HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE UNITED STATES:

FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC VICTIMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this course, the social worker should be able to: • Explain the difference between human trafficking and human smuggling. • List and describe five “push” and “pull” factors that contribute to human trafficking. • Identify reasons why some states have a high number of human trafficking victims. • Describe the psychological factors affecting trafficking victims. • Discuss the factors that make children vulnerable to sexual exploitation and trafficking. • Identify locations where human trafficking for sexual exploitation may occur. • Identify locations where human trafficking for labor exploitation may occur. • Outline the routes that international trafficking victims take to arrive in the United States as well as trafficking routes within the United States. • List types of abuse that trafficking victims endure. • Identify signs that may indicate human trafficking is occurring. • Discuss interventions used to address human trafficking. • Describe the steps to report suspected human trafficking. • Identify state and national resources for information, rescue and support to address human trafficking.

INTRODUCTION

Human trafficking is one of the fastest growing criminal industries, prompting the U.S. government, the United Nations and academic researchers around the world to work to eradicate this modern form of slavery. While many agencies and local and state law enforcement are working to determine the number of trafficked persons and interrupt the flow of victims into and around the United States, experts

1 believe the effort must include people from all walks of life.

Targeted training on how to recognize human trafficking and how to safely assist survivors is recommended for people outside of law enforcement, including the many professionals whose work environments include contact with the general public and minority communities.

Much of the sordid sex business and economic slave networks are underground and shrouded in darkness. Mental health practitioners, with the knowledge and awareness that this exists, and their daily contact with the public, may be the first to recognize that something seems wrong in a situation and can act on it. As professionals dedicated to social justice and the welfare of others, health-care professionals are able to save a life and make a significant, positive impact on the effort to stop these modern slavery practices and help victims become survivors.

HOW WIDESPREAD IS HUMAN TRAFFICKING?

There is no official estimate of the total number of human trafficking victims in the U.S., but when aggregating estimates of both adults and minors and sex and labor trafficking, The Polaris Project is a nationally funded anti-trafficking organization that will be further discussed later in this course. The Polaris Project reports the number of human trafficking victims has increased to hundreds of thousands (Polaris, 2018a). The National Human Trafficking Hotline and BeFree Textline provides human trafficking survivors a way to connect with local law enforcement, emergency shelters, transportation, trauma counselors or a range of other services and supports (Polaris, 2017). The 40,000-plus cases identified on these helplines comprise the largest publicly available data set on human trafficking in the United States. The data do not represent the full scope of human trafficking. According to the Ark of Hope for Children, Inc. in 2017: Up to 300,000 Americans under 18 are lured into the commercial sex trade every year.

2 According to Human Rights First in 2018, not enough data is available to accurately estimate the number of adult victims in the sex trafficking industry or the number of men, women and children entrapped in labor trafficking.

Victims come from around the world, but many are exploited in the United States. Victims are male, female and other-gendered, and all ages, cultures and ethnic groups. Experts have identified two main reasons as determining factors for the increase in human trafficking numbers: 1. A state with large urban and rural counties with a high number of transient and immigrant populations present obstacles to customs and law enforcement officials working to uncover and stop trafficking operations. 2. Proximity to the Canadian or Mexican borders, international ports and major highways makes it easier to transport victims across state lines, borders or international waters.

PREVALENCE

The International Labour Organization (ILO), an agency of the United Nations, and the Polaris Project provided the following estimates regarding the prevalence of human trafficking (ILO, 2017): Of an estimated 40.3 million people in modern slavery: 24.9 were in forced labour 15.4 million were in forced marriage to which they had not consented. That is, they were enduring a situation that involved having lost their sexual autonomy and often involved providing labor under the guise of “marriage.”

Out of the 24.9 million people trapped in forced labor, an estimated 16 million people were exploited in the private economy such as domestic work, construction or agriculture. There were an estimated 3.8 million persons in forced sexual exploitation. There were an estimated 4.1 million persons in forced labor imposed by state authorities. Women and girls are disproportionately affected by forced labor, accounting for 99

3 percent of victims in the commercial sex industry, and 58 percent in other sectors (ILO, 2017).

HUMAN TRAFFICKING DEFINED

According to the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) of 2000, with the last reauthorization in 2013, human trafficking is a crime against a person brought into the country by force, fraud or coercion and is the second-largest illegal enterprise in the world (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017a).

The TVPA defined human trafficking as: 1. Recruiting, harboring, transporting, supplying or obtaining a person for labor or services using force or fraud or coercion for the purpose of involuntary servitude or slavery. 2. Sex trafficking where a commercial sex act is induced by force or fraud or coercion when person is induced to perform sex acts under 18 years of age. A commercial sex act is defined as any sex act where anything of value is given to or received by any person. As interpreted by the government, this means that a trafficker, profiteer, pimp, purchaser, “John,” or anyone else who receives something in exchange for sex or who harbored, provided transportation or “provision” may be subject to federal trafficking charges.

TVPA provides that foreign nationals trafficked into the U.S. for sex or labor are viewed and treated as victims who are provided government support instead of criminals to be arrested and deported. This was not always the case in all states, according to human trafficking authorities.

The TVPA also has led to a change in the language used to discuss those involved with trading, buying and selling human beings in the United States. Youths who were labeled as juvenile prostitutes under TVPA are called victims of “commercial sexual

4 exploitation” or victims of “child sex trafficking.” Individuals procuring a child or adult for illegal sex trade are known as “traffickers” under the federal law.

The following definitions are included in the 2016 United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017a): Sex trafficking When an adult engages in a commercial sex act, such as prostitution, as the result of force, threats of force, fraud, coercion or any combination of such means, that person is a victim of trafficking. Under such circumstances, perpetrators involved in recruiting, harboring, enticing, transporting, providing, obtaining, patronizing, soliciting or maintaining a person for that purpose are guilty of sex trafficking of an adult. Sex trafficking also may occur within debt bondage, as individuals are compelled to continue in prostitution through the use of unlawful “debt,” purportedly incurred through their transportation, recruitment or even their “sale,” which exploiters insist they must pay off before they can be free. An adult’s initial consent to participate in prostitution is not legally determinative; if one is thereafter held in service through psychological manipulation or physical force, he or she is a trafficking victim and should receive benefits outlined in the Palermo Protocol and applicable domestic laws.

Child sex trafficking When a child (younger than 18) is recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, obtained, patronized, solicited or maintained to perform a commercial sex act, proving force, fraud or coercion is not necessary to characterize the offense as human trafficking. There are no exceptions to this rule; no cultural or socioeconomic rationalizations alter the fact that children who are exploited in prostitution are trafficking victims. The use of children in the commercial sex trade is prohibited under U.S. law and by statute in most countries around the world. Sex trafficking has devastating consequences for children, including long-lasting physical and psychological trauma, disease (including HIV/AIDS), drug addiction, unwanted pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism and even death.

Forced labor

5 Forced labor, sometimes referred to as labor trafficking, encompasses the range of activities, including recruiting, harboring, transporting, providing or obtaining, involved when a person uses force or physical threats, psychological coercion, abuse of the legal process, deception, or other coercive means to compel someone to work. Once a person’s labor is exploited by such means, the person’s prior consent to work for an employer is legally irrelevant: The employer is a trafficker and the employee is a trafficking victim. Migrants are particularly vulnerable to this form of human trafficking, but individuals also may be forced into labor in their own countries. Female victims of forced or bonded labor, especially women and girls in domestic servitude, are often sexually exploited as well.

Bonded labor or debt bondage One form of coercion is the use of a bond or debt. Some workers inherit debt; for example, in South Asia it is estimated that millions of trafficking victims are working to pay off their ancestors’ debts. Others fall victim to traffickers or recruiters who unlawfully exploit an initial debt assumed, wittingly or unwittingly, as a term of employment. Debts taken on by migrant laborers in their countries of origin, often with the involvement of labor agencies and employers in the destination country, can also contribute to a situation of debt bondage. Such circumstances may occur in the context of employment-based temporary work programs in which a worker’s legal status in the destination country is tied to the employer and workers fear seeking redress.

Domestic servitude Involuntary domestic servitude is a form of human trafficking found in unique circumstances, such as work in a private residence, that create distinct vulnerabilities for victims. It is a crime in which domestic workers are not free to leave their employment and are abused and underpaid, if paid at all. Many domestic workers do not receive the basic benefits and protections commonly extended to other groups of workers, such as a simple as a day off. Moreover, their ability to move freely is often limited, and employment in private homes increases their vulnerability and isolation. Authorities cannot inspect homes as easily as formal workplaces and, in many other cases, do not

6 have the mandate or capacity to do so. In addition to facing involuntary servitude, domestic workers, especially women, confront various forms of abuse, harassment and exploitation, including sexual and gender-based violence.

Forced child labor Although children may legally engage in certain forms of work, children can also be found in slavery or slavery-like situations. Some indicators of forced child labor include when a non-family member appears to have custody of the child and requires the child to perform work that financially benefits someone outside the child’s family and not allowing the child to leave. Anti-trafficking responses should supplement, not replace, traditional actions against child labor, such as remediation and education. When children are enslaved, their abusers should not escape criminal punishment which can occur when governments impose weaker administrative responses to such abusive child labor practices.

Vacatur Vacatur is the formal recognition of “factual innocence.” Vacatur laws should apply to both adults and children, given that anyone who has been forced, tricked or coerced into criminal activity should not be considered as having consented to that activity. In such cases, the criminal records should be vacated or expunged. In the United States, several states have enacted provisions that provide survivors the ability to seek a court order vacating or expunging criminal convictions entered against them that resulted from their trafficking situation. In 2010, New York became the first state to pass a law allowing trafficking survivors to vacate their convictions for prostitution offenses. In 2013, Florida’s law went even further providing for the expungement of “any conviction for an offense committed while . . . a victim of human trafficking.” States should also ensure these laws cover convictions that encompass the wide variety of nonviolent crimes that victims are forced to commit.

Coercion is defined to include (DOJ, 2017): A. Threats of serious harm to or physical restraint against any person.

7 B. Any scheme, plan or pattern intended to cause a person to believe that failure to perform an act would result in serious harm to or physical restraint against any person. C. The abuse or threatened abuse of law or legal process.

