Lab 1: body, skeletal and axial systems

Types of tissue

• Epithelia tissue - Sheets of tissue covering other tissues or linin cavities - Protective tissue e.g. skin - Cell types: squamous, cuboid, columnar (can be single layer of cells or stratified) - Single layer epithelium: allows materials to pass, secretion, absorption - Stratified layer epithelium: protects against abrasion, secretes and protects - Pseudostratified: single layer that appears to be stratified, secretes mucus • Connective tissue - Connects and supports other tissue - Loose connective tissue: e.g. subcutaneous tissue or superfician fascia - Dense connective tissue: e.g. patella ligament or muscle tendon - Bones - Cartilage: 3 different types. Hyaline (covers joints), elastic (external ear), fibrocartilage (intervertebral disc) - Blood • Nervous tissue - Specialised tissue for conduction of nerve impulses to and from the CNS - Brain, spinal chord - Sciatic nerve: (should be able to identify in lab 4) • Muscle tissue - Smooth muscle: found in walls of hollow body organs, e.g. gut and blood vessels. Involuntary muscle - Cardiac muscle: heart and bases of great vessels. Involuntary muscle - Skeletal (voluntary muscle): greater mass of muscle in the body. Attach directly or indirectly to bones, cartilages, ligaments, fascia, organs and membranes

*voluntary muscles: in arms, legs, hands – help you do basic or compex movements

**Involuntary muscles: in lungs, intestines – help with breathing, propelling food through gut (don’t have to think about using these muscles. Types of bone

• Long bones: found in limbs, length is greater than breadth, have a cylindrical shaft and a swelling at each end. Features: - Diaphysis is a shaft of a long bone (body of the bone) - Epiphyses are swellings at each end - Articular surfaces are the surfaces that participate in a joint - Periosteum is a membrane covering non-articular surfaces. Essential for bone repair and attachment of tendons, ligaments • Short bones: found in wrist and ankle, roughly cuboidal shape • Sesamoid bones: type of short bone found in certain tendons. E.g. patella • Flat bones: found mostly in vault of cranium (skull) • Irregular bones: nor long short or flat (e.g. vertebrae)

Features of bones

Word definition examples foramen A passage through a bone Foramen magnum Meatus A path or passage way to an organ External acoustic meatus Fossa Hollowed or depressed area Middle cranial fossa Process A projection Spinous process of vertebrae Facet A smooth flat articular process Facets on articular processes of vertebra Tuberosity Large flat convexity Iscial tuberosity of pelvis Tubercle A small raised eminence Greater tubercle of humerus Trochanter Large blunt elevation Greater trochanter of femur Malleolus A rounded process Medial malleolus of the tibia Condyle A rounded articular area Medial condyle of femur Head A bony expansion carried on a narrow Head of humerus neck

Axial skeleton

It is the axis of the body and provides posture and support for the body. It includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum

**paired bones means there are 2 bones on either side of same shape.

Cranial exterior Facial skeleton

• Frontal bone • Zygomatic bones (paired) • Parietal bones (paired) • Maxillae (paired) • Temporal bones (paired) • Nasal bones (paired) • Occipital bone • Mandible • Sphenoid bone Foramina • Ethmoid bone • Foramen magnum (opening of skull • Cribriform plate of ethmoid where brain is continuous with spinal • Optic canal cord) • Superior orbital fissure • Occipital condyles • Foramen rotundum • External acoustic meatus • Foramen ovale • Mastoid process (part of temporal • Internal acoustic meatus bone) • Jugular foramen

Cranial interior

• Anterior cranial fossa (formed mainly by frontal bone) • Middle cranial fossa (formed by sphenoid and temporal bones) • Posterior cranial fossa (formed by occipital and temporal bones) • Hypophyseal (pituitary fossa) – within the sphenoid bone • Petrous part of temporal bone (boundary between middle and cranial fossa)

NEED TO KNOW: all bones, position, what it articulates with, is it paired or not?

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Vertebral column

The central pillar of the body and provides support for the cranium, shoulder girdle, upper limbs and thoracic cage. It transmits weight to the lower limb. Within the cavity of the vertebral column is the vertebral canal. This is a space for the spinal cord to pass and gives rise to the peripheral nerves. There are 33 vertebrae within the vertebral column.

