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A Study of Dom in Old English Poetry a Study Of A STUDY OF DOM IN OLD ENGLISH POETRY A STUDY OF DOM IN OLD ENGLISH POETRY By GRAHAM DOUGLAS CAIE, M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University May, 1974 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (1974) McMASTER UNIVERSITY (English) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: A Study of Dom in Old English Poetry AUTHOR: Graham Douglas Caie, M.A. (Aberdeen University) M.A. (McMaster University) SUPERVISOR: Professor A. A. Lee NUMBER OF PAGES: viii, 347 ii ABSTRACT The study of the theme of dom and the Old English Doomsday verse (Judgment Day I, Judgment Day II and Christ III) begins with an investi­ gation of the word-symbol itself and its possible meanings in poetic context. The initial, philological analysis is not intended to be exhaustive (and examples are largely limited to the poetic corpus), but rather to answer such questions as why one monosyllable can have such divergent referents as "law", "fate", "judgment", "wisdom", "self­ assessment", "opinion" and both "heroic" "fame" and Christian "glory", and also to aid our understanding of the possible nuances of meaning of dom in the poetry. The method is intended to add an important perspective to an historical approach to medieval literature, for it can lead to a deeper appreciation of the poetic "word-hoard" and the complexity of associations particular word-symbols might have evoked in the Anglo- Saxon audience. Dom is analyzed initially in the light of Peter Clemoes' statement that Old English words can be "nuclei of meaning, symbols of integrated experience, [and] aggregates of traditional association". The semantic investigation leads on to a study of the concept of <lorn as both "heroic" reputation, the "pagan consolation", and the complex Christian idea of "glory", in particular referring to the after-life. An appreciation of the way in which a word was adopted and baptized by the Christian poets illustrates how the successful fusion of heroic and Christian concepts took place in Anglo-Saxon times, and how the "word­ iii hoard", the traditional vocabulary and metaphors, was adapted to convey the new and complex doctrines. The study of a semantic shift can shed light on the evolution of an idea. The major part of the study is devoted to an analysis of the eschatological poetry in the light of the semantic investigation, for in these works the relationship between the divergent referents of dom and the parallels between heroic and Christian ideas of the after-life can be demonstrated best. The poets of the Doomsday verse do not simply recount the traditional, eschatological events, but treat the biblical, patristic and apocryphal accounts of the Last Things imaginatively and figuratively in order to stress their didactic theme which is that the moment of Judgment is ever-present and that immortality is gained by the individual's constant attempt to approximate what is considered the state of perfection. The themes of Judgment Day and the Apocalypse are very minor and, like the accounts of hell with which they are often confused, used as an incentive to better living. The poems are centripetal, aimed at instructing the individual at the present moment. The nature of the reward is rarely discussed and if so often in negative terms. Consequently, the Christian concept of dom as "glory", divine "fame", is akin to the earlier "heroic" one. Both traditions, based on hierarchical principles, stress that man's duty is to strive continuously towards a perfection which was conceived of in terms of the ethical law, although the nature of that law and the future reward differed. The important dom "judgment" rests with the individual to choose to act in a dorngeorn ("eager for glory") state and gain the sodfrestra dom "the iv glory of the righteous" like Beowulf or the Christian saint. Thus the concepts of dom as "decision", "judgment", "glory", etc. are seen to be inextricably fused, as are the heroic and Christian traditions in Anglo­ Saxon times. Such findings also substantiate what was discovered in the semantic study, and the philological and literary-thematic analyses complement each other. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my sincerest thanks to Professor A. A. Lee for his guidance and scholarly counsel during the preparation of this work. I should also like to thank my wife for being so helpful in many ways, and the Canada Council for their continued financial help. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS viii INTRODUCTION 1 I ETYMOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC STUDY 7 OF DOM AND ITS COGNATE FORMS II AN INTERPRETATIVE ANALYSIS OF DOM AS 33 "FAME", "GLORY" IN ITS POETIC CONTEXT III THE THEME OF DOM 64 IV JUDGMENT DAY I 102 v JUDGMENT DAY II 124 VI CHRIST III 172 CONCLUSION 244 APPENDIX: The Signs of Doom 256 NOTES 276 BIBLIOGRAPHY 338 vii LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS Symbols: [a] 'V [b]: a is cognate with b, rather than related to it. [a] > [b]: b is a form derivative from a. * denotes a hypothetical, reconstructed form. Languages: Gk. Greek. Go. Gothic. I.E. Indo-European (reconstructed). L. - Latin. Mod. E. - Modern English. O.E. Old English. O.Fris. - Old Frisian. O.H.G. Old High German. O.N. - Old Norse. o.s. Old Saxon. O.Sl. Old Slavonic. Pr.Gmc. - Primitive Germanic (reconstructed). Skt. Sanskrit. Titles: ASPR - George P. Krapp and Elliott V.K. Dobbie, eds. The Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records. 6 vols. New York, 1931-1953. Bethurum ­ Dorothy Bethurum, ed. The Homilies of Wulfstan. Oxford; 1957. B-T - Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. London, 1898. Supplement by T. Northcote Toller, 1921. Klaeber Fr. Klaeber, ed. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. 3rd ed. Boston, 1950. Morris ­ Richard Morris, ed. The Blickling Homilies. EETS o.s. 58, 63 and 73. London, 1874-80. Reprinted as one volume in 1967. PL - J.P. Migne, ed. Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Latina Prior. Paris, 1857-1903. Wrenn ­ Charles L. Wrenn, ed. Beowulf with the Finnesburg Fragment. London, 1953. Title abbreviations follow Magoun's code outlined in "Abbreviated Titles for the Poems of the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Corpus", ~tudes Anglaises, 8, (1955), ~ 144-46. vi INTRODUCTION One monosyllable in Old English, <lorn, can be translated into modern English by such differing referents as "judgement", "decree", "opinion", "free choice", "will", "sense", "interpretation", "wisdom", "fate", "power", "fame", "glory" and "honour". One immediately wonders about the semantic relationship between these concepts, how they might be distinguished in context and to what extent there might be ambiguity. Of specific interest in this study is the fact that the symbol dom does refer both to the "pagan consolation" of worldly fame and to the Christian concept of immortal glory, the state of being at one with God. The investigation of "fame" and "glory" is not ultimately semantic, but it takes its starting point from linguistic analysis and concentrates on the evidence presented in Old English poetry. The philologist, having determined the subtle nuances of meaning which distinguish different referents, can often throw light on the interpretation of the poem itself. From semantic evidence the associations surrounding a symbol can be defined and a better understanding reached of the subtle interrelation­ ships between "heroic" (i.e., pertaining to the Northern pre-Christian society) and early Christian concepts. 1 Such linguistic evidence should complement the historical, social and literary evidence in Chapter 3. The Abbot Mellitus was instructed by Pope Gregory to preserve the pagan temples in Britain, the animal sacrifices and other rituals, and to accommodate as much as possible the Christian message to the 2 2 understanding of the indigenous society. In precisely the same way the early Christian poets used the metaphors, language and poetic forms of the thriving native tradition as a means of communicating the new teaching; the proponents of the oral formulaic theory of Old English verse, for example, have shown that Credmon's "Hymn" is composed of stock epithets 3 taken entirely from the earlier, heroic verse. The emphasis was on adaptation, and the writer of homily or poem shared a common tradition of concepts, such as the transitory nature of life and the need in a hierarchical society to obey one's Lord and fight for him, thus gaining dom "glory" or "fame" which will live after one's death. The forces of evil will remain ominous in the eyes of both heroic and Christian man, "For the monsters do not depart, whether the gods go or come. A Christian was (and is) still like his forefathers a mortal hemmed in a hostile world. 114 Only the outer shape of the forces of evil will change from monsters in Beowulf to the spirits in Guthlac, while the struggle of the soul, pledged to support a Lord conceived in martial terms against demonic forces, remains the same. Man's reward will be dom "fame", but his praises will be sung by the angels, not by future generations on earth. The remarkably successful fusion of the two traditions was made possible, as suggested above, by the Christian poet's adoption and baptism of the traditional vocabulary and metaphors. "A whole new source of poetic metaphors was poured into the ancient word-hoard of the scops, with imaginative consequences for English poetry extending well beyond the Anglo-Saxon period of history. 115 And, in addition, the fact that the new wine was poured into old bottles gave it a unique 3 flavour, the result of which is seen in the felicitous intermingling of heroic and Christian elements which give Old English poetry its dis­ tinctive beauty. Such "heroic" word-symbols as dom, wyrd, sped or dream, already steeped in associations involving fundamental issues of life and death, were adopted to express complex Christian tenets.
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