwa, the southern kingdom, many agree that the two northern kingdoms united politically to defend the territory from Egyptian rulers, while Alwa likely served as trading hub for Egypt and other merchants from the Red Sea. These newly converted Christian kingdoms eventually began to deteriorate as Arab Muslims took up residence within the region, changing the dynamics of the land. A worthwhile consideration is whether such changes in religious and political affiliation can be associated with detectable differences in the genetic makeup of the populations of this region. This dissertation examines the population history of the Nubian kingdoms through craniometric analyses carried out on samples from three sites, each from a different kingdom. A total of 25 cranial measurements are obtained from 209 individuals buried at Kulubnarti (n=89), Mis Island (n=93), and Gabati (n=27). In addition, Howells’ (1973) and Spradley’s (2006) African samples are used to contextualize the Nubian samples within a wider geographic region. The first focus of this research was to examine intra- and inter-site craniometric variation. No statistically significant intra-site differences were identified at Kulubnarti and Mis Island. However, there were statistically significant intra-site differences between the three time periods represented at Gabati. These differences do not support a mass migration into the region, but rather these differences likely result from change over time. The inter-site comparison of the three Nubian samples established statistically significant differences. In fact, 22 of the 25 cranial measurements differed significantly between sites. These findings suggest there was no mass migration into any of these regions, but the identified differentiation strongly suggests extra- regional gene flow and/or genetic isolation. The second focus of this dissertation examines the degree of gene flow through analysis of phenotypic variance within the Nubian samples and comparison of that variation with other African samples. Results indicate both Kulubnarti and Mis Island have been relatively isolated, whereas Gabati presents evidence of extra-regional gene flow. Additionally, a comparison of the Nubian samples with other African skeletal samples shows that Gabati was more closely related to Egypt than Kulubnarti or Mis Island. This may indicate Egyptian gene flow into Gabati catalyzed by the known trade economy between those populations. Finally, an examination of the mobility of each sex within the Nubian sites shows that Kulubnarti and Mis Island males had greater mobility while the same held true for the females at Gabati. However, the sex-specific differences at each site are not statistically significant. These mobility patterns may be related to differences in cultural norms governing changes in residence for those reaching adulthood. In the end, this study adds to the unfortunately scant history pieced together from the extant historical and archaeological record of the southern Nile Valley. Thus, the most significant contribution of this research concerns where these individuals came from, populations to which they were most closely related, and the levels of extra-regional gene flow they experienced. This work is dedicated to those who have believed in me, especially my parents, Donna and Larry, who have always encouraged me to follow my dreams and my academic parent, Dr. Elizabeth Murray, who has guided me every step of my journey. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible if it were not for the love, support, and encouragement that I received from so many people. First and foremost, I must thank my committee chair, Dr. Todd Fenton for accepting me as a student years ago and staying by my side until I have finished here today. His enthusiasm for this project and encouragement was the driving force for me on many occasions. Thank you for providing me with the copious opportunities, experiences, and all the memories, especially those of the rooftop terrace in Lecce. I am forever indebted to you. I must thank the rest of my incredible committee, Dr. Masako Fujita, Dr. Ethan Watrall, Dr. Jon Frey, and Dr. Kate Spradley. Dr. Fujita offered helpful edits and asked challenging questions throughout this entire process. She was always there to offer encouragement at times when she may not have realized how much I needed to hear it. Dr. Ethan Watrall continually encouraged me to contextualize my findings within a larger archaeological scope and offered many helpful suggestions to improve my dissertation. Dr. Jon Frey asked thought-provoking questions and then allowed me to sit for hours at a time in his office discussing my thoughts and ideas, as well as getting off topic reminiscing about westside Cincinnati. He offered criticism in the most constructive way and exemplified a tradition of help from unexpected places. Finally, many thanks must go to Dr. Kate Spradley for assisting me in the methods used in this dissertation and for generously offering and providing me with part of her own dissertation dataset. She also reminded me to celebrate the steps along the way which is an easy thing to forget to do. This dissertation would not have come to fruition if it were not for all of the hard work and dedication of my committee members. v So many other brilliant individuals have directly had a hand in the completion of my dissertation. Dr. Heather Garvin generously provided me with three-dimensional scans so that I could collect my data. This was critical for my research and I can not thank her enough. Dr. Lyle Konigsberg provided me with statistical advice and pointed me to R code on his webpage. Dr. Steve Ousley and Dr. John Relethford both provided me with computer software so that I could collect data and analyze it, respectively. Dr. Derek Welsby and Dr. Daniel Antoine as well as the rest of the Sudan Archaeological Research Society have worked tirelessly to not only continue to preserve Nubian history but also to provide researchers access to the materials, both at the British Museum as well as loaning the Mis Island collection to Michigan State University. I also must thank Dr. Antoine for being such a kind host during my time at the British Museum. Additionally, I’d like to thank Dr. Joseph Hefner, Dr. Norman Sauer, Dr. William Lovis, Dr. Dennis Dirkmaat, Dr. Steve Symes, Luis Cabo, Dr. Elizabeth Murray, Dr. Gene Kritsky, and Dr. Mark Fischer who all played a large role in shaping me into the person and academic I am today. Each of you has impacted me deeply and I will never forget the lessons learned in your classrooms. I’d like to thank my friends MSU who have moved on to bigger and better things but who supported me during my time here, Dr. Angela Soler, Dr. Carolyn Isaac, Dr. Cate Bird, Dr. Tracey Tichnell, Dr. Jared Beatrice, Dr. Lindsey Jenny, Dr. Colleen Milligan and Dr. Nick Passalacqua. A special thank you to Angela for her dedication in bringing the Mis Island collection to MSU and to Carolyn for sharing many adventures and way too much gelato. I also have to thank my current colleagues for putting up with me during these past few years, Emily Streetman, Mari Isa, Val Leah, Julie Fleischman, Susan Kooiman and especially Caitlin Vogelsberg for being an incredible friend for the last three years. vi I was fortunate enough to have several other friends writing their dissertations at the same time as well, Amy Michael, Ashley Kendell, and especially Emily Riley. Thank you for the copious amounts of coffee shared and encouragement given. I must also thank Jonathan Lutz for moving to a cabin in Montana with no internet and allowing me to come and finish writing there. The amount of love and support that I have received from Dr. Natalie Uhl and Amandine Eriksen is unparalleled. I have relied on you both so often for your kindness, intelligence, and ability to make me laugh. I am eternally grateful for your friendships. Finally, I must express my gratitude to my family. You have kept me grounded and continually reminded me of what is important in life. My parents have always given me the freedom to be myself and encouraged me to spread my wings even when it has taken me further and further from the nest. My brothers, Jeff, Greg, and Brian have kept me humble (that will be Dr. Sasquatch now by the way), taught me how to take a punch, and most importantly have kept me laughing through the years. My sisters-in-law, Allison and Diane, have been incredibly supportive and proven to be superb allies. My nieces and nephews, Emily, Andrew, Gage and Cora, have kept my priorities in check and were always eager to all work on our ‘homework’ together. My Brown-Eyed Grandma Vollner has been the best pen pal and support from afar. Thank you all for understanding my absences and for celebrating when I am home. So many people have been a part of this process, it is truly humbling. I know it is because of all of you that I am here today.