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Vertebral column

• cervical vertebrae (7, neck) • Thoracic vertebrae (12, thorax) • Lumbar vertebrae (5, abdomen) • Sacral vertebrae (5 fused to form sacrum) • Coccygeal (lower 3-4 fused to form coccyx) • *Intervertebral discs (fibrocartilaginous joints) • Intervertebral foramina (between vertebrae, formed by notes, spinal nerve exit here) • *Facet joints (between articular processes)

**vertebral column covered in notes of lab 3

Isolated vertebrae

• Vertebral body • Vertebral foramen (vertebral foramen of or vertebrae form the vertebral canal) • Pedicle • Lamina • Spinous process • Transverse process (paired) • Superior articular processes with facets (paired) • Interior articular processes with facets (paired) Superior articular process is above inferior articular process The process is the bone sticking out and the facet is the blue thing • Superior vertebra notch • Inferior vertebral notch

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Thoracic cage

• Sternum – consists of manubrium, sternal body and xiphoid process. Sits in front of the vertebral column (especially thoracic vertebrae) • 12 thoracic vertebrae • 12 pairs of ribs (numbered 1-12 from top to bottom) - True ribs: ribs 1-7, attach directly to the sternum via their own costa cartilage - False ribs: ribs 8-10, attach indirectly to the sternum via shared costal cartilage - Floating ribs: ribs 11-12, do not attach to sternum

Sternal angle is at the manubrium-sternal joint. 2nd true rib articulates with sternum here.

Lab 2 – Appendicular skeleton and articular system Appendicular skeleton

Includes parts of the skeleton that connect off the axial skeleton. Includes upper and lower limbs. Be abe to identify and disucss the strcutre, function and features of appendicular skeleton. Shoulder girdle

• Clavicle – articulates with sternum and scapula. Medial/sternal end is rounded. Lateral/acromial end is flattened. Clavicle connects shoulder girdle to axial skeleton. • Scapula – flat triangular bone that lies on posterior thoracic wall - Glenoid fossa (points laterally and articulates with humeral head)

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- Anterior surface of scapula (formed by: coracoid process and subscapular fossa) - Posterior surface of scapula (formed by: prominent spine ends laterally as a flat acromion and articulates with clavicle, supraspinous fossae, Infraspinous fossae)

The prominent spine at the back of the scapula is a good way of telling it which side of scapular we are looking at.

Upper limb

• Humerus - Proximal bone of upper limb (i.e. arm bone) - Proximal end: Head (articulates with scapula at glenoid fossa), greater tubercle (lateral), lesser tubercle (anterior) (groove in between tubercles for biceps brachii tendon), surgical neck (prone to fractures) - Middle part: shaft and deltoid tuberosity (small protrusion on lateral side of shaft) - Distal end: medial and lateral epicondyles (for muscle attachments), trochlea (medial side, articulates with trochlear notch of ulna), capitulum (lateral side, articulates with head of radius. cap--head) • Ulna - Medial bone of the forearm - Proximal end: olecranon process (elbow), trochlear notch (faces anteriorly and articulates with trochlea of humerus), ulna tuberosity (for brachialis attachment, small bump distal to notch). Radial notch (below the trochlear notch and articulates with radial head to form proximal radio-ulnar joint) - Middle part: shaft - Distal end: head (articulates with radius to form distal radio-ulnar joint, head is not proximal for ulna).

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• Radius - Lateral bone of forearm - Proximal end: head (articulates to form 2 joints – elbow and proximal radio-ulnar joint), neck, radial tuberosity (for biceps brachii muscle) - Middle part: shaft - Distal end: wide carpal articular surface

*proximal radio-ulnar joint: radial notch of ulna + head of radius

**distal radio-ulnar joint: head of ulna + distal end of radius

• Wrist or carpus: 8 carpal bones, 2 rows of 4 bones. • Metacarpals: bones of the hand (palm). Numbered 1-5 from lateral to medial (note in anatomical position hands facing up so this is from thumb to pinky) • Digits: fingers, comprise of bones called phalanges (singular phalanx) - Digit 1: thumb, 2 phalanges (proximal and distal) - Digit 2-5: three phalanges (proximal, middle and distal)

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Pelvic girdle

Pelvic girdle refers to a single pelvic bone. Bony pelvis refers to the ring formed by 2 pelvic bones

• Hip bone (coxal bone) - Illium (superior) - Ischium (inferior to illium) - Pubis - Acetabulum (deep socket for attachment for the head of femur. The pubis, ischium and illium fuse here) - Iliac crest (structure that you feel when you put hands on hips) - Iliac fossa - Anterior superior iliac spines (ASIS) - Anterior inferior iliac spines (AIIS) - Gluteal surface (posterior surface of ilium, gluteus maximus muscles attach here – butt muscles)

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- Ischial tuberosity (rounded part at ischium) - Obturator foramen (hole between pubis and ischium bone) - Greater sciatic notch (above foramen)

*note this is LATERAL VIEW. As if looking side on from body

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Lower limb

• Femur - Bone of thigh - Proximal end: head, neck, greater trochanter (lateral), lesser trochanter (posterior – medial) - Middle part: shaft - Distal end: medial condyle, lateral condyle (condyles articulate with tibia condyles), epicondyles (areas above condyles), patellar surface (articulation with patella) • Patella - A sesamoid bone (sesamoid bones are within tendons) - Within tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle (between 2 condyles anteriorly) • Tibia - Large weight bearing medial bone of leg (bigger bone of leg – Tibia (Tough), fibula (Fragile)) - proximal end: medial condyle, lateral condyle (condyles articulate with femur condyles), tibial tuberosity (attachment for patellar ligament) - middle part: shaft - distal end: medial malleolus (pointy part of ankle that we can feel – articulate with talus at ankle joint), inferior articular surface for angle joint • fibular - slender bone of leg - not part of knee joint but forms part of ankle joint - distal end: lateral malleolus (articulate with talus at ankle joint) • ankle/tarsus - 7 tarsal bone, only need to identify the 2 below - Talus (other big bone other than calcaneus) - calcaneus (heel) • metatarsals - bones of the foot - 5 metatarsals numbered 1-5 from medial to lateral (opposite to hand, big toe to little toe) • Digits - Toes, comprised of phalanges - Digit 1: big toe, 2 phalanges (proximal and distal) - Digit 2-5: 3 phalanges (proximal, middle, distal)

*lateral malleolus of fibula and medial malleolus of tibia form and arch to articulate with talus

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Articular system

The type and range of joints are co- dependent.

• Fibrous joints - Immovable joints - Fibres connect articulating bones - Examples: Synathosis (sutures) Gomphosis (teeth) Syndesmosis (tibiofibular and radiulnar joints) • Cartilaginous joints - Slightly moveable joints - Cartilage connect articulating bones - Examples: Synchondrosis (plate in humerus) Symphysis (pubic symphysis between 2 hip bones) • Synovial joints - Freely moveable joints (most common) - Cavity contains synovial fluid - Examples: Non axial (plane) Uni axial (hinge pivot) Bi axial (condylar, saddle) Multiaxial (ball & socket) Shoulder girdle

• Gleno-humeral • Articulating bones: glenoid fossa – head of humerus. Both articulating surfaces covered in hyaline cartilage • Joint type: synovia ball and socket • Movements: flexion/extension; abduction/adduction; medial/lateral rotation; circumduction • Articular capsule – surrounds the joint • Glenoid labrum – fibrocartilage attached at the edges of glenoid cavity • Coracoacromial arch – coracoacromial ligament connects acromion and coracoid process. This forms a bridge and prevents superior displacement of humerus • Subdeltoid bursa – provides cushion around joint • Tendon of Long head of biceps brachii – inserts at top of glenoid fossa. Elongated bursa covers this tendon

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• Rotator cuff muscles originate at scapula and insert at head of humerus. They rotate and support the head of humerus at the shoulder joint. • There is a shallow articular surface area of glenoid fossa and large articular surface of humeral head. This allows greater range of movement • Stability of shoulder joint is due to: - coracormial arch (prevents superior displacement) - rotator cuff muscles (supports shoulder joint, tendons merge with joint capsule to reinforce it) - glenoid labrum (increases depth of glenoid cavity) - tendon sheath and bursae (reduce friction)

Knee joint

• Includes femur, tibia and patella (NOT fibula) • Articulating bones: medial and lateral condyles of femur, tibia, patella surface • Type of joint: gliding joint, modified hinge joint • Movements: extension/flexion; medial/lateral rotation • Articular capsule • Synovial membrane • Hyaline cartilage • medial collateral ligament (tibial collateral ligament) • lateral collateral ligament (fibular collateral ligament) Collateral ligaments are extracapsular ligaments and prevent medial and lateral displacement.

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• anterior cruciate ligaments • posterior cruciate ligaments Cruciate ligaments cross over Anterior cruciate ligament Posterior cruciate ligament Originates from anterior part of tibia Originates from posterior part of tibia Prevents anterior displacement of tibia Prevents posterior displacement of tibia Attaches to lateral femoral condyle Attaches to medial femoral condyle

• medial and lateral menisci – attaches to tibia condyle. Similar to gleno labrum, it deepens surface • Suprapatellar bursa – above patella, deep to quadriceps tendon • Patella – protects the patella tendon, and holds it away from femur and tibia for greater angle and greater movement

Other joints of limbs

• Elbow joint - Trochlear notch of ulna – trochlea of humerus - head of radius – humeral capitulum - flexion/extension • proximal and distal radio-ulnar - radius pivots around ulna during pronation and supination • wrist joint - distal radius – carpal bones (Not ulna) • hip joint - head of femur – acetabulum of hip bone - much more stable that shoulder joint • ankle joint - medial malleolus, lateral malleolus – talus - dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, inversion, eversion

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