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La Evidencialidad En Las Lenguas Indígenas Americanas

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La Evidencialidad En Las Lenguas Indígenas Americanas LA EVIDENCIALIDAD EN LAS LENGUAS INDÍGENAS AMERICANAS UN ENFOQUE AREOTIPOLÓGICO • COLECCIÓN LINGÜÍSTICA • SERIE LOGOS LA EVIDENCIALIDAD EN LAS LENGUAS INDÍGENAS AMERICANAS UN ENFOQUE AREOTIPOLÓGICO • Nadiezdha Torres Sánchez INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ANTROPOLOGÍA E HISTORIA Torres Sánchez, Nadiezdha. La evidencialidad en las lenguas indígenas americanas: un enfoque areotipológico / Nadiezdha Torres Sánchez. – México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2013. 176 p.: mapas ; 23 cm. – (Colección Lingüística. Serie Logos) ISBN: 978-607-484-427-6 1. Lenguas indígenas americanas. 2. Evidencialidad (Lingüística). 3. Indios de América – Lenguas – Tropos. I. t. II. Serie. LC: PM3002 / T67 / 2013 Primera edición: 2013 D.R. © Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia Córdoba 45, col. Roma, C.P. 06700, México, D.F. [email protected] ISBN: 978-607-484-427-6 Todos los derechos reservados. Queda prohibida la reproducción total o parcial de esta obra por cualquier medio o procedimiento, comprendidos la reprografía y el tratamiento informático, la fotocopia o la grabación, sin la previa autorización por escrito de los titulares de los derechos de esta edición. Impreso y hecho en México ÍNDICE • Introducción 11 Lista de abreviaturas 15 La verdad 17 Comunicación animal 17 Lenguaje humano 19 Conceptos filosóficos 23 Evidencialidad 31 Evidenciales 31 Evidenciales: algunas características 48 Campo de acción 57 Campo de acción de los evidenciales 57 La muestra y la tipología 73 La muestra 73 La tipología 88 Conclusiones 93 Apéndice de datos 101 Mapas 135 Bibliografía 155 7 Hay cosas, sin embargo, que no vio, mas las escuchó de otros hombres sinceros y veraces. Por lo cual re- ferimos las cosas vistas por vistas y las oídas por oídas para que nuestro libro resulte verídico, sin tretas ni engaños. Marco Polo, Viajes INTRODUCCIÓN • La versión dura de la hipótesis de Sapir-Whorf plantea que la lengua determina los modos en que el hablante conceptualiza su realidad. El estudio de los evidenciales resulta adecuado a la luz de esta teoría, ya que refleja la necesidad de los hablantes, no sólo de proporcionar a los oyentes la información que se tiene, sino que además le ofrece a éstos las fuentes de donde obtuvo dicha información, permitiéndoles inter- pretarla dentro del contexto de la enunciación. Este libro es una aproximación al estudio de los evidenciales desde un enfoque areotipológico, que nos permitirá examinar la evidencialidad en las lenguas indoamericanas, para así establecer el abanico de fuentes de información, identificar los tipos de sistemas, esclarecer su estabilidad genética y mapear la difusión continental del rasgo. En los escritos sobre evidencialidad de Bybee (1985), Bybee et al. (1994), Chafe y Nichols (1986), Palmer (1991) y Willet (1988, 1991), los evidenciales siempre fueron relacionados con la modalidad epistémica, definida ésta en función de las actitudes de los hablantes sobre lo enun- ciado. Esta relación propició que a los evidenciales, además del signifi- cado de fuente de información, se les adjudicara un valor de grado de certeza. La idea de la certeza nos llevó al concepto de la verdad, noción que a su vez nos condujo a su contraparte, la mentira. Ambos conceptos se desarrollan en el primer capítulo, en el que se ofrece un panorama ge- neral de la certeza, la verdad y la mentira, destacando así algunas carac- terísticas que hacen diferentes al lenguaje humano de la comunicación animal, entre ellas la prevaricación. Con respecto a este último particu- 11 lar, daremos cuenta de algunos casos en el reino animal y vegetal, que en principio podrían considerarse como un contraejemplo a dicha capa- cidad singular del lenguaje humano: la capacidad de mentir. En este mismo orden de cosas expondremos diversas clasificaciones de la men- tira, así como un puñado de definiciones operativas de la verdad. Dentro de este primer capítulo también abordaremos la evidencialidad a partir de las máximas conversacionales de Grice. Finalmente, expondremos las diferencias que pueda haber entre los términos creer, saber y conocer, diferencias que se basan en el tipo de evidencia disponible. En el segundo capítulo nos enfocaremos sobre la evidencialidad, ofreciendo primero un panorama breve de los estudios que se han hecho sobre el tema, para después definir puntualmente la categoría y estable- cer los tipos de evidencia existentes, así como las diferentes fuentes que los evidenciales pueden tener en su proceso de gramaticalización. Dentro de este capítulo también expondremos las extensiones de significados posibles —epistémicos y el admirativo—, así como la relación que existe entre los evidenciales y el tiempo gramatical. En el tercer capítulo revisaremos los distintos ámbitos gramaticales en los que se ha ubicado dicha categoría. Con este par de capítulos es- peramos dejar una idea clara de lo que es un evidencial, puesto que uno de los problemas a los que nos enfrentamos en la documentación de dicha categoría fue el hecho de que en muchas descripciones hay un traslape