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The Mass Exodus from Ethiopia

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The Mass Exodus from Ethiopia Causes of Mass Exodus from Etfiopia ancl Problems of Integration in the Sudan Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala Flight and Integration Flight and Integration Causes of Mass Exodus from Ethiopia and Problems of Integration in the Sudan Mekuria Bulcha Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala @ 1988 Mekuria Bulcha and Nordiska afrikainstitutet ISBN 91-7106-279-3 Printed in Sweden by Motala Grafiska, Motala 1988 Acknowledgements In the course of writing this book I have become indebted to many people and several institutions in Sweden and the Sudan. I owe the deepest gratitude to Professor Ulf Himmelstrand without whose generous support and guidance this work could not have been completed. My sincere thanks also go to Docent Pablo Suarez who read my manuscript and gave me useful criticism and advice. I should also acknowledge my debt to Dr. Michael Stihl, Dr. Peter Nobel and Dr. Gaim Kibreab for their support and intellectual stimulation. I would like to express my appreciation for the assistance I received from the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies (SIAS). Karl Eric Ericson and Ingrid Dahlquist of the SIAS have been of the utmost help. I thank them sincerely. I am grateful to the staff of the Office of the Sudanese Commissioner for Refugees in Khartoum and Gedaref. My sincere thanks go also to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the Sudanese Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) in Khartoum. In Gedaref, I thank Lars Jonsson of the UNHCR, the staff of the Sudanese Council of Churches (SCC) and the International Rescue Committee (IRC). I received valuable support from all of them. In Damazin, Kurmuk and Yabus I am most grateful to the staff of the Oromo Relief Association (ORA) without whose generous support my field work in those places would have been impossible. I am grateful to the Sudanese Security Police in Damazin and Kurmuk for their assistance. I am also indebted to my field assistants Gebrezghi Isaias, Zerai Woldai, Humedin Suleiman, Asmerom Berhe and Ghebregziabher Seyoum with whom I shared the hardships of the fieldwork. I thank my friend Wendy Duncan of the Institute of International Education at the University of Stockholm for her editorial work, Gladys Golborne of the University of Uppsala for the assistance she accorded me in processing the data and Sture Balgird for drawing the maps I used in this work. Fekadu Megarsa typed the first drafts of Chapters 2 and 3. Paul Brady and Moham- med Farah of the Department of Sociology at the University of Uppsala gave me some of the most stimulating criticisms and views. I thank them all. Without the financial assistance of the Swedish Agency for Research Co-opera- tion with Developing Countries (SAREC) I could have not carried out this work sucessfully. I am grateful to SAREC. 1 also thank the University of Uppsala and the Swedish Institute for the scholarship grants I received from them for several years. Finally I give my thanks to my dear Maazash who spent countless evenings, weekends and holidays patiently typing and retyping the various drafts of this work. Her contribution and encouragement helped me most to complete the book. The book is dedicated to the subjects of the study - the refugees themselves. Stockholm, January 1988 M. Bulcha Abbrevations ALF Afar Liberation Front AMC Agricultural Marketing Corporation AETU All-Ethiopian Trade Union ASS The Anti-Slavery Society COPWE Commission for the Formation of the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia COR Office of the Commissioner for Refugees EDU Ethiopian Democratic Union ELF Eritrean Liberation Front EPLF Eritrean People's Liberation Front EPRP Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party ERA Eritrean Relief Association ESRC Economic and Social Research Council ICARA International Conference for Assistance to Refugees in Africa ILO International Labour Office IMF International Monetary Fund IRC International Rescue Committee MEISON All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement NGO Non-Governmental Organization NRC National Research Council OAU Organization for African Unity OLF Oromo Liberation Front ORA Oromo Relief Association PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council POMOA Provisional Office for Mass Organizational Affairs RRC Relief and Rehabilitation Commission REST Relief Society of Tigray SCC Sudan Council of Churches S1 Survival International SID A Swedish International Development Authority TPLF Tigray People's Liberation Front UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees WSLF West Somali Liberation Front Contents Acknowledgements 5 List of Abbreviations 6 List of Tables 9 Figures and Maps 11 PART' I: THE GENERAL BACKGROUND Chapter 