“Serious harm,” as used in the first two prohibited forms of coercion, is defined as: Any harm, whether physical or nonphysical, including psychological, financial or reputational harm, that is sufficiently serious, under all the surrounding circumstances, to compel a reasonable person of the same background and in the same circumstances to perform or to continue performing commercial sexual activity in order to avoid incurring that harm.

The Polaris Project, 2017, lists examples of the use of force, fraud and coercion against victims of human trafficking. Methods of force include beating, sexual assault, confinement and torture. Fraud methods include deceitful behavior and lies, blackmail, and preying on a person’s desperation and poverty. Methods of coercion include threats of harm, intimidation and humiliation, emotional abuse, and control tactics. Traffickers prey on vulnerable, at-risk youths because they can be isolated from family and friends, manipulated, exploited and soon become dependent on the trafficker. The women and children are dehumanized and treated like marketable commodities, so they become detached from life and often believe being a victim is their future.

Vulnerable populations for human trafficking include (HHS, 2018): • Individuals who have experienced childhood abuse or neglect. • Children involved in the foster care and juvenile justice systems. • Runaway and homeless youth. • Native Americans, Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders. • Victims of violence. • Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ) individuals. • Migrant workers. • Undocumented immigrants.

8 • Racial and ethnic minorities. • People with disabilities. • People with low incomes. • Those with a history of substance abuse. • Those communities exposed to intergenerational trauma.

DOMESTIC SEX TRAFFICKING

According to the United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report in 2017, the U.S is one of the top destinations for human trafficking.

The U.S. is currently one of the world’s largest destination countries for women and children trafficked into the sex industry. Sex trafficking can be found in the following activities and places (U.S. Dept., of State, 2017a): • Street prostitution. • Hotel prostitution. • Exotic dancing. • Pornography and live cybersex sites. • Sexual entertainment in adult bookstores. • Sexual servitude in individual homes. • Servile marriage. • Sexual services through massage parlors. • Sexual service through nail and hair salon including street hair braiding. • Escort and hostess club services. • Karaoke bars. • Residential brothels. • Truck stops. • Sex services at conventions. • Sex tourism sites and destinations. • Asian, Latino and other gang affiliations.

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The 2017 U.S. State Department report also includes labor trafficking, which can be found in the following activities and places: • Factory work in sweatshops. • Agricultural work. • Restaurant and other food industry work. • Hotel work. • Private domestic work • Begging or selling trinkets. • Landscaping and garden labor. • Forced military duty. • Forced criminal activity including theft and drug trafficking and cultivation. • Agriculture farm work. • Casino servers. • Magazine peddlers.

Many foreign trafficking victims today are under international law and are not citizens of any country, although the Universal Declaration of Human Rights notes that everyone has a right to a nationality. An estimated 12 million people, including 4 million children, around the world are legally without a country, therefore stateless and lacking legal standing in any nation (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017a). This may lead them to smugglers and traffickers who promise to help them escape discrimination or government persecution. These individuals become victims on multiple levels as the problems of statelessness, refugee issues and trafficking overlap (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017a). These international trafficking victims may be charged with smuggling because the person is knowingly and willingly attempting to enter the country illegally, which is a crime against the state.

HUMAN TRAFFICKING VERSUS SMUGGLING

10 U.S. Immigration & Customs Enforcement’s (ICE) Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) is the lead agency countering both issues (ICE, 2017). The U.S. Department of Homeland Security defines human trafficking as: • Sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act is under 18 years old. • The recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision or obtaining of a person for labor or services through the use of force, fraud or coercion for the purpose of subjugation to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery.

Trafficking is exploitation-based, and one or both conditions above may be found in human trafficking.

Human smuggling is defined by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement as: The importation of people into the United States involving deliberate evasion of immigration laws. This includes bringing illegal aliens into the U.S. as well as the unlawful transportation and harboring of illegal aliens already in the United States. Smuggling is transportation-based and smuggling and trafficking are not interchangeable terms. The person being smuggled is generally cooperating, and there is no actual or implied coercion. Smuggling always crosses an international border and involves illegal entry. Once individuals are smuggled into a country, they are free to leave, though they may later indeed become trafficking victims. (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2017)

HUMAN TRAFFICKING ACROSS THE UNITED STATES

The most recent National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) National Hotline data breakdown shows the top 10 states with the most calls on human trafficking and issues related to human trafficking between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2015. The top 10 states in order of greatest number of calls were (NHTH, 2017a): • California.

11 • Texas. • Florida. • Ohio. • New York. • Michigan. • Georgia. • Virginia. • Illinois. • New Jersey.

The NHTRC top 10 cities in terms of human trafficking calls, as of 2016, were (NHTH, 2017a): • Houston. • New York City. • Los Angeles. • Washington, D.C. • Chicago. • Las Vegas. • Atlanta. • Columbus. • Dallas. • San Diego. Certain countries are known for recruiting potential victims and serve as destinations for individuals seeking to purchase victims.

The United States is a destination country for sex and labor trafficking victims. Individuals born in the United States who become victims of human trafficking may be recruited from origination cities or states and shipped to other destinations, cities and states where they are forced to work or

12 provide sex services. There are identified destination states for international victims of labor and sex trafficking.

Many factors account for the high numbers of foreign-born trafficking victims: • The ability for victims to be moved easily in and out of the state. • A growing or high number of legal and illegal immigrant populations to recruit victims. • The number of markets open to foreign-born persons. • Lack of consistency among state laws to restrict human trafficking. • Lack of awareness, training and preparation for first responders. • The demand for particular services that may be provided by trafficking victims. • Individual characteristics or circumstances that lead to victimization.

International trafficking into the north and Midwest states often occurs along the Canadian border; the border proximity allows traffickers to move victims through Michigan to various markets throughout the Midwest (Emmons, 2018). Toronto’s International Airport has been identified as an arrival destination for victims who are trafficked into Canada and moved throughout the United States (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017b).

Foreign women, primarily from Asia and Eastern Europe, are subjected to sex trafficking in Canada. Labor trafficking victims include workers from Eastern Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa who enter Canada legally, but are subsequently subjected to forced labor in a variety of sectors, including agriculture, construction, food processing plants, restaurants, the hospitality sector, or as domestic workers, including in diplomatic households. Canada is a source country for tourists who travel abroad to engage in sex acts with children.

Businesses throughout the U.S. employ migrant labor in poorly regulated industries seeking cheap labor, such as textile sweatshops, agriculture, restaurants, construction and domestic crews.

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While labor trafficking takes many forms, it is primarily located in the agriculture, forestry, fisheries/fishing, construction, factory work and domestic service industries and often goes unnoticed because those most vulnerable are largely migrant workers isolated from others and who lack documentation (Fisher, 2017).

Many businesses that appear legitimate are actually fronts for human trafficking in the sex trade, including nail salons and spas, and are found in every state. When illicit Asian massage parlors are identified and shut down by law enforcement, they are simply replaced by other massage parlors – approximately 9,000 nationwide – after the owner is arrested and the business shut down (Polaris, 2018b).

Law enforcement reports show these businesses often have two to nine workers from ages 36 to 57, and victims often come from China and South Korea. New York and California are the main ports of entry, and from there they are transported around the country to states such as Florida, Texas, New Jersey, California, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia (Polaris, 2018b).

Law enforcement data show these highly organized networks operate much like illegal drug organizations. Spas in particular are crime organizations that recruit women from other states and countries then force them into prostitution. These Asian spa organizations can move people rapidly from location to location yet operate as small “mom-and-pop” businesses that blend into the community.

The types of state laws, sanctions and enforcement also determine where human trafficking organizations reside. According to the 2018 National Conference of State Legislators (NCSL): State legislators, law enforcement, service providers and many other stakeholders are developing policies to effectively prosecute traffickers and provide services to victims. Every state has enacted human trafficking laws, but there are significant differences in the statutes and policies between jurisdictions … See NCSL's State

14 Human Trafficking Enactment Database for information on enacted legislation from 2015 to 2017 … State laws establish criminal penalties for traffickers seeking to profit from forced labor or sexual servitude. The laws vary in several ways, including who is defined as a trafficker, what actions constitute trafficking, and the severity of the criminal and financial penalties offenders will face.

Traffickers are aware of the states that carry serious penalties and prosecute aggressively, so they will move their sex and labor trafficking businesses to states with weaker laws. SEX TRAFFICKING OF MINORS

In the United States, youth may enter into the commercial sex industry through four main routes: By peer networks, by recruitment by sex traffickers directly (in-person or online), by abduction, or by being sold by family members (Ijadi-Maghsoodi, Cook, Barnert, Gaboian & Bath, 2016). The U.S. Department of Justice provides the following information on child sex trafficking (DOJ, 2017):

Victims frequently fall prey to traffickers who lure them in with an offer of food, clothes, attention, friendship, love, and a seemingly safe place to sleep. After cultivating a relationship with the child and engendering a false sense of trust, the trafficker will begin engaging the child in prostitution, and use physical, emotional and psychological abuse to keep the child trapped in a life of prostitution. It is common for traffickers to isolate victims by moving them far away from friends and family, altering their physical appearances, or continuously moving them to new locations. Victims are heavily conditioned to remain loyal to the trafficker and to distrust law enforcement. No child is immune to becoming a victim of child sex trafficking, regardless of the child’s race, age, socioeconomic status, or location, and every child involved in this form of commercial sexual exploitation is a victim.

Children and youth are particularly vulnerable to recruitment through technology and social media, which begin as innocent conversations and friendships with individuals that

15 are traffickers. Children may be lured by the promise of drugs, parties, concert tickets, jobs in the music and video industry, or romantic connections with others they believe to be their same age. The Internet, social media and mobile devices provide the trafficker with instant marketing tools to reach an unlimited audience looking to purchase sex with children. Internet trafficking is difficult to regulate, and laws are complicated by the fact that trafficking laws are not uniform among states.

Child trafficking detection is compounded if children and young adults are under the control of a trafficker and are unwilling or unable to signal for help. Victims often suffer from poor emotional and mental health, substance abuse, acute violence, chronic trauma, malnutrition, HIV and other diseases which render them incapable of escape.

Many children and youth who become trafficking victims were runaways or homeless due to problems at home, such as neglect, physical, sexual and mental abuse. Nearly 40 percent of homeless youth identify as LGBTQ, compared to 7 percent of the general population, and the youth may face homelessness for different reasons, including family rejection, prior abuse or neglect, bullying in school, or social discrimination and marginalization (Schmit, 2016).

Some of the trafficked youths discussed their life of poverty, neglect and abuse they experienced at home: “We were starving, we had no money, no lights, no gas. One box heater for the whole family. He didn’t want to waste drug money on Christmas presents or birthday presents. He took our toys away when I was 8. He sold them and bought drugs. I started prostituting at age 11. Mom knew about the abuse, but didn’t want to say anything because she wanted to keep her husband.” Anonymous 17-year- old.

Foster youth are at high risk for exploitation because they may have underlying histories of abuse that make them more vulnerable, and they may be in settings where they are at

16 greater risk of victimization, such as group or foster homes, and more accessible to potential traffickers or peers involved in trafficking (Ijadi-Maghsoodi et al., 2016).

These youths often trade sex for money, food, drugs or a place to stay, and are easy targets for commercial sexual exploitation known as “survival sex.” Other routes to commercial child exploitation include: • Being recruited for pornography. • Being sold on the Internet on Craigslist or Backpage.com. • Working in massage parlors. • Recruitment or exploitation through modeling. • Stripping or exotic dancing. • Dancing auditions. • Prostitution on the streets, in truck stops, adult bookstores, “cat houses” (prostitution houses) and conventions. • Escort services, private parties and conventions.

In 2016, one in six of the runaways reported missing to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) were at a high risk for victimization by sex traffickers (Shehan & Rafmuth, 2017): Of those, 86 percent were in the care of social services when they went missing. Recognizing that a child who goes missing from the care of a child welfare agency becomes even more vulnerable to becoming a sex trafficking victim or could be missing from care as a result of being sex trafficked, Congress recently enacted two pieces of legislation aimed at strengthening protections for at-risk children. In September 2014, the Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act was enacted, and the Bringing Missing Children Home Act was enacted in May of the following year. Both of these laws are designed, in part, to bolster the ability of law enforcement and the NCMEC to respond to instances in which children in care go missing.

17 Children and youth may not be viewed as victims initially due to changes in personality or demeanor they adopt as defense mechanisms to survive on the street. According to the DOJ (2017): Child sex trafficking victims are often not recognized as victims and may be arrested and jailed. The dangers faced by these children, from the traffickers, their associates and from customers, are severe. These children become hardened by the treacherous environment in which they must learn to survive. As such, they do not always outwardly present as sympathetic victims. They also frequently suffer from short-term and long-term psychological effects such as depression, self- hatred, and feelings of hopelessness. These child victims also need specialized services that are not widely available given they often have illnesses, drug addictions, physical and sexual trauma, lack of viable family and community ties, and total dependence, physically and psychologically, on their abusers.

Traffickers who benefit from sexually exploiting children operate an organized prostitution network in recruitment areas. Though the system is loosely connected, traffickers keep the network operating underground, and local law enforcement has difficulty disrupting this activity. The underground network includes: • Connectors, who work to develop the links in the trafficking network locations. • Recruiters, who work to bring individuals into human trafficking. • Groomers, who teach and prep victims for the sex trade. • Traffickers, who control and move individuals across state and national lines to the sex and labor markets. • “Bottoms,” the male or female victims of trafficking prostitution at street level who are forced to use any techniques to bring new victims into the network. • Watchers, who observe victims to be sure they perform adequately and do not escape. • “Wife-in-laws,” all of the women who are prostituted by one pimp or trafficker. • “Tricks,” sexual acts for money. • Bouncers, the bodyguards or enforcers who control the entrance/exits to the trafficking sites and boarding location of the victims.

18 • “Johns,” men who hire a victim for sexual exploitation. • Security guards, hired by traffickers to ensure victims do not escape or that the trafficking site is not compromised.

Each of these roles in human trafficking operations takes place underground, and only the trafficker knows the entire organization; others act independently as a link in the chain of the child trafficking network. When law enforcement or social service intervention removes one link, it is quickly replaced with another in the trafficking organization. Traffickers use many techniques to recruit children into the commercial sex trade. Grooming, or pimping, includes manipulating young girls to make their own decision to enter the sex trade, provide sex and then give the money to a trafficker. One technique, called “bait and switch,” manipulates and entices victims with something they need or want as bait to attract their attention and build a relationship with them. Once they have a hold on the victim, the situation becomes one that provides money for the trafficker.

Another violent form of recruitment is “guerrilla pimping,” where a trafficker threatens a youth with physical violence and intimidation to force the person to work in commercial sex activities.

INTERNATIONAL SEX AND LABOR TRAFFICKING

International trafficking may be a combination of sophisticated, organized crime rings and mom-and-pop shops in villages and towns. Human trafficking usually begins in legitimate businesses that serve as a cover in exchange for benefits or money. Victims in these cases may or may not know why they are brought to the United States, and some believe they will work in legitimate jobs. Victims may pay to be smuggled into the country illegally, but once in the United States, find themselves victims of human trafficking. Other victims know they will be involved in trafficking and submit because

19 they need to survive or support a family, so they agree to a temporary situation that quickly turns into modern-day slavery.

Because foreign-born victims of labor or sex trafficking are undocumented and stateless, they become indebted to their traffickers, called “debt bonding.” They may have been promised freedom once their debt is paid, but because they generally get only substandard wages, they are rarely able to pay their debt. Debt bondage, through the manipulation of debt by employers or recruiting agents, affected more than half of all victims of forced labor exploitation (ILO, 2017).

Debt bondage is defined for the purpose of the estimates as being forced to work to repay a debt and not being able to leave, or being forced to work and not being able to leave because of a debt (ILO, 2017). Just over half the men and women in forced labor exploitation worldwide were held in debt bondage. The figure rises to more than 70 percent of the total for adults forced to work in agriculture, domestic work, or manufacturing.

Victims of human trafficking often suffer serious physical harm, including (Levine & Schumacher, 2016): • Beatings, torture, burning, branding or tattooing. • Concussion, broken bones. • Stabbing. • Malnutrition, anemia. • Hepatitis B and C. • Hypertension and ischemic disease. • Dizziness and fainting. • Chronic pain. • Rotting teeth. • Alcohol and drug abuse. • Acute and chronic health conditions due to poor ventilation, excessive heat or cold and unsanitary conditions.

20 • Asthma. • Eating and sleeping disorders. • Untreated chronic illnesses, such as chronic diabetes, tuberculosis and cardiovascular disease.

Those trafficked into the sex trade may suffer additional health issues related to (Levine & Schumacher, 2016): • Rape, such as vaginal and anal tearing, cervical dysplasia, non-menstrual vaginal bleeding, vaginal pain, dysuria, dyspareunia, traumatic scaring and ovulatory failure. • Pregnancy. • Fertility problems. • Sterility. • Exposure to HIV/AIDS. • Sexually transmitted diseases. • Infections. • Abortions, hemorrhaging, death.

Psychological damage includes (Levine & Schumacher, 2016): • Shame, denial or grief. • Chronic stress. • Aggression. • Depression. • Panic attacks, anxiety. • Culture shock. • Destructive behaviors. • Social withdrawal and low motivation. • Eating disorders. • Psychiatric disorders such as depression and PTSD. • Effects of sleep deprivation.

21 • Paranoia, suicide. • Disassociation, traumatic bonding with their traffickers.

The National Human Trafficking Resource Center hotline and the Human Trafficking Reporting System are the two main databases on human trafficking. Many larger cities across the U.S. have had cases of international sex trafficking. Most of the identified international trafficking victims were rescued from massage parlors and brothels.

PUSH AND PULL FACTORS

The “push” factors in the countries of origin that may lead vulnerable victims to human trafficking include individual, environmental and societal issues. The following list summarizes “push” factors (Alpert, 2016; IOL, 2017): • Poverty, poor economic growth, unemployment or high cost of living. • Religious persecution. • Political conflict, increased war or armed conflict. • Natural disasters. • Country-specific factors, such as the ease of moving across countries. • Unemployment levels and inflated cost of living. • Young age (limited life experience). • Gender disparity or inequity. • History of abuse during childhood and family violence. • Individual vulnerability. • Poor education, illiteracy. • Desire for material comforts. • Obligation or desire to help family. • Sold or persuaded by family. • Peer influences. • Desire to please “boyfriend.” • Need to belong, desire for kinship.

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In 2017, the ILO determined the factors that draw traffickers and victims to a particular area, called “pull” factors, include the following: • Existing markets for human trafficking. • Demand for sexual and labor services. • A sizable population of foreign-born persons. • High numbers of children ages 12 to 17 who are at risk for child sex trafficking, including runaways, throwaways, homeless youths, LGBTQ youth, and other factors that make them vulnerable. • History of inconsistent response to trafficking victims. • Evidence that first responders to human trafficking lacked sufficient training in human trafficking. • Customers who had purchased youths previously received minimal charges and rarely were prosecuted; traffickers also received minimal consequences. • Inconsistent laws and penalties for human trafficking throughout the U.S.

MARKETS FOR HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Data show there are markets for human trafficking in destination states seeking cheap labor with few enforceable regulations. A National Institute of Justice study in San Diego County in 2016 found the following results (NIJ, 2016): Many migrants, 28 percent, experienced labor trafficking at the hands of employers. Of that group, 15 percent reported that their physical integrity had been threatened, and 22 percent reported physical restriction or deprivation at the workplace. Approximately 49 percent of the unauthorized immigrant workforce experienced abusive labor practices at the hands of employers.

The NIJ report found that some sectors in which unauthorized migrant laborers are usually employed have higher rates of victimization than others. Agriculture had the lowest rate of victimization among all businesses. The construction, janitorial/cleaning

23 and landscaping sectors had the highest rates of reported trafficking violations and labor abuses.

In fiscal year 2016, the Department of Labor increased enforcement activities in industries such as agriculture, landscaping, seafood, reforestation and hospitality, however, survivor advocates noted the high number of cases in hospitality, agriculture and construction and recommended more investigations of these industries (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017a).

The United States is a source, transit and destination country for men, women, transgender individuals and children, both U.S. citizens and foreign nationals, subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor (U.S. Dept. of State, 2017a): Trafficking occurs in both legal and illicit industries, including in commercial sex, hospitality, traveling sales crews, agriculture, seafood, manufacturing, janitorial services, construction, restaurants, health care, care for persons with disabilities, salon services, fairs and carnivals, peddling and begging, drug smuggling and distribution, and child care and domestic work. Individuals who entered the United States with and without legal status have been identified as trafficking victims. Victims originate from almost every region of the world; in 2016, the top three countries of origin of federally identified victims were the United States, Mexico and the Philippines. Particularly vulnerable populations in the United States include: Children in the child welfare and juvenile justice systems; runaway and homeless youth; unaccompanied children; American Indians and Alaska Natives; migrant laborers, including undocumented workers and participants in visa programs for temporary workers; foreign national domestic workers in diplomatic households; persons with limited English proficiency; persons with low literacy; persons with disabilities; and LGBTQ individuals.

24 Illicit massage businesses (IMBs), known as massage parlors, are common fronts for commercial sex trafficking are found in suburban strip malls and all major cities across the U.S. According to the Polaris Project (2018b): While some IMBs keep a low profile, many others blatantly advertise “Asian gals,” or bear sexualized names like “Good Girl Spa.” Anyone looking to purchase commercial sex is just a few clicks away from any number of review sites that offer extremely detailed information about both the businesses themselves and the individual women exploited within them. Indicators that a massage parlor is engaging in commercial sex and potential human (sex or labor) trafficking includes:

o Prices are significantly below market-level, such as $40 for a one-hour massage in a city where $80 is the norm.

o Women report that they need a large tip (e.g. for expenses, food, family), sometimes even expressing distress if they do not receive a tip.

o Women typically serve customers for excessive hours; some are on call at all times.

o Women appear to be living in the business or in trafficker-controlled secondary site (e.g. apartment, house).

o The business serves primarily, or only, male clientele. o The front door is locked and customers can only enter if buzzed in, or enter through back or side doors that are more discreet.

o Windows are covered so passersby cannot see into the establishment. o Regular rotation of women occurs and new women come in every several weeks.

o Advertising is on commercial sex websites like Rubmaps.com, Backpage.com or aampmaps.com.

COUNTRIES AND STATES OF ORIGIN FOR SEXUAL AND LABOR TRAFFICKING

25 Traffickers often set up venues to meet the demand of people from neighboring states and countries. According to a September 2017 report from the ILO and Walk Free Foundation, published by Human Rights First in 2018: Seventy-nine percent of trafficking victims around the world are women and girls and 21 percent are men and boys. The Asia-Pacific region accounts for the largest number of forced laborers at 15.4 million (62 percent of the global total). Africa has 5.7 million (23 percent) followed by Europe and Central Asia with 2.2 million (9 percent). The Americas account for 1.2 million (5 percent) and the Arab States account for 1 percent of all victims. Human trafficking does not always involve travel to the destination of exploitation: 2.2 million (14 percent) of forced labor victims moved either internally or internationally, while 3.5 million (74 percent) sexual exploitation victims were living outside their country of residence.

Human trafficking earns profits of roughly $150 billion a year for traffickers, according to the 2014 ILO report. The following is a breakdown of profits by sector: • $99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation. • $9 billion in agriculture, including forestry and fishing. • $8 billion dollars is saved annually by private households that employ domestic workers under conditions of forced labor. • While only 19 percent of victims are trafficked for sex, sexual exploitation earns 66 percent of the global profits of human trafficking. The average annual profits generated by each woman in forced sexual servitude ($100,000) is estimated to be six times more than the average profits generated by each trafficking victim.

According to the 2017 State Department Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report, there were 14,894 prosecutions and 9,071 convictions for trafficking globally in 2016 (U.S. State Dept., 2017a): • 1,251 prosecutions, 1,119 convictions and the identification of 18,296 victims occurred in Africa. • 2,137 prosecutions, 1,953 convictions and the identification of 9,989 victims occurred in East Asia and the Pacific.

26 • 2,703 prosecutions, 1,673 convictions and the identification of 11,416 victims occurred in Europe • 996 prosecutions, 1,187 convictions and the identification of 3,292 victims occurred in the Near East. • 6,297 prosecutions, 2,193 convictions and the identification of 14,706 victims occurred in South and Central Asia • 1,513 prosecutions, 946 convictions and the identification of 8,821 victims occurred in the Western Hemisphere.

The Human Rights First 2018 report noted: Of the estimated 16 million forced labor victims worldwide, only 1,038 cases of forced labor were prosecuted globally in 2016, according to the U.S. Department of State. In 2016, the Department of Justice convicted a total of 439 human traffickers, up from 297 in 2015 and 184 in 2014.

Children are trafficked out of or into the United States from all regions of the world and represent a variety of different races, ethnic groups and religions. They may be brought to the U.S. legally or are smuggling victims (Ark of Hope, 2018): Trafficked children can be lured to the U.S. through the promise of school or work and promised the opportunity to send money back to their families. Children are also vulnerable to kidnappers, pimps and professional brokers. Some children are even sold to traffickers by their families, who may or may not have an understanding of what will happen to the child. U.S. born children are also trafficked within the U.S., coming from any racial group, socio-economic background, and come from or are trafficked within both city and rural areas.

In 2016 the National Human Trafficking Center national hotline reported a total of 20,424 cases in the United States (Sorrell, 2017). California, with 1,012 cases, had the most, followed by Texas, Florida, Ohio, New York, Georgia and Michigan (NHTH, 2017a). The trafficking routes of international child victims often goes through major cities like Miami, Orlando, San Diego, New York, Chicago and Detroit, and then out to

27 nearby areas. The reports showed victims trafficked through Detroit or Chicago were from the following countries of origin: • Philippines, Korea, China, Vietnam. • Somalia, Sudan, Sri Lanka. • Columbia, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico. • Bosnia, Poland, Russia Federation, Belarus. • Canada.

The Southwest and Canadian borders are the most frequently reported borders used to enter the U.S. In the case of Latinos, it is more likely that they are brought in through the Southwest border and travel throughout the U.S. In the case of non-Hispanic victims, it is likely that they are brought in from the Canadian border.

Data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in 2016 showed victims are trafficked along a multitude of trafficking flows; within countries, between neighboring countries or even across different continents (UNODC, 2016). More than 500 different trafficking flows were detected between 2012 and 2014.

28 Korean victims were most often being brought in via Mexico or Toronto to Detroit, and Chinese victims were being brought to Chicago and New York by way of Toronto and Vancouver by boat, plane and vans. Traffickers move victims to more remote areas where they are sold while moving across the country. Once the traffickers have an established market demand in a state, the state becomes the direct destination route from the country of origin. The existence of human trafficking in neighboring states becomes a pull factor for distributing victims from the destination state.

The Polaris Project (2017) includes a comparison of primary sex trafficking networks in the United States, and some are listed below. Asian networks • Often run by an older Asian female in Asian massage parlors. • Women are between the ages of 18 and 55. • Advertising methods include classified ads in Asian newspapers, Internet classifieds, phone directories and word of mouth. • Women who are sexually exploited in the Asian massage parlors earn $60 per hour plus tips – which they must give to the manager. • Victims must see an average of five to 15 men a day. • The Johns are often middle- to upper-class working professionals, Asian men in private networks and some foreign businessmen. • Victims are often moved by Korean “taxi”, which is the underground taxi service that is used to transport women.

29 Latino networks • Often run by Latino male controllers, known as “padres” or fathers. • Victims are predominantly Mexican, Central and South American adult women and some minors. • Advertising methods include fake business cards distributed person-to-person, or word-of-mouth. • The victims can earn $30 for 15-minute sex acts from an average of 20 to 35 men per day, with the manager taking the money. • The Johns are often from closed networks catering to Latino males. • The victims are transported via cargo vans and commercial buses.

Foreign-born victims may not understand the language, culture or laws of the United States, so the traffickers threaten them that if they speak out or try to escape, they will be taken by other traffickers, arrested and deported. Victims have said that even though they wanted to escape, they were afraid the next trafficker or the police could be more brutal. With their current trafficker, at least they knew what to expect.

Traffickers tend to move victims often suddenly without warning, and working and boarding locations are secret. Victims cannot establish connections or build trust with someone who might help them if they are moved frequently. They will not have enough time to become familiar with their environment or find avenues to escape or find help from law enforcement or social service agencies.

If victims have documents, traffickers confiscate them to keep them from leaving. They are taught to avoid or lie to authorities to avoid physical punishment, and many victims avoid law enforcement in the U.S. because they suffered corruption by officials in their home country.

Immigrant communities may provide conditions that lead to smuggling and human trafficking because victims can be easily concealed within the greater immigrant communities. Large immigrant communities become a pull factor for trafficking because

30 potential victims may gravitate there. Large undocumented immigrant groups of Hispanic, Asian, African-Americans and Caucasian trafficking victims are found in established immigrant communities across the U.S.

Adults who are sex trafficking victims are often arrested and charged with prostitution, loitering or solicitation and may not disclose that they are victims or seek help out of fear that their captors will hurt them or their loved ones. Law enforcement may spend little time, or lack the knowledge, to determine whether these individuals are victims of force, fraud or coercion from traffickers.

Operation Cross Country is the FBI’s annual law enforcement action focused on recovering underage victims of prostitution and drawing the public’s attention to the problem of sex trafficking at home and abroad (FBI, 2017): In 2017, the program recovered 84 sexually exploited juveniles and arrested 120 traffickers. Operation Cross Country has expanded beyond the United States, with Canada, the United Kingdom, Cambodia, the Philippines and Thailand undertaking similar operations. Their efforts were coordinated with the FBI and its local, state and federal law enforcement partners along with the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC).

In 2017, NCMEC responded to 10,093 reports regarding possible child sex trafficking (NCMEC, 2018). It provides the following information on perpetrators of child sex trafficking today: Traffickers can be anyone who profits from the selling of a child for sex to a buyer, including family members, foster parents, friends, gangs, trusted adults or “boyfriends.” Much of the trafficking of children has moved from street corners and truck stops to the Internet, where children are sold for sex. Online classified sites allow traffickers and buyers anonymity and accessibility when exploiting children. Further, societal glamorization of “pimp culture” may make a child less likely to recognize or be wary of manipulative behavior. In some cases, there is no identified trafficker, and it is the person buying sex from the child who is

31 exploiting the child’s vulnerabilities. For instance, if a child runs away, a buyer may exploit the child’s need for food and shelter offering to provide that in exchange for sex.

The social networks in which children are involved may influence where and when they will trade sex. NCMEC's access to millions of reports through its CyberTipline uniquely positions the organization to spot developing trends in online threats to children. One of these trends is "online enticement," a broad category of online exploitation, including “sextortion,” in which a child is being groomed to (NCMEC, 2018): • Take sexually explicit images. • Ultimately meet face-to-face with someone for sexual purposes. • Engage in sexual conversations online.

RECOGNIZING THE SIGNS OF TRAFFICKING How can the public know if someone is a human trafficking victim or if this is happening in their communities? The United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (GIFT) provides the most comprehensive list of human trafficking indicators, but not all the indicators are present in all human trafficking situations. These indicators were initially published in 2012 but referenced on the 2018 website as well. One of the most powerful weapons to combat human trafficking is raising public awareness to recognize the indicators of abuse so authorities can be notified. The presence of any of the indicators should lead to investigation. The indicators are divided into six categories (United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking, 2012): General indicators People who have been trafficked may: • Believe they must work against their will and feel that they cannot leave. • Be unable to leave their work environment. • Show signs that their movements are being controlled. • Show fear or anxiety.

32 • Be subjected to violence or threats of violence against themselves or loved ones. • Suffer injuries that appear to be the result of an assault. • Suffer injuries or impairments typical of certain jobs or control measures. • Be distrustful of authorities. • Be threatened with being turned into authorities. • Not be in possession of their passports or travel documents because the trafficker has the victim’s documents. • Be afraid of revealing their immigration status. • Have false identity or travel documents. • Be found in or in connection with a location often used for exploitation. • Not know the local language. • Not know their home or work address. • Allow others to speak for them when addressed directly. • Act as if someone else instructed them. • Be forced to work under substandard conditions. • Be disciplined by group punishment. • Be unable to negotiate working conditions. • Receive little or no payment or have no access to their earnings. • Work excessively long hours over long periods of time. • Not have days off. • Live in poor or substandard conditions. • Have no access to medical care. • Have limited or no social interaction. • Have limited contact with family or others outside of their environment. • Be unable to communicate freely with others. • Believe they are bonded by debt. • Be in a situation of dependence. • Come from a known trafficking origination country. • Have their fees for transportation paid for by facilitators whom they must pay back by working or providing services in the destination country.

33 • Have acted on a false promise.

Children Children who have been trafficked may: • Have no access to their parents or guardians. • Seem intimidated and behave in a way that does not correspond with typical behavior of children their age. • Have no friends of their own age outside of work. • Have no access to education. • Have no time for playing. • Live apart from other children in substandard accommodations. • Eat apart from others in the family. • Be fed only leftovers. • Be engaged in work that is not suitable for children. • Travel unaccompanied by adults or in groups with persons who are not relatives. • Have child-sized clothing typically worn for doing manual or sex work. • Be present when toys and children’s clothing are found in inappropriate places, such as brothels or factories. • Be referred to as an unaccompanied child that the adult has “found.” • Be unaccompanied children carrying telephone numbers for calling taxis. • Be cases of illegal adoption, smuggling or kidnapping.

Domestic servitude People who have been trafficked for the purpose of domestic servitude may: • Live with the family. • Not eat with the rest of the family. • Have no private space. • Sleep in a shared or inappropriate space. • Be reported missing by their employer even though they are still living in the employer’s house.

34 • Never or rarely leave the house for social reasons. • Never leave the house without their employer. • Be fed only leftovers. • Be subjected to insults, abuse, and threats of violence or sexual exploitation.

Sexual exploitation Victims may: • Be of any age – ages often vary by location and the market. • Move from one brothel to the next or work in various locations. • Be escorted wherever they go. • Have tattoos, brands or other marks indicating ownership by the traffickers. • Work long hours or have few, if any days off. • Sleep where they work. • Live or travel in groups, sometimes with others who do not speak the same language. • Have very few items of clothing or clothes that are commonly worn for doing sex work. • Only know how to say sex-related words. • Have no cash of their own. • Be unable to show identification. • Have evidence of unprotected sex. • Have evidence that they cannot refuse sexual exploitation. • Have evidence that they have been bought and sold. • Be groups of women who are under the control of others. • Have been placed in brothels or similar places offering the services of women of a particular ethnicity or nationality. • Be sex workers who provide services to a clientele of a particular ethnicity or nationality. • Not smile.

35 Labor exploitation People who have been trafficked for labor exploitation are typically made to work in sectors such as agriculture, construction, entertainment, service industry and manufacturing in sweatshops. People who have been trafficked for labor exploitation may: • Live in groups in the same place where they work and rarely leave those premises, if at all. • Live in degraded, unsuitable places such as agricultural or industrial buildings. • May be dressed inadequately for the work they do, such as no protective gear or warm clothing. • Be fed only leftovers. • Have no access to earnings. • Have no labor contract. • Depend on their employer for work, transportation and accommodations. • Work excessively long hours, with few or no breaks, seven days a week. • Have no choice of accommodation. • Never leave the work premises without their employer. • Be unable to move freely. • Be subject to security measures designed to keep them on the work premises. • Be disciplined through fines. • Be subjected to insults, abuse, threats or violence. • Lack basic training and professional licenses. • Work where notices have been posted in languages other than the local language. • Work where there are no health and safety notices. • Have employers or managers unable to show documents required for employing workers from other countries. • Have employers or managers who are unable to show records of wages paid to workers. • Have health and safety equipment that is of poor quality or is missing.

36 • Use equipment that is designed or has been modified so that children can operate it. • Work where there is evidence that labor laws have been violated. • Work where there is evidence that they must pay for tools, food or accommodation, or that those costs are being deducted from their wages.

Begging and petty crime People who have been trafficked for begging or committing petty crimes may: • Be children, elderly or disabled migrants who tend to beg in public places and on public transport. • Be children carrying or selling illicit drugs. • Have physical impairments that appear to be the result of mutilation. • Be children of the same nationality or ethnicity. • Move in groups while traveling on public transportation. For example, when traveling on a train, they may walk up and down the length of the train. • Be unaccompanied minors who have been “found” by an adult of the same nationality or ethnicity. • Be children of the same nationality or ethnicity who move in large groups with only a few adults. • Participate in activities of organized criminal gangs. • Be part of large groups of children who have the same guardian. • Be punished if they do not collect or steal enough. • Live with members of their group. • Travel with members of their group to the country of destination. • Live as gang members with adults who are not their parents. • Move daily in large groups over considerable distances. • Be involved in new forms of gang-related crime appearing in the area. • Be involved in a group of suspected victims that has moved over a period of time to a number of countries.

37 • May have been involved in begging or in committing petty crimes in another country.

PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS TO ESCAPE There are several psychological factors that may keep victims locked in the world of sex trafficking because of their thought and belief patterns: • The victim may have paralyzing fear of harm to a loved one and threats of arrest and death. • Cultural factors from their home country may lead to shame, self-blame and low self-esteem. Victims may believe that even if they could escape, their family or friends would never accept them. In some countries, they would be killed by their families for dishonoring them, which is called honor killing. • Victims often experience serious psychological trauma that can lead to dissociation and PTSD, which affects their world view. • After a long period of dependence, exploitation and trauma, victims may give up hope of escaping and living a normal life and become resigned to their fate. • Stockholm syndrome may occur, and victims begin to identify with their captors, settling in to their life as a dependent victim. • They may be so traumatized that they lose all hope of finding anyone to help them and believe no one will care anyway. • Isolation, control of their every movement and basic needs for survival, including all monetary resources, lead victims to complete dependency and helplessness because they have lost all skills for autonomy or independence.

FEDERAL LAWS

The Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) addresses domestic and international victims of labor and sex trafficking in the United States as an amendment to the Violence Against Women Act (DOJ, 2017). In February 2013, Congress passed the Trafficking

38 Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2013 (TVPRA 2013), Pub. L. No. 113-4 (DOJ, 2017): This Act focuses in part on the elimination of human trafficking from the supply chain of goods. This legislation requires the Director of the DOS TIP Office, working with other DOS officials, DOL officials, and other U.S. governmental officials, to build partnerships between the U.S. Government and private entities to ensure that U.S. citizens do not use items, products, or materials produced or extracted with the use and labor of trafficking victims and that those entities do not contribute to trafficking in persons involving sexual exploitation.

The TVPRA 2013 also: • Strengthened the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking used by DOS to describe the anti-trafficking efforts of U.S. and foreign governments in its annual TIP Report. • Amended the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organization (RICO) Act to include labor contract fraud. • Amended the federal criminal code to (1) subject U.S. citizens or permanent resident aliens who reside overseas and engage in illicit sexual conduct with a person under 18 years of age to a fine or imprisonment or both; and (2) subject a person who knowingly destroys, conceals, removes, confiscates or possesses certain immigration documents to a fine or imprisonment or both. • Extended the statute of limitations for a victim to bring a civil action for an injury received while the victim was a minor that was caused by certain criminal sexual conduct or forced abortion related violations of federal criminal law. • Added reporting requirements for the attorney general’s human trafficking report.

The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 (JVTA), Pub. L. No. 114-22, gave the department more tools to address human trafficking by (DOJ, 2017): • Adding “patronizes” and “solicits” to 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a) to facilitate prosecution of customers of sex trafficking victims.

39 • Adding “advertises” to the modes of commission of an offense under 18 U.S.C. § 1591 when there is proof that the defendant knew the victim being advertised was a minor or that force, fraud or coercion would be used. • Clarifying that there is no need to prove either that the defendant knew, or that he recklessly disregarded, the fact that a sex trafficking victim was a minor if the defendant had a reasonable opportunity to observe the victim. • Amending 18 U.S.C. § 1594 to direct any assets forfeited in a human trafficking case to be used to satisfy a victim restitution order. It further allows forfeiture of, for example, any asset that is involved in, or is traceable to the proceeds of, human trafficking. • Adding the production of child pornography to the definition of “illicit sexual conduct” as used in 18 U.S.C. § 2423, which prohibits transportation and travel- conduct involving illegal sexual activity with children. See 18 U.S.C. § 2423(f). • Creating a mandatory $5,000 special assessment that applies to non-indigent defendants for each count of conviction of certain offenses, including offenses set forth in Chapter 77 and Chapter 110. The revenue generated from this special assessment shall be used to support programs to provide services to victims of human trafficking and other offenses. • Directing the attorney general to create and maintain a National Strategy to Combat Human Trafficking.

Despite the reauthorization of the TVPRA and added provisions to strengthen the laws against traffickers and to protect and support victims, the Alliance To End SexTrafficking concluded the following (ATEST 2017): These victims often experience severe trauma that requires intensive therapy, recovery, rehabilitation and restorative services as a result of their abuse. In addition, human trafficking and forced labor criminal cases are often complicated and lengthy legal proceedings that require additional resources for prosecutors as well as for victims. Many of these victims require comprehensive case management provided by victim services organizations to see them through their recovery, help them navigate the legal system, and provide assistance to law

40 enforcement, all of which are necessary to prosecute criminal enterprises involved in human trafficking.

The TVPRA is again up for reauthorization and new human trafficking bills are working through the House and Senate at this time. The U.S. Congress did pass the Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act (SESTA) in March 2018. SESTA provides a much-needed update to the Communications Decency Act (CDA) to help hold websites like Backpage accountable when they knowingly facilitate sex trafficking (Polaris, 2018c): SESTA is bipartisan legislation that enables state law enforcement officials to take legal action against individuals or businesses that violate federal sex trafficking laws without inadvertently affecting good actors who are not knowingly facilitating sex trafficking. SESTA also clarifies that victims of sex trafficking can seek civil remedy against the websites that facilitated their victimization. The National Human Trafficking Hotline, which is operated by Polaris, has received nearly 2,000 reports of sex trafficking that were facilitated through online advertisements.

STATE LAW Human trafficking is crime in every state, with laws that establish criminal penalties for traffickers who profit from forced sexual and labor servitude. The laws vary in several ways including who is defined as a “trafficker,” the statutory elements required to prove guilt in order to obtain a conviction, and the seriousness of the criminal and financial penalties those convicted will face (NCSL, 2018).

State legislation can address community awareness and increase local media attention, as well as increase training for law enforcement, educators, health-care professionals and community members to expand victim identification, protection, referral for services, and prosecution for traffickers.

41 The Polaris Project’s U.S. Policy Program partners with local advocacy organizations, state and local task forces and coalitions, and grassroots advocates and locally led anti- trafficking legislative campaigns to enact legislation at the state level. Polaris programs include: • Tracking all pending state legislation related to human trafficking. • Drafting and analyzing legislation, providing model laws and guidelines, lobbying, and providing and presenting testimony.

Data on every state is available on the Polaris Project website, including pending legislation and enacted laws and penalties. It is important to study the data at the Polaris Project website to understand the difficulty in eliminating human trafficking because of the inconsistency among states in anti-trafficking laws, penalties, enforcement and data- sharing systems.

INTERVENTION AND PREVENTION

Reporting possible human trafficking The NHTH toll-free hotline at 1-888-373-7888 is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week. In case of immediate danger, call 911. In addition, there is an online form that can be completed and submitted anonymously. The caller’s information will be kept confidential unless the caller gives consent to release their contact information to law enforcement. The report will be referred to specialized law enforcement agencies or service providers if the supervisor deems necessary. The national hotline is not a law enforcement or an investigative agency (NHTH, 2018). A response to a trafficking case may include any of the following action steps: • Follow-up call with the caller for additional information or to coordinate next steps (with caller's consent). • Report to or designated law enforcement partners for investigation. • Coordinate with law enforcement and/or service provider partners for emergency assistance.

42 • Referral or live transfer to the hotline’s service provider partners to ensure victim service needs are met.

Tips are prioritized by their level of urgency: • Urgent cases: Supervisors initiate a response plan on urgent cases while you are on the phone or within minutes of ending the call. All cases involving minor victims are considered urgent cases. • Non-urgent cases: Non-urgent cases are reviewed by a supervisor and reported (where appropriate) within less than 24 hours. • Lack of information: Tips lacking in concrete information pertaining to potential trafficking situations may not be reported by the national hotline.

A sample of the online form, as well as a link to submit a report for missing children or child pornography to NCMEC, is available on the NHTH website. You can also call 1- 800-THE-LOST (843-5678) or contact their CyberTipline (NHTH, 2018).

TRAUMA-CENTERED APPROACH TO TRAFFICKING SURVIVOR CARE Milam, Borello & Pooler (2017) discuss the importance of a trauma-centered approach when interviewing and assisting trafficking survivors: Traffickers employ a mix of force, fraud and coercion to entrap their victims. Traffickers later amplify these techniques to assure that their victims will be unable or unwilling to leave. As a result of the elaborate network of abuse, the trauma experienced by victims often renders them unable to identify themselves as victims or ask for help. Trauma-informed care comprises the victim-centered practices that allow the victim to begin working through the trauma while simultaneously participating in the criminal justice process. This type of intervention is essential to avoid the likely pitfalls of re-traumatization, feelings of insecurity and withdrawal of cooperation, which can be consequences of insensitive care.

43 The mental health practitioner will often be a part of a highly specialized team that addresses the unique needs of the survivor and works with law enforcement to rescue other potential victims, arrest the trafficker and close down the business. Of course, the individual will need a medical and psychological evaluation and the team will need to assess the nature of the trauma and the effects the survivor is experiencing in order to address their needs in a treatment plan.

Milam, Borello & Pooler (2017) suggest the following tips for working with the survivor in the in the early stages of contact as summarized below: • Staff should always work to create genuine rapport and trust before attempting to engage a victim in the law enforcement process. It is not always about the facts of the investigation or case, and not building rapport and trust creates the risk of re- traumatization and damage to the working relationship. • It is important to restore feelings of self-efficacy and control to the survivor by providing them with opportunities for choice and consistency. Allowing them to meet with an agent whose gender puts the victim at ease, or allowing them to select the location for meetings, greatly empowers victims. Demonstrate honesty and respect. • Attitude and behavior during the interview are critical to guard against actions that can be interpreted as biased or judgmental. • A familiarity with and keen attention to the meaning of both verbal and nonverbal cues are also essential. Crossed arms, lack of eye contact and changes in facial expression can all indicate shifts in victim comfort during the interview • For children younger than 12, a children’s advocacy center (CAC) is an excellent resource to create a neutral, non-intimidating, child-appropriate environment that can help reduce the child’s stress. CACs boast of expertly trained child interview specialists and can assist victims’ families in obtaining medical, mental health and advocacy services. • For older children and adults, a private yet informal office setting provides an excellent environment with few distractions. An environment that allows the

44 victim to feel safe, relaxed and comfortable is indispensable for gaining cooperation and trust. • Questions should be open-ended, allowing for a narrative response. Such questions require elaboration and cannot be answered with a “yes” or “no” response. The responses to these questions can be further expanded with phrases such as, “Can you describe what happened next?” or, “Please tell me more about that.” Inevitably, some victims will not respond freely using these techniques. Instead, shift from open-ended questions to those that offer a choice, such as, “was it blue, red or some other color?”

Often trafficking survivors have been manipulated to believe that law enforcement personnel cannot be trusted or, in cases of survivors or refugees from foreign countries, they may have had negative contacts with police. They may have been told that they will be in trouble and imprisoned because they have broken the law. The mental health practitioner as a non-governmental organization representative may be less threatening to the survivor as they are there to provide much-needed services and supports rather than conduct a criminal investigation.

The role of the mental health practitioner is critical to facilitating the survivor’s recovery and keeping them from returning to the trafficker during this initial stage.

A trauma-centered approach is important to assist the survivor to reach out and accept services when their trust has been betrayed. A welcoming and safe atmosphere must be provided and translators who are familiar with the client’s language and culture must be available to facilitate trust with the survivor.

All team members must show empathy and understand the impact of the trauma in order to begin the process of counteracting the experience of abuse that may have been the survivor’s reality for months or even years.

45 Carole Warshaw, MD, of the National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health, provides the following recommendations for establishing a program based on trauma-centered care (Warshaw, 2015): Creating culturally attuned, trauma-informed service environments: • Physical and sensory environment:

o Be attentive to sensory impact; soothing, welcoming, enlivening and safe. o Be culture and gender inclusive/responsive. o Be attune to sensory stimulation; quiet places, provide choices. • Relational environment:

o Restoring dignity and emotional safety; countering perpetrator control. o Use respectful, collaborative connections. o Provide empowering, positive information. o Focus on resilience and strengths. o Provide clarity, consistency, transparency, choice and control. • Programmatic environment:

o Examine policies and procedures. o Allow for adaptation and flexibility. o Include emotional safety planning. o Prepare for trauma triggers.

Intake and assessment • Emotional safety:

o Offer empathy, validation and respect. o Share concerns without imposing own point of view. o Explanation, preparation, pacing, choice, tools. • Genuine interest and openness:

o Provide space to talk about things that are important or challenging without judgment or blame. • Attention to imbalances/issues of power:

o Create opportunity to participate in give-and-take relationship without risk of retaliation.

46 • Awareness of our own responses:

o Ability to tolerate fear and uncertainty.

Facilitating healing, resilience and well-being • Healing from trauma often begins by:

o Restoring safety, connections, capacities, trust, meaning and hope. o Accessing empowering information. o Honoring strengths and resilience. o Emotional and interpersonal skill-building. o Enhancing affect regulation and interpersonal skills. o Anticipating and preparing for trauma triggers. o Developing or reconnecting with supportive aspects of culture, community and spirituality and engaging meaningful activities.

INTERVENTION AND PREVENTION

The U.S. State Department Trafficking in Persons Study (2017a) noted the Department of Homeland Security continued its nationwide human trafficking awareness Blue Campaign and developed new products, including a toolkit for the hospitality sector. The Blue campaign brings together federal departments and agencies to ensure a whole-of- government approach that addresses all aspects of human trafficking (DHS.gov., 2018):

DOJ prepared a toolkit of materials and resources for distribution during outreach events that includes victim identification practices and protocols for assisting possible trafficking victims. HHS launched a new awareness campaign that incorporated stakeholder and survivor input and continued to provide training to health-care and social service professionals.

Working in collaboration with law enforcement, government, non-governmental and private organizations, the Department of Homeland Security Blue Campaign strives to protect the basic right of freedom and to bring those who exploit human lives to justice (DHS.gov., 2018):

47 The President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (PITF) brings together federal departments and agencies to ensure a whole-of-government approach that addresses all aspects of human trafficking. The fight requires the contributions of all, including: • Workers on the front lines, including first responders, social workers, community volunteers, health-care providers, teachers and law enforcement. • A range of organizations – including private, public and non-profit – that are committed to social responsibility and willing to speak out about this terrible scourge. • Faith-based networks and houses of worship. • Government entities that create and foster strong relationships to bring communities together and facilitate collaboration and the sharing of best practices. • Members of the public who, through the knowledge of their communities, can be the greatest asset in this fight.

The Polaris Project (2018d) website on human trafficking contains national, state and regional resources that offer information, expertise, speakers and public service announcements. The Polaris Project employs a holistic approach to conduct direct outreach, victim identification, social services and transitional housing; advocate for tougher state and federal legislation; and energizing community and national grassroots efforts. It offers an extensive list of resources on tips, referrals, reports and training. The Polaris Project has developed training for law enforcement along with training programs and guides for service providers and others who may come in contact with trafficking victims. The Polaris Project includes: • Direct outreach and victim identification. • Social services and transitional housing to victims. • Operating the National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC). • Advocating for stronger state and federal anti-trafficking legislation. • Engaging community members in local and national grassroots efforts.

48 The Polaris Project website, www.polarisproject.org, includes information on statistics for human trafficking for every state along with resources for information on service providers and assistance for victims.

If there is no immediate emergency, the Polaris Project recommends a list of national resources to call if human trafficking is suspected. Educational awareness resource guides can be ordered or downloaded, and many of these websites and resources are included in the resource section at the end of the course.

Human trafficking prevention often overlaps other prevention efforts, such as sexual intimate violence, domestic violence, sex education, alcohol and drug prevention, runaway/homelessness, health screenings and screenings done at hospitals in emergency rooms.

Information about the trafficking system, indicators and the effects of trafficking on victims should be included in all programs and services for youths and adults in the community where trafficking promoters live and work.

Controlling, monitoring and eliminating pornography and sexual entertainment establishments should be a major focus because of their influence on social norms, sexual markets, sexual addiction and behavior, and the local economy. These businesses are a driving force in the demand for commercial sex trafficking.

Prevention of human trafficking requires collaboration and networking information gathered from community organizations, educators, youth mentors, health and mental health providers, social services agencies, and faith and law enforcement communities.

Through the perspectives of service providers, an exploratory qualitative study was designed to examine the factors of vulnerability of victims, the issues that support reintegration for survivors, and the best practices as well as indicators of success when caring for survivors (Shafer, 2016). The results of the study are summarized below:

49 When caring for clients, service providers will require time, access to qualified therapists, secure environments, provision for education and basic needs, training in life skills, job skills and opportunities for gainful employment to successfully reintegrate after their exit from trafficking. Furthermore, they need counselors able to connect with survivors to model a healthy relationship and encourage them incrementally toward recovery. Accommodations must be made to guard against self-harm and to prevent clients from trying to return to their traffickers or being recaptured. Policies must be enforced that ensure services become available for the thousands of victims and assure the individuals are not penalized legally, for example, with prostitution charges, for their victimization. Finally, service providers need to have a continuing presence in a coordinated network to provide support and empowering resources as clients reintegrate into society.

Best practices for human trafficking prevention programs include (DHS, 2018): • Programs to educate youths on the harm and risk of pornography, prostitution, runaways, human trafficking, literacy, the dangers of the Internet, and risk reduction for vulnerable individuals. Youths need training on how to avoid the traps of traffickers and gangs, and how to intervene with peers in danger and communicate that information to adults and law enforcement who can intervene. • Work with allied prevention programs and services, such as those on sexual and domestic violence, migrants and immigration, sex education, alcohol and drug prevention, drug courts, social services, and services for dysfunctional families. • Work with school systems, faith-based organization, human service organizations, civic, government and other innovative groups to integrate the information into existing programs and services. • Work with national, state and local organizations to focus on teaching and changing attitudes among young men about respect and responsibility as citizens, and to train adult men to work with youths as role models and mentors regarding positive relationships with women. • Community organizations should build relationships with law enforcement officers to coordinate more efficient and effective systems for assisting victims.

50 • Employees and volunteers from these organizations can present information from their perspective at sessions for sex customers. • Become involved in statewide and national anti-human trafficking organizations to learn, network and share best practices to reduce demand and to identify and help victims.

ENFORCEMENT OF LABOR LAWS AND CONSUMER EDUCATION Labor law enforcement is important to victims because the activity remains undetected by authorities unless the employer is reported or the victim escapes. Supporting businesses that refuse to benefit from selling products that contribute to human trafficking as well as fair trade options for consumers has been used to decrease human trafficking.

Many nonprofit organizations that work to combat human trafficking have promoted the sale of fair trade items made by trafficking survivors as a way to support victims and offer products that consumers can trust were produced ethically. An example of a global nonprofit fair trade organization is Ten Thousand Villages that supports the work of 20,000 people in 30 developing countries (Ten Thousand Villages, 2017). Forty million dollars in sustainable income has been earned by artists and craftsmen who would be unemployed or underemployed without the program that was founded in 1946.

U.S. Immigration & Customs Enforcement

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) works with various U.S. and foreign law enforcement agencies to stop criminal networks that drive human trafficking globally. Every day, Homeland Security Investigation (HIS) agents around the globe work to uncover, dismantle and disrupt human trafficking (ICE, 2017): In fiscal year 2016, HSI initiated 1,029 investigations with a nexus to human trafficking and recorded 1,952 arrests, 1,176 indictments and 631 convictions; 435 victims were identified and assisted. ICE continues to make human

51 trafficking cases a top investigative priority, bringing traffickers to justice and connecting victims to services to help them restore their lives. HSI as an agency is first and foremost about the people it is here to protect and serve, therefore identifying and assisting victims is paramount. As a result, HSI employs a victim- centered approach, where equal value is placed on the identification and stabilization of victims, as well as the investigation and prosecution of traffickers. HSI has dedicated human trafficking investigative groups in each of the special agent in charge field offices with subject matter experts in outlying offices as well. Special agents proactively identify cross-border criminal trafficking organizations and prioritize investigations according to the degree of risk posed by each to national security and public safety. Overseas, HSI investigations are carried out through ICE Attaché offices in conjunction with host country law enforcement partners. HSI leads international trainings in order to build the capacity to conduct human trafficking investigations with host country authorities

Human Smuggling & Trafficking Center (HSTC) (ICE, 2017): The HSTC is an interagency center of subject matter experts with expertise in intelligence analysis, law enforcement collaboration and support, and diplomacy. The HSTC serves as a clearinghouse for federal data related to human trafficking. The primary members are the Departments of Justice, State and Homeland Security

RESOURCES U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) National Human Trafficking Resource Center (operated by Polaris Project) Campaign to Rescue and

Restore Victims of Human Trafficking: • Visit http://www.acf.hhs.gov/trafficking/index.html • Human Trafficking Hotline: 1-888-373-7888 and Text 233733. • Toll-free and national in scope. • 24-hour capacity.

52 • Non-law-enforcement. • Call to report a potential case of human trafficking; connect with anti- trafficking services in your area; or to request training, technical assistance or general information on human trafficking.

U.S. Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons: • Visit http://www.state.gov/g/tip

National Domestic Violence Hotline: • 1-800-799-7233. • Visit http://www.thehotline.org. • Toll-free and national in scope; 24-hour availability. • Ability to make local referrals to crisis shelters in cities and towns across the U.S.

Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN) • 1-800-656-Hope (4673). • Toll-free and national in scope. • 24-hour capacity. • Visit http://www.rainn.org.

National Runaway Safeline • 1-800-Runaway (786–2929). • Toll-free and national in scope. • 24-hour capacity. • Call 1-800-RUNAWAY. • Visit 1800RUNAWAY.org • Text 66008.

Covenant House Nineline

53 • 1-800-999-9999. • Toll-free and national in scope. • Crisis hotline for youth and parents. Shelter, referrals, information, crisis intervention and health clinic. Referrals throughout the U.S., bilingual, free, and confidential. • Visit https://teenlineonline.org/yyp/covenant-house-nineline/

Operation Cross Country XI FBI’s annual law enforcement action focused on recovering underage victims of prostitution and drawing the public’s attention to the problem of sex trafficking at home and abroad.

Recovering Underage Victims of Sex Trafficking and Prostitution In an emergency that requires an immediate law enforcement response, please call 911 or contact the local Police Department or Sheriff’s Department first. The FBI works to end human trafficking worldwide and to free its victims. Its efforts are focused on combating the exploitation of individuals who work in labor industries and who are forced into prostitution or slave labor. https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/operation-cross-country-xi.

U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) Trafficking in Persons and Worker Exploitation Task Force • Visit https://www.justice.gov/humantrafficking/department-justice-components. • Act immediately if you believe that a child is missing. Call local law enforcement first, then call the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children:(link is external)800-THE-LOST (800-843-5678) and download the quick reference guide for families in English(link is external) or Spanish(link is external). • Toll–free and national in scope. • Call to report potential cases of human trafficking and crimes against children.

54 Human Trafficking Blue Campaign • Visit https://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign. • Free posters, pamphlets, pocket cards and public service announcements available in 12 languages through USDHS. • To report suspicious activity or potential human trafficking, call 1-866-347-2423

Free the Slaves Visit www.freetheslaves.net/ • Free the Slaves liberates slaves around the world and helps them rebuild their lives. • It conducts research in real-world solutions to eradicate slavery using world-class research and compelling stories from the front lines. • It works to develop programs and funding to end slavery. • Call 202-775-7480.

International Justice Mission (IJM). IJM is a human rights agency that secures justice for victims of slavery, sexual exploitation and other forms of violent oppression. Its four goals are:

o Victim relief. o Perpetrator accountability. o Victim aftercare. o Structural transformation. • IJM lawyers, investigators and aftercare professionals work with local officials to ensure immediate victim rescue, prosecute perpetrators and promote functioning public justice systems. • 703-465-5495. • Visit at www.ijm.org.

Anti-Slavery International

55 • Works at the local, state and international levels to eliminate all forms of international slavery.

National Center for Missing and Exploited Children • Visit http://www.ncmec.org. • 1-800-843-5678 (1-800-THE LOST)

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime • Visit http://www.unodc.org United Nations Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography • Visit http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/OPSC CRC.aspx

56 References

Alliance to End Slavery and End Sex Trafficking (2017). Summary of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and Reauthorizations FY 2017. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://endslaveryandtrafficking.org/summary- trafficking-victims-protection-act-tvpa-reauthorizations-fy-2017-2/

Alpert, E. J. (2016). Human Trafficking and Health Care: Practical Strategies for Identification, Assessment, and Response. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.bu.edu/familymed/files/2016/05/2016-Stevens-Lecture-for-distribution.pdf

Ark of Hope for Children, Inc. (2017). Statistics Compiled by Ark of Hope for Children. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://arkofhopeforchildren.org/child-trafficking/child- trafficking-statistics

Axam, H., Toritto-Leonardo, J. (2017). Human Trafficking: The Fundamentals. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.justice.gov/usao/page/file/1008856/download

Boyd, D. (2017). She Was Seduced by Money, But Traffickers Stole Her Innocence and Sold Her for Sex. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from http://www.star- telegram.com/news/local/community/fort-worth/article185175983.html

Busch-Armendariz, N., Nale, N. L., Kammer-Kerwick, M., Kellison, B., Torres, M. I. M., … Nehme, J. (2016). Human Trafficking by the Numbers: The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and Economic Impact for Texas. Retrieved March 26, 2018, from http://sites.utexas.edu/idvsa/files/2017/02/Human-Trafficking-by-the- Numbers-2016.pdf

Department of Homeland Security. (2017). Human Trafficking. Retrieved March 26, 2018, from https://www.ice.gov/features/human-trafficking

Department of Homeland Security. (2018). The Blue Campaign: Partnerships. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign/partnerships

Emmons, J. K., (2018). Human Trafficking Fast Facts. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from http://www.senatorjudyemmons.com/human-trafficking/human-trafficking-fast-facts/

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2017). Operation Cross Country XI Recovering Underage Victims of Sex Trafficking and Prostitution. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/operation-cross- country-xi

Fisher, N. (2017). Human Trafficking Is in Plain Sight. Are You Supporting It Without Knowing? Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicolefisher/2017/04/24/human-trafficking-in-plain- sight/#3c9d538851f8

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Fort Worth Police Department. (2018). Tarrant County 5-Stones Taskforce. Retrieved March 26, 2018, from https://www.fortworthpd.com/Divisions/tarrant-county-5-stones- taskforce.aspx

Human Rights First. (2018). Human Trafficking by the Numbers. Retrieved March 25, 2018 from https://www.humanrightsfirst.org/resource/human- trafficking-numbers

Ijadi-Maghsoodi, R., Cook, M., Barnert, E. S, Gaboian, S., Bath, E. (2016). Understanding and Responding to the Needs of Commercially Sexually Exploited Youth: Recommendations for the Mental Health Provider. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2016 Jan; 25(1):107-22. doi: 10.1016/j.chc.2015.08.007. Review.PMID:26593123. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4725731/

Immigrations and Customs Enforcement. (2017). Human Trafficking vs Human Smuggling. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.ice.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Report/2017/CSReport-13-1.pdf

International Labour Organization. (2017). Global Estimates of Modern Slavery. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@dcomm/documents/publication/ wcms_575479.pdf

Levine, J. A., Schumacker, U. (2016). Mental Health Issues in Survivors of Sex Trafficking. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331205X.2017.1278841

Martin, P., McKim, J. (2018). Across the U.S., Many Illicit Massage Parlors Avoid Police Detection. Retrieved March 24, 2018 from https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-01- 25/across-us-many-illicit-massage-parlors-avoid-police-detection

Milam, M., Borrello, N., Pooler, J. (2017). The Survivor-Centered, Trauma-Informed Approach. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.justice.gov/usao/page/file/1008856/download

National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. (2018). Child Sex Trafficking. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from http://www.missingkids.com/theissues/cse/cstt

National Conference of State Legislatures. (2018). Human Trafficking Overview. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal- justice/human-trafficking.aspx

National Human Trafficking Center Hotline. (2015). Hotline Statistics. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://humantraffickinghotline.org/resources/2015-nhtrc-annual-report.

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National Human Trafficking Center Hotline. (2017a). Ranking of the 100 Most Populous U.S. Cities 12/7/2007 – 12/31/2016. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://humantraffickinghotline.org/sites/default/files/100 percent20Most percent20Populous percent20Cities percent20Report.pdf

National Human Trafficking Center Hotline. (2017b). Texas. Retrieved March 27, 2018, from https://humantraffickinghotline.org/state/texas

National Human Trafficking Center Hotline. (2018). Report Trafficking. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from http://humantraffickinghotline.org/report-trafficking

National Institute of Justice. (2016). Labor Trafficking in San Diego County: Looking for a Hidden Population. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.nij.gov/topics/crime/human-trafficking/Pages/labor-trafficking-san-diego- county.aspx

Polaris Project. (2017). The Typology of Modern Slavery. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://polarisproject.org/sites/default/files/Polaris-Typology-of-Modern- Slavery.pdf

Polaris Project. (2018a). The Facts. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/facts

Polaris Project. (2018b). Human Trafficking in Illicit Massage Businesses. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://polarisproject.org/sites/default/files/Full percent20Report percent20-percent20Human percent20Trafficking percent20in percent20Illicit percent20Massage percent20Businesses.pdf

Polaris Project. (2018c). SESTA Passes Senate. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://polarisproject.org/news/press-releases/sesta-passes-senate

Polaris Project. (2018d). Resources. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from http://polarisproject.org/resources

Shafer, J., D. (2016). Human Trafficking: Exploration of Best Practices for Restoration and Integration for Survivors in Southeastern United States. Retrieved March 25, 2018, from https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1207&context= honors-theses

Shehan, S., Rafmuth, A., (2017). Domestic Child Sex Trafficking and Children Missing from Care. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://www.justice.gov/usao/page/file/1008856/download

59 Schmitt, V., (2016). Sex trafficking and LGBTQ Youth. Retrieved March 2016 from https://polarisproject.org/resources/sex-trafficking-and-lgbtq-youth

Sorrell, R. (2017). Report Card Rates States on Human Trafficking Issues; Tenn. Among Best. Retrieved March 26, 2018, from http://www.heraldcourier.com/news/report-card- rates-states-on-human-trafficking-issues-tenn-among/article_d410d666-bf72-5f0b-a4d9- a92a51f4cdfa.html

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60 Human Trafficking in The United States: Foreign and Domestic Victims

Final Examination

1. Human trafficking is a crime in which a person is brought into the country by: a. Force, fraud or coercion. b. Physical smuggling, underground passage and coercion. c. A choice to evade detection by U.S. Customs. d. Smuggling only.

2. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act: a. Still fails to view juvenile prostitutes as victims. b. Has a more lenient view of “Johns” than previously and considers them victims. c. Includes recruiting, harboring, transporting, supplying or obtaining a person for labor or services using force or fraud or coercion. d. Excludes activities associated with transport of persons to serve as laborers.

3. How many people in the world are estimated to be legally without a country and thereby stateless and lacking legal standing in any nation? a. 12 million. b. 7 million. c. 2 million. d. 25 million.

4. Which of the following is a factor in the high numbers of foreign-born trafficking victims? a. They are difficult to move in and out of a state. b. The growing number of legal and illegal immigrant populations who recruit victims is high. c. State laws are strict. d. Law enforcement normally only looks at instate trafficking.

5. Which of the following statements is true about trafficking? a. Trafficking seldom occurs in the north and Midwest. b. Businesses that appear legitimate seldom are fronts for human trafficking in the sex trade in small towns. c. Victims seldom come from the Philippines and Korea. d. Law enforcement data shows highly organized networks operated much like illegal drug organizations.

6. Of the runaway youth at risk for human trafficking, how many were in the care of social services when they were reported missing? a. 3 percent. b. 18 percent. c. 25 percent. d. 86 percent.

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7. Identified “push” factors in the countries of origin that lead to vulnerable victims include: a. Poor economic growth and unemployment levels. b. Popular culture in the U.S. c. Increased mobility. d. family in the receiving country.

8. Some “pull” factors in human trafficking include: a. Little demand for sexual and labor services. b. A sizable population of literate, well-educated, foreign-born persons in the state. c. High numbers of children ages 12 to 17 that include runaways, homeless youth, and LGBTQ youth. d. Poverty.

9. General indicators that people have been trafficked include: a. They do not have possession of passports and travel documents or have false identity or travel documents. b. They live in a large family with many siblings. c. They desperately reach out to others for help. d. They live in a community with ethnic diversity or in minority communities.

10. Psychological factors that may keep victims locked in the world of sex trafficking because of their internal thought and believe patterns include: a. A sense of fearlessness, mixed with panic and withdrawal. b. Cultural or social factors that celebrate sexual freedom. c. Experiencing serious psychological trauma that may lead to dissociation and post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which affects their view of the world. d. Borderline personality disorder

11. The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 added______to the definition of “illicit sexual conduct.” a. the production of child pornography b. the interstate transport of victims c. the abuse of LGBTQ individuals d. the online sale of victims

12. These victims often experience ______that requires intensive therapy, recovery, rehabilitation, and restorative services as a result of their abuse. a. Isolation b. Severe trauma c. Separation from loved ones d. Alienation

13. It is important to restore feelings of ______to the survivor by providing them with opportunities for choice and consistency.

62 a. calm and normalcy b. culture and routine c. self-efficacy and control d. justice and restitution

14. The ____ employs a holistic approach to conduct direct outreach, victim identification, social services and transitional housing; advocate for tougher state and federal legislation; and energizing community and national grassroots efforts. a. Polaris Project. b. Operation Cross Country. c. TIP report. d. The NHTH.

15. Best practices for human trafficking prevention for youth should include: a. Funding for after school and community-based activities and increased law enforcement presence. b. Education for harm and risk of pornography, prostitution, runaways, human trafficking, literacy, the dangers of the Internet. c. Social outreach programs, shelters for runaway youth, literacy programs. d. Community partnerships with law enforcement to increase communication and programs to lower dropout rates and gang affiliation.

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