entre la evidencialidad y los modales epistémicos. En el cuarto capítulo describiremos la muestra de lenguas indígenas que utilizamos y la tipología que elaboramos, a partir de los datos de evidencialidad disponibles. Finalmente, ofreceremos las conclusiones a las que llegamos después de un análisis cuidadoso. Tras el capitulado, se podrán encontrar dos apéndices. Uno con los datos de las leguas americanas estudiadas, que incluyen las marcas mor- fológicas que designan la evidencialidad en cada una de ellas, y otro con los mapas que muestran la distribución geográfica de las lenguas, los tipos y los subtipos establecidos. En estos mapas es posible apreciar las áreas de convergencia de la evidencialidad, en el continente. Antes de entrar en materia quisiéramos recalcar la afinidad que sentimos con la categoría de evidencialidad, puesto que —como lo men- cionamos en el primer párrafo— el hecho de que en otras culturas sea obligatorio acompañar la información con una marca que indique la 12 fuente de dicha información, nos invita a imaginar qué pasaría si las lenguas de nuestras culturas industrializadas contaran con esta categoría. ¿Acaso no se tendría más cuidado en lo que se dice?, ¿qué tan diferentes serían los discursos políticos?, ¿las noticias en la televisión?, ¿los anuncios publicitarios? Si bien es cierto que los evidenciales dentro de su signifi- cado base no conllevan la idea de certeza o verdad, sí creemos que en el plano de la comunicación su uso permite al oyente interpretarlos y de- cidir si tal o cual marca de evidencialidad le da un mayor grado de cer- teza a lo dicho, una mayor o menor credibilidad. Finalmente, quisiéramos agradecer al Seminario Permanente de Ti- pología conducido por Francisco Barriga en la Dirección de Lingüística del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), por el apoyo y comentarios para la elaboración de este libro. Asimismo, agradecer los comentarios de Thomas Smith Stark, Josefina García Fajardo, Thomas Willett y Ferdinand de Haan. 13 LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS • 1 primera persona 2 segunda persona 3 tercera persona 3S.P. tercera persona impersonal sujeto ACT activa ACC.NO.RLZ acción no realizada ADM admirativo ANIM animado ART artículo AUD auditivo AUX auxiliar ASP aspecto DAT dativo DECL declarativo DEICT deíctico DU dual EST estativo EXT extensión FEM femenino FUT futuro IMPERF aspecto imperfectivo INAN inanimado INFN infinitivo INF inferencial ITER iterativo 15 LOC locativo MASC masculino M.A mismo agente MOV.PROX en movimiento, próximo N neutro NC materia no compacta NOM nominativo NO.PERCEP.AUS no perceptible, ausente NO.PRIM.MANO no primera mano NO.VIS no visual NEG negación Oc marcador de construcciones OBJ objeto PAS pasado PAS.REC pasado reciente PAS.REM pasado remoto PAS.INM pasado inmediato PERF aspecto perfectivo PL plural POS posesivo PRES presente PROG progresivo SEC secuencia SD sujeto diferente SIN.ESP sin especificación SG singular SUJ sujeto SUP suposición SUSTDOR sufijo sustantivizador TOP.NO. A/S tópico no caso de sujeto VIS visual 16 LA VERDAD • y entonces se sintió muy cansado, no por haber forzado demasiado la mente, sino por comprobar que el mundo es así, que las mentiras son muchas y las verdades ninguna, o alguna, sí deberá de andar por ahí, pero en cambio continuo, tanto que no nos da tiempo de pensar en ella en cuanto a verdad posible porque tendremos que averiguar primero si no se trata de una mentira probable. José Saramago La Caverna COMUNICACIÓN ANIMAL ¿Qué es lo que nos hace diferentes de los primates? Esta es una pregun- ta que muchos investigadores, en distintas áreas, se han formulado y para la cual han dado distintas respuestas, tales como caminar en dos piernas, oponer el pulgar y fabricar herramientas, entre otras. Para este trabajo en particular son importantes las respuestas que ponen de relie- ve las diferentes capacidades que los humanos tenemos para transmitir mensajes. Aunque han sido varios los investigadores que han trabajado este tema, nosotros nos enfocaremos en la perspectiva de Charles F. Hoc kett, quien dice que la diferencia está, entre otras, en la capacidad de mentir, con esto en mente también mostraremos las distintas maneras de enga- ño que se presentan en el reino animal y vegetal. 17 HOCKETT Y LA PREVARICACIÓN En la historia del estudio del lenguaje humano, un rubro que ha desper- tado el interés de los investigadores es la diferencia que existe entre éste y la comunicación animal. Charles F. Hockett (1962), en su Curso de lingüística moderna, enumera quince características o propiedades del lenguaje. De éstas, cuatro son exclusivas del lenguaje humano. Una de ellas es la prevaricación, que consiste en la capacidad humana de trans- mitir mensajes falsos. MIMETISMO, ENGAÑO Y MENTIRA EN LOS REINOS ANIMAL Y VEGETAL En la naturaleza, algunas especies no humanas presentan diferentes formas de engaño, las cuales son motivadas por cuestiones evolutivas, etológicas y comunicativas. Así, por ejemplo, es posible encontrar flores como las orquídeas del género ophyris que, para llevar a cabo la polini- zación, han desarrollado una forma que se asemeja a la mosca, abeja o avispa hembra, con el único fin de atraer al macho correspondiente.
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