1. General Introduction The Study 15 Refugees in Africa: The Problem 18 Local and International Responses to the African Refugee Problem 21 The Setting of the Present Study 25 Chapter 2. The Mass Exodus from Ethiopia: Historical Background Introduction 32 The Conquest and Colonization of the Oromo, Sidama and Other Adjacent Peoples (1876-1909) 33 Basic Features of Abyssinian Feudal Colonialism 39 Resistance and Rebellions 50 Conclusions 60 Chapter 3. The Ethiopian Revolution of 1974 Introduction 62 The Contention for State Power 63 The Question of Nationalities 67 Conclusion 72 PART 11: THE FLIGHT Chapter 4. The Conceptual and Methodological Framework Introduction 77 The Paucity of Theoretical Literature 77 The Conceptual Framework used in this Study 78 Integration in the Socio-Economic Structures of the Host Society 84 Research Methodology 91 Chapter 5. Immediate Subjective and Objective Causes of Mass Flight from Ethiopia Introduction 98 Subjective Definitions of Reasons for Flight and Prevalent Objective Conditions 100 Armed Conflicts 106 Military Conscription 109 Poverty as a Cause of Flight 110 Large Scale Implemention of Forced Labour as Direct Cause of Flight 112 Relocation: A Contributory Factor to Refugee Flows 115 Current Mass Relocation in Ethiopia 116 Responses to Relocation 120 Villagization and Displacement: A Critical Assessment 124 Types of Respondents and Forms of Displacement 126 Chapter 6. Flight Dynamics and Intervening Obstacles Introduction 130 The Decision to Flee 130 Intervening Problems and Hardships 138 Arrival in the Host Environment 140 Conclusion 144 PART 111: THE DIMENSIONS OF INTEGRATION Chapter 7. The Economic Dimension of Integration Introduction 149 Conditions and Limitations 149 A Portrait of the Sample Population 150 Employment: First Step Towards Integration 156 Meeting Basic Needs and Achieving Self-Sufficiency 159 Income Distributions of Sample Population 162 Survival Strategies 168 Conclusions 172 Chapter 8. The Social Dimension of Integration Introduction 174 Social Interaction and Informal Relationships Between Respondents and Hosts 176 Intermarriage Between Refugees and Sudanese 181 Voluntary Organizations 183 Social Conflicts and Integration 188 Conflict in the Refugee Situation 189 Summary 196 Chapter 9. Cultural and Psychological Aspects of Adjustment and Integration Introduction 198 Causes of Refugee Maladjustment 199 Acculturation: Indicator of Adjustment or a 'Passing' Mechanism? 202 Education and Acculturation 205 Insecurity, Anxiety and Guilt 207 Operative Variables in the Generation of Fear and Anxiety 210 Preflight Variables: Causes of Flight 210 Insecurity and Post-Flight Variables 212 Summary and Conclusions 217 PART IV Chapter 10. Summary and Policy Implications Notes 236 Bibliography 241 Appendix 252 Tables Chapter 1 Table 1.1 African refugee flows from 1963 to 1982 23 Table 1.2 Refugee influx into the Sudan by year and country of origin 28 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 The ethnic backgrounds of the populations of the major towns in the conquered regions of the south 45 Chapter 5 Table 5.1 Percentage distribution of respondents by date of arrival in the Sudan 98 Table 5.2 Reasons for flight 99 Chapter 6 Table 6.la Distribution of respondents by information 130 Table 6.lb Distribution of respondents by flight plan 130 Table 6.2 Duration of flight by sample site 135 Table 6.3 Flight days by type of refugee 136 Table 6.4 Means of transport by type of refugee 136 Table 6.5 Educational background by place of settlement in country of asylum 137 Table 6.6 Major problems encountered during flight 139 Table 6.7 Types of hardship encountered by respondents during flight by settlement site 139 Table 6.8 Type of problems encountered by respondents on arrival in host country 140 Table 6.9 Solution of initial problems by settlement sites 142 Table 6.10 Solution of initial problems by type of settlement 143 Table 6.11 Source of assistance received on arrival by type of settlement 144 Chapter 7 Table 7.1 Age of respondents by type of settlement 150 Table 7.2 Distribution of sample households by number of children and type of refugees 151 Table 7.3 Distribution of respondents by marital status 151 Table 7.4a Distribution of sample households by type 152 Table 7.4b Type of households by type of refugee 152 Table 7.5a Distribution of heads of household by sex 153 Table 7.5b Distribution of heads of household by sex and type of refugees and settlement 153 Table 7.6 Respondents' level of education by type of settlement 154 Table 7.7 Occupational status of respondents before and after flight 155 Table 7.8 Length of employment 157 Table 7.9 Length of employment by type of refugees and type of settlement 157 Table 7.10 Length of employment by level of education 158 Table 7.11 Estimated income levels for existence minimum and self-sufficient households (1982-83) 160 